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Additional Knowledge Material

(Faculty E-notes)

▪ COURSE BBA 3RD SEM

▪ UNIVERSITY Maharshi Dayanand University
▪ SUBJECT DISASTER MANAGEMNT
▪ SUBJECT CODE CM-306
▪ UNIT NO UNIT 1
NAME OF FACULTY Mrs. Geetika Mehta

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INDEX

S.NO. TOPIC Page No.

1. What is atmosphere and composition of 4

atmosphere
2. Structure of atmosphere 6

3. Cloud classification 16

4. Meaning of calories effect 22

5 What is EI NINO 23

6 What is western disturbance 24

7 Earth Energy Budget 26

8 Earth layers 27

9 What is magma and how it is formed 28

10 What is weathering 29

11 What is soil erosion 31

12 Transportation 32

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Composition and Structure of the Earth’s Atmosphere

What is atmosphere?

We all know that earth is a unique planet due to the presence of life. The air is one
among the necessary conditions for the existence of life on this planet. The air is a
mixture of several gases and it encompasses the earth from all sides. The air
surrounding the earth is called the atmosphere.

● Atmosphere is the air surrounding the earth.

● The atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. It contains life-giving gases like
Oxygen for humans and animals and carbon dioxide for plants.
● It envelops the earth all round and is held in place by the gravity of the earth.
● It helps in stopping the ultraviolet rays harmful to the life and maintains the
suitable temperature necessary for life.

Generally, atmosphere extends up to about 1600 km from the earth’s surface. However,
99 % of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 km from the
earth’s surface.

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is made up of different gases, water vapour and dust particles.
The composition of the atmosphere is not static and it changes according to the time and
place.

Gases of the atmosphere

● The atmosphere is a mixture of different types of gases.

● Nitrogen and oxygen are the two main gases in the atmosphere and 99
percentage of the atmosphere is made up of these two gases.
● Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium, hydrogen, etc. form the
remaining part of the atmosphere.

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● The portion of the gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a
way that oxygen will be almost negligible quantity at the heights of 120 km.
● Similarly, carbon dioxide (and water vapour) is found only up to 90 km from the
surface of the earth.

CARBON DIOXIDE:
Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas.
It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation (insolation) but opaque to the outgoing
terrestrial radiation.
It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the
earth’s surface.
Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
When the volume of other gases remains constant in the atmosphere, the volume of the
carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few decades mainly because of the burning of
fossil fuels. This rising volume of carbon dioxide is the main reason for global warming.

OZONE GAS:
Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found mainly between 10 and
50 km above the earth’s surface.
It acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents
them from reaching the surface of the earth.
The amount of ozone gas in the atmosphere is very little and is limited to the ozone layer
found in the stratosphere.

Water Vapour
Gases form of water present in the atmosphere is called water vapour.
It is the source of all kinds of precipitation.
The amount of water vapour decreases with altitude. It also decreases from the equator
(or from the low latitudes) towards the poles (or towards the high latitudes).
Its maximum amount in the atmosphere could be up to 4% which is found in the warm
and wet regions.

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Water vapour reaches in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.

Evaporation takes place in the oceans, seas, rivers, ponds and lakes while transpiration
takes place from the plants, trees and living beings.
Water vapour absorbs part of the incoming solar radiation (insolation) from the sun and
preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither
to become too cold nor too hot.
Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.

Dust Particles
Dust particles are generally found in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
These particles are found in the form of sand, smoke-soot, oceanic salt, ash, pollen, etc.
Higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due
to dry winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
These dust particles help in the condensation of water vapour. During the condensation,
water vapour gets condensed in the form of droplets around these dust particles and thus
clouds are formed.

Structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere can be divided into five layers according to the diversity of temperature
and density. They are:

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere (Ionosphere)
Exosphere

Troposphere
It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
The height of this layer is about 18 km on the equator and 8 km on the poles.
The thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat us transported
to great heights by strong convectional currents.

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Troposphere contains dust particles and water vapour.

