Quantum Mechanical Model

The Quantum Mechanical Model was proposed by an Austrian

Physicist, Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) in 1926.
The Quantum Mechanical Model describes the probable location
of electrons in atoms by describing the Principal energy level, the
Energy sublevel, the Orbital (in each sublevel) and Spin.
According to this model, atom is composed of heavy nucleus
surrounded by clouds of negative charges. The negative charges
or electrons are NOT in circular orbits around nucleus. They do
not move or stay in a fixed position but, rather, they stay away
from the nucleus or move either near or far from the nucleus.
This model suggests that it is impossible to know the EXACT
position and momentum of an electron at the same time. This is
known as the Uncertainty Principle.
The model states that electrons can PROBABLY be found in a
space around the nucleus called the atomic orbital or simply
orbital. The atomic orbital describes the probable location of the
electron. The quantum mechanical model of the atom uses
complex shapes of orbitals (some times called electron clouds/
cloud of negative charge), volumes of space in which there is likely
to be an electron. So, this model is based on probability rather
than certainty.
The darker the area, the greater is the probability of finding
an electron in the area. There are different kinds of atomic
orbitals that differ in the amount of energy and shapes
(where the electron probably is). The atomic orbitals get
filled by electrons in a certain order.
Principal Energy
Level (n) or Shells - this indicates the relative size and energy of
atomic orbitals.
Electrons occupy definite principal energy levels. They are
represented by a number called the principal quantum number,
n.
Each of the principal energy levels is represented as n= 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5 where 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are the energy levels. As n increases
orbital become larger, electron spends more time farther away
from nucleus and atom's energy level increases.
Energy sublevel or Subshell Principal energy levels are broken
down into sublevels. The quantum model also reveals that each
principal energy level consists of one or more energy sublevels.
The number of energy sublevels for each principal energy level
are not the same. Electrons occupy first the lowest position. In
case of electrons, they usually occupy the lowest sublevel which
is s. The next sublevel is p; the third, d; and the fourth, f.
Sublevels define the orbital shape (s, p, d, f) The letters s, p, d,
and f stand for sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental,
respectively.
n=1, 1 sublevel (s)
n=2, 2 sublevels (s, p)
n=3, 3 sublevels (s, p, d)
n=4, 4 sublevels (s, p, d, f)

Orbitals (in each sublevel)

Atomic orbitals are the places surrounding the nucleus of an atom where
electrons are most likely to be located at a given time. The number of
atomic orbitals in an element is defined by the period the element is in.
Each sublevel has a different number of orbitals.
The four major principal energy levels can accommodate a
maximum of 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons, respectively. The formula
2n2 can be used to predict the maximum number of electrons in
each principal energy level. The n can be substituted by 1, 2, 3, 4
in the formula. What does the following indicate?
The symbol 1s2 indicates that there are 2 electrons in the s-orbital
found in the second energy level. Spin Electrons act like they are
spinning on .

Electronic configuration:
 “The distribution of electrons into various orbitals of an atom is
called its electronic configuration”.
Rules for writing electronic configuration:
There are three rules for writing electronic configuration:
 Aufbau principle
 Pauli’s exclusion principle
 Hund’s Rule
1. Aufbau principle:
 “It states that in the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in
order of their increasing energies.”
 The order of filling of the electrons goes this
way:1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,4f,5d,6p,7s…
 Each atomic orbital can just accommodate only 2 electrons that are in
opposite spin only.
 So, the 1st shell can have 2 electrons in just 1s. The 2nd shell can
have 8 electrons, 2 in 2s and 6 in 2p. The 3rd subshell can have 18
electrons, 2 in 3s, 6 in 3p and 10 in 3d.
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle:
 "No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum
numbers. Pauli exclusion principle can also be stated as: “Only two
electrons may exist in the same orbital and these electrons must have
opposite spin.
3. Hund’s Rule:
 "It states: the pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the
same subshell (p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital
belonging to that subshell has got one electron each i.e., it is singly
occupied."
 Valence electrons are the electrons located at the outermost shell
of an atom.
when two atoms interact, the electrons in the outermost shells are
the first ones to come into contact with each other and are the ones
that determine how an atom will react in a chemical reaction.

The number of valence electrons

The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group
(vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3–12
(the transition metals), the units digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are
associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.

The periodic table of the chemical elements

The number of valence electrons

The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group
(vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3–12
(the transition metals), the units digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are
associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.

The periodic table of the chemical elements

 Periodic table group Valence Electrons

Group 1 (I) (alkali metals) 1

Group 2 (II) (alkaline earth metals) 2

2* (The 4s shell is complete and cannot hold any more

Groups 3-12 (transition metals)
electrons)

Group 13 (III) (boron group) 3

Group 14 (IV) (carbon group) 4

Group 15 (V) (pnictogens) 5

Group 16 (VI) (chalcogens) 6

Group 17 (VII) (halogens) 7

Group 18 (VIII or 0) (noble gases) 8**

Activity 3 “e - NFORMATION” Directions: Complete the table below. Materials: periodic table of elements, activity sheet,
pen, your own mnemonic devic