This is the most important layer of the atmosphere because all kinds of weather changes
take place only in this layer.
The air never remains static in this layer. Therefore this layer is called ‘changing sphere’
or troposphere.
The environmental temperature decreases with increasing height of the atmosphere. It
decreases at the rate of 1 degree Celsius for every 165 m of height. This is called Normal
Lapse Rate.
The zone separating troposphere from the stratosphere is known as tropopause.
The air temperature at the tropopause is about – 80 degree Celsius over the equator and
about – 45 degree Celsius over the poles. The temperature here is nearly constant, and
hence, it is called tropopause.

Stratosphere
Stratosphere is found just above the troposphere.
It extends up to a height of 50 km.
The temperature remains almost the same in the lower part of this layer up to the height
of 20 km. After this, the temperature increases slowly with the increase in the height. The
temperature increases due to the presence of ozone gas in the upper part of this layer.
Weather related incidents do not take place in this layer. The air blows horizontally here.
Therefore this layer is considered ideal for flying of aircraft.
The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.
One important feature of stratosphere is that it contains a layer of ozone gas.
The relative thickness of the ozone layer is measured in Dobson Units.
It is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 km
above the earth’s surface.
It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the
atmosphere.
It is the region of the stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun’s ultra-violet radiations.

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Mesosphere

The mesosphere is another layer of the Earth's atmosphere. The mesosphere is right
above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere layer. This layer extends from about
50 to 85 km above our planet’s earth.The temperature gradually decreases with the
height in the mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere are found
near the region of the top of this layer. At the bottom of the mesosphere is the
stratopause lies the boundary between the mesosphere and the stratosphere. The
mesosphere is quite difficult to study, so lesser-known facts are available about this layer
of the atmosphere than other layers. Weather balloons or other aircraft fail to fly high
enough to reach this layer, the mesosphere. Satellites orbit above this layer cannot
directly measure their traits.

Thermosphere – Characteristics and Temperature

While looking up at the sky you probably see a soft blue, maybe with some clouds.
Sometimes it might be grey or rainy as shown here. But what is above this blue and
cloud cover? Beyond the clouds, there are additional layers of the atmosphere. In this
topic, we are going to cover the thermosphere, which is the layer of the atmosphere right
before we get to outer space. This thermosphere greatly helps in protecting the Earth
and making complete exploration of the space and making space communication
possible

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What is Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure affects your everyday life whether you are aware of it or not.
Weather patterns and forecasts around the world are affected by atmospheric pressure,
but many don’t actually know what it actually is the air that surrounds the Earth creates
atmospheric pressure and this pressure is determined by the collective weight of air
molecules

Changes in air pressure are caused by differences in air temperature above the earth,
and the temperature of an air mass is determined by its location. For example, air
masses above oceans are typically cooler than air masses above continents. Air
temperature differences create wind and cause pressure systems to develop. The wind
moves pressure systems and these systems tend to change as they pass over
mountains, oceans, and other areas.

In general, a mercury barometer can let you know if your immediate future will see
clearing or stormy skies, or little change at all, based only on atmospheric pressure.

Here are a few examples of how to interpret barometric readings:

When the air is dry, cool, and pleasant, the barometer reading rises.
In general, a rising barometer means improving weather.
In general, a falling barometer means worsening weather.
When atmospheric pressure drops suddenly, this usually indicates that a storm is on its
way.
When atmospheric pressure remains steady, there will likely be no immediate change in
the weather.

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Atmospheric Temperature

Air temperature is a measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is the most commonly
measured weather parameter. More specifically, temperature describes the kinetic
energy, or energy of motion, of the gases that make up air.

Why is Air Temperature Important?

Air temperature affects the growth and reproduction of plants and animals, with warmer
temperatures promoting biological growth. Air temperature also affects nearly all other
weather parameters. For instance, air temperature affects:

the rate of evaporation

relative humidity
wind speed and direction

Precipitation patterns and types, such as whether it will rain, snow, or

sleet.

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Precipitation

Precipitation plays a major part in the water cycle as it is the one which brings in the
deposit of freshwater on the planet. It can be divided into three categories depending
upon the form such as:

Liquid water
Ice
Liquid water freezes when comes in contact with the surface.

Examples of Precipitation
Depending on the forms we could witness precipitation in various forms:

In Liquid Form precipitation occurs in:

Drizzle - Drizzle is light rain falling in fine drops

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Rain
When the above comes in contact with the air mass at the subfreezing temperature it
becomes

Freezing Rain

Freezing Drizzle

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The frozen forms of precipitated water include:

Snow
Ice Needles - needle form
Hail -
Graupel - smaller than hail , soft
Sleet

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Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to
the Earth.

Precipitation is the process by which takes place once the water vapour condenses to
form water droplets in clouds and once they become heavy enough, fall to the ground in
various forms.

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Cloud Classification and Formation

Clouds are the visible mass or accumulation of tiny water droplets and ice crystals
floating in the Earth’s atmosphere. They are an important part of the earth’s weather and
climate.

Clouds are important for any form of precipitation. They also help in balancing the earth’s
temperature by reflecting heat to the earth during the night and shielding the earth from
excessive sunlight during the daytime.

How do clouds form?

Water on earth transforms into water vapor through processes like evaporation and
transpiration. These water vapors from the earth rise up in the atmosphere and condense
around tiny particles, like dust, floating in the atmosphere. The mass of water droplets
thus formed are termed as clouds.
Although all clouds are formed in the same manner, there are a variety of clouds that we
can see in the sky. Temperature and wind are the two most important factors that
determine the form of a cloud.

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Classification of Clouds
Clouds are classified mainly based on two factors – their physical form or shape and the
altitude of their formation.

Classification of Clouds based on their shape

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1. Cirrus Clouds

These are short, detached and feathery clouds found at high altitudes. These delicate
clouds have a silky sheen. They are whiter than any other cloud during the daytime while
they may take the color of sunrise and sunset during dawn and dusk respectively.
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2. Cumulus Clouds

These are the clouds with a flat base and a fluffy cotton-like appearance. They exist in
patches and may be seen dispersed here and there.

(Fun Fact: This is the cloud we all drew as kids )

3. Stratus Clouds

These are the low lying clouds with fairly uniform grey or white in color. These are the
lowest-lying clouds that sometimes appear at the surface of the earth in the form of fog or
mist.

4. Nimbus Clouds

Nimbus clouds are the precipitation bringing clouds. They are usually dark grey or black
as they hold bigger droplets of water that blocks the sunlight. These clouds are normally
formed at a lower altitude.

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Types of clouds

Classification of Clouds based on the Altitude of Their Formation

1. High Clouds

The clouds formed at relatively higher altitudes as compared to other clouds are
classified as high clouds. These can reach above 20,000 feet. These clouds are usually
thin and made up of ice. The presence of these clouds indicates clear weather and do
not cause rain. Cirrus Clouds are an example of high clouds.

2. Middle Clouds

These are the clouds that are formed above 6,500 feet up to the level of High Clouds.
The presence of middle clouds indicates an approaching storm. They may sometimes
produce Virga i.e. precipitation that does not reach the ground. The precipitation from
these clouds evaporates or sublimates before reaching the ground.

3. Low Clouds
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The clouds lying below 6,500 feet are termed as low clouds. They are also called stratus
clouds. These clouds may appear dense, dark and rainy or may also be cottony white
clusters interspersed with blue sky.

Clouds with extensive vertical development or Great Vertical Extent Clouds

These are the special kinds of clouds that do not fit exactly in any of the above
classifications. These are the most dramatic clouds which are also known as storm
clouds. They rise dramatically to a great height which can sometimes be well above the
transcontinental jetliner flights.

Classification of Clouds Types of Clouds

Low Clouds 1. Stratocumulus Clouds
2. Nimbostratus Clouds
Middle Clouds 1. Altostratus Clouds
2. Altocumulus Clouds
High Clouds 1. Cirrus Clouds
2. Cirrostratus Clouds
3. Cirrocumulus Clouds
Great Vertical Extent Clouds 1. Cumulus Clouds
2. Cumulonimbus Clouds

Frequently Asked Questions

Q. What is the study of clouds known as?

A. Nephology. The branch of meteorology concerned with the cloud types, formation,
development and dissipation is called Nephology.

Q. Which cloud is the highest?

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A. Noctilucent or the night shining cloud is the highest of all clouds. However, it is not
related to weather as the other clouds discussed above.

Q. Is fog a cloud?
A. Yes, fog is a type of cloud that touches the ground.

Q. Why are clouds white?

A. The tiny droplets of water and ice contained in clouds are just the right size to scatter
all the colors of visible light. When light contains all seven colors, our eyes perceive it as
white. So, clouds appear white to our eyes.

Q. Why are some clouds grey or dark?

A. The bigger water droplets in the heavier clouds block sunlight and hence they appear
dark to us.

Q. Which type of clouds brings snowfall and rainfall?

A. The clouds with the prefix ‘nimbo’ and suffix ‘nimbus’ bring precipitation (i.e. rain and
snow).

Q. How does cloud float?

A. Warm air from earth constantly rises up. This warm air from the earth pushes up the
clouds and keeps them afloat.

Q. What is the International Cloud Atlas?

A. The International Cloud Atlas describes the classification system for clouds and
meteorological phenomena used by all World Meteorological Organization members.

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Why are Clouds Important?

They are needed for rains or snow.
During the nights, clouds reflect heat to the earth and keep the temperature warm.
During the day, clouds help in keeping the temperature cooler by shielding the sunlight.
Researching and studying clouds helps in understanding weather and climate.

What are the 2 main factors that will determine the type of clouds formed?
Temperature
Wind

What do you mean by calories force?

the amount of heat required at a pressure of one atmosphere to raise the temperature of
one gram of water one degree Celsius

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What is the El Niño phenomenon?

El Niño is a climate pattern that describes the unusual warming of surface waters in the
eastern tropical Pacific Ocean

Measuring El Nino

Scientists, governments, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) collect data about

El Nino using a number of technologies such as scientific buoys.

Weather buoys are instruments which collect weather and ocean data within the world's
oceans, as well as aid during emergency response to chemical spills, legal proceedings,
and engineering design

A buoy is a type of object that floats in water and is used in the middle of the seas as
locators or as warning points for ships. They are generally bright (fluorescent) in color.

These buoys measure ocean and air temperatures, currents, winds, and humidity.

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The buoys transmit data daily to researchers and forecasters around the world enabling
scientists to more accurately predict El Nino and visualize its development and impact
around the globe.

The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is
called the Coriolis Force. It has great impact on the direction on of wind movement.

El Nino can be understood as a natural phenomenon wherein the ocean temperatures

rise especially in parts of the Pacific ocean. It is the nomenclature which is referred to for
a periodic development along the coast of Peru. This development is a temporary
replacement of the cold current along the coast of Peru.

The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land
meets the ocean,[1] or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the
coastline.[2]

El Niño?

El Niño has an impact on ocean temperatures, the speed and strength of ocean currents,
the health of coastal fisheries, and local weather from Australia to South America and
beyond. El Niño events occur irregularly at two- to seven-year intervals

What is western disturbance?

. It is a non-monsoonal precipitation pattern which is driven by the westerlies.

This may happen during any season, not necessarily in monsoon. These extratropical
storms are a global phenomenon. This phenomenon usually carries moisture in the
upper layer of the atmosphere, unlike their tropical counterparts where the moisture is
carried in the lower layer of atmosphere. In the case of the Indian subcontinent, moisture
is sometimes shed as rain when the storm system encounters the Himalayas or
Himalayan region.

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Impact of Western disturbances

The western disturbances create the following impacts in the atmosphere

It plays a significant role in bringing moderate to heavy rain in low-lying areas and huge
quantity of snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.

This disturbance usually occurs with a cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual
rain.

The precipitation formed has great impact in agriculture, particularly for the Rabi crops.

The excessive precipitation formed due to this disturbance can cause crop damage,
landslides, floods and avalanches.

When these western disturbances travel across northwest India earlier to the onset of
monsoon, a set of temporary advancement of monsoon current appears over the
affected region.

they are vital for the growth of Rabi crops that grow in the winter, such as locally
produced wheat. One of the reasons this storm is associated with agriculture is that
rainfall dictates the fertility and compatibility of soil for crop growth. In this case, it is a net
positive.

western disturbances are not always a blessing since it also causes a lot of soil erosion.

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Earth's energy budget

Earth's energy budget refers to the tracking of how much energy is flowing into and out of
the Earth's climate, where the energy is going, and if the energy coming in balances with
the energy going out.[1]

Understanding the Earth's energy budget can help to predict future effects of global
warming, and to understand the various flows of energy on the Earth. Additionally,
knowing how Earth's energy budget balances can provide insight into how the energy
from the Sun interacts with the atmosphere. For example, this is important when
examining the affects of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—to ensure conditions on
Earth are habitable

Earth:

Earth is the only planet right now which has a number of organisms living along with their
habitats. There is a presence of a lot of sources of energy on the surface of eath.

Earth’s Temperature is a Balancing Act

Earth’s temperature depends on the balance between energy entering and leaving the
planet. When incoming energy from the sun is absorbed, Earth warms. When the sun’s
energy is reflected back into space, Earth avoids warming. When energy is released from
Earth into space, the planet cools. Many factors, both natural and human, can cause
changes in Earth’s energy balance, including:

Changes in the greenhouse effect, which affects the amount of heat retained by Earth’s
atmosphere;
Variations in the sun’s energy reaching Earth;
Changes in the reflectivity of Earth’s atmosphere and surface.
The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its energy budget.
As with any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be balanced so that
the incoming heat equals the outgoing heat.

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Earth’s Layers: Crust, Mantle, and Core

Crust
The Earth’s outermost layer, its crust, is rocky and rigid

Mantle
The mantle is almost entirely solid rock, but it is in constant motion, flowing very slowly.

core is primarily composed of iron, with lesser amounts of nickel. Lighter elements such
as sulfur, oxygen, or silicon may also be present. The core is extremely hot (~3500° to
more than 6000°C). But despite the fact that the boundary between the inner and outer
core is approximately as hot as the surface of the sun, only the outer core is liquid. The
inner core is solid because the pressure at that depth is so high that it keeps the core
from melting.

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Is atmosphere and hydrosphere the same?

The atmosphere is the space above the Earth's surface. This includes the air that we all
breath. The lithosphere is the solid part of the Earth such as rocks and mountains. The
hydrosphere is the liquid water such as the rivers, lakes, and oceans.

What is magma? How is it formed? How can it be classified?

What is Magma?

Magma 1. Magma (from Greek μάγμα "mixture") is a mixture of molten or semi-molten

rock, volatiles and solids that is found beneath the surface of the Earth 2. Besides molten
rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas
bubbles

Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and crystallizes, either at
volcanoes on the surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still inside the crust. All
magma develops underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the
intense heat there.

Igneous rocks can have many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool
from. They can also look different based on their cooling conditions.

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What is Weathering?

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The scenes of the world are continuously mutating. Sun, rain, frost, and wind are
breaking down even the most solid of the rocks into smaller bits before they are taken
away. This process is termed as weathering. The action of the elements of climate and
weather, animals, and plants on the land surfaces to break them down biologically,
chemically, and physically is called weathering. It is the breakdown and decay of rocks in
situ. It can be a very elongated slow procedure, taking hundreds of years. However,
weathering can also be rapid, such as the damage to pavements or roads after a cold,
frosty winter.

Types of Weathering
Weathering is the initial step in soil creation. Weathering happens in four different
manners: These include chemical weathering, physical weathering, biological
weathering, and mechanical weathering. The three major ways weathering happens
include chemical, physical, and mechanical weathering which are explained below.

How is Weathering different from Erosion?

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Weathering has no moving agent of transport, whereas in Erosion the rock and upper
layer soil particles are worn away and moved elsewhere by water, wind, etc.

What is Soil Erosion?

In this process, the soil particles are loosened or washed away in the valleys, oceans,
rivers, streams or far away lands. This has been worsening due to human activities such
as agriculture and deforestation.

Soil erosion is a continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It
results in a continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

Soil Erosion Prevention

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this
problem. Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.
Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.

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Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into
proper water collecting systems.

There are three main types of processes that occur in a river. These are erosion,
transportation and deposition. All three depend on the amount of energy there is in a
river.

Transportation
Transportation of material in a river begins when friction is overcome. Material that has
been loosened by erosion may be then transported along the river. There are four main
processes of transportation. These are:

suspension / suspended load;

solution / solution load;
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saltation; and
traction.

Deposition
Deposition is the process of the eroded material being dropped. This happens when a
river loses energy. A river can lose its energy when rainfall reduces, evaporation
increases, friction close to river banks and shallow areas which leads to the speed of the
river reducing and therefore the energy reduces, when a river has to slow down it
reduces its speed (and ability to transport material) and when a river meets the sea.

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