Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review

Video-based educational Address for

correspondence
interventions for individuals E-mail: aalsuhai@
masonlive.gmu.edu
on the autism spectrum:
a literature review
Aseel Alsuhaibani, Anya S Evmenova and Heidi J Graff,
Fairfax, Virginia

Editorial comment

The authors of this paper are researchers at George Mason University in Fairfax,
Virginia. In this paper they present an overview of a range of video-based education
interventions and how they can be used to support individuals on the autism spectrum.
They cover the different skill areas that might benefit from video-based interventions,
the various types of intervention and the steps to create a video. This paper gives a
useful introduction to this increasingly popular form of intervention. The editors are
interested in receiving papers where video-based interventions are used to support
people on the autism spectrum.

Introduction
Individuals on the autism spectrum are characterised
by delays in language and social functioning and
restricted or repetitive behaviours and interests.
Difficulties can therefore be seen in the areas of social
interaction, communication, and functional skills.
In turn, limitations in social skills and communication
may affect social development and interactions with
others (Matson et al, 2009; Rotheram-Fuller et al,
2010). In an effort to address these needs, educators
are constantly searching for evidence based, effective
instructional strategies to support students with autism.
From the early development of television and video
technology, teachers have been fascinated with
the opportunities provided to individuals with various
abilities and needs. Indeed, some people on the autism
spectrum have been characterised as visual learners,
with a much stronger ability to learn through visual cues
rather than verbal instruction (Corbett and Abdullah,
2005). Video-based interventions may therefore facilitate
learning in this population (Bellini and Akullian, 2007;
Prelock, 2006). The use of video may also reduce the
anxiety associated with social interaction, allowing for
a more relaxed learning experience for the student with
autism (Mason et al, 2013). This makes it a motivating
and reinforcing format for individuals on the autism
spectrum (Charlop-Christy et al, 2000).
Video-based interventions for social and
functional skills
Video-based interventions for individuals on the autism
spectrum involve the use of video recording of self,
peer, adult, or others (for example a cartoon character)
performing a target behaviour. These interventions are
consistent with Bandura’s social learning theory, which
states that children learn through observing others and
then imitating their behaviours (Bandura, 1977). Since
dynamic imitation of others can be a difficult task for
students on the autism spectrum, the use of multiple
video formats that target, implement, and monitor

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 Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review
behaviours in real settings can be an effective method
of teaching (Ganz et al, 2011).
Target skills in video-based interventions
Video-based interventions have been used to improve,
maintain, and generalise various skills for individuals
on the autism spectrum. Research studies have
focused on different skill areas for learners on the
autism spectrum, including:
social communication skills such as verbal
compliments and compliment gestures
(Macpherson et al, 2015)
receptive and expressive language skills
(Reagon et al, 2007)
social skills such as social initiations
(Boudreau and Harvey, 2013)
play skills (Boudreau and D’Entermont, 2010)
recreational skills such as navigating an iPod
(Hammond et al, 2010)
perspective-taking skills (LeBlanc et al, 2003)
functional skills such as toilet training
(Lee et al, 2014)
daily living skills like folding laundry and cooking
(Van Laarhove et al, 2010)
transitional skills (Cihak et al, 2010)
employment and job-related tasks
(Kellems and Morningstar, 2012)
academic tasks such as writing a name,
spelling or functional maths (Moore et al, 2013;
Kagohara et al, 2012; Burton et al, 2013)
Video-based interventions are effective for individuals of
any age (Reagon et al, 2007; Kellems and Morningstar,
2012). Several literature reviews and meta-analyses
report the overall effectiveness of (a) video-based
interventions for teaching social and functional skills for
children and adults on the autism spectrum (Ayres and
Langone, 2005); (b) basic video modelling and video
self-modelling in addressing social-communication
skills, functional skills, and behaviours for children
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and adolescents on the autism spectrum (Belinni
and Akullian, 2007); (c) video modelling regardless
of the model (eg self, peers, adults, point-of-view) for
improving various skills in individuals on the autism
spectrum (McCoy and Hermansen, 2007); (d) basic
video modelling, point-of-view video modelling, and
video self-modelling in improving social and commu-
nication skills for children with autism (Shukla-Mehta
et al, 2010); and (e) point-of-view video modelling for
improving independent living skills for secondary and
postsecondary individuals on the autism spectrum
(Mason et al, 2013a).
Delivery formats
Video-based interventions come in several delivery
formats. The differences are related either to the video
mode or to the model performing the target skill in the
video.
Video modelling and point-of-view video modelling
One of the most commonly used formats of video-based
interventions is video modelling. In basic video model-
ling, a model demonstrates the desired target skill in
the video. The model can be a peer (Macpherson et
al, 2015), a sibling (Reagon et al, 2006), or an adult
(Kellems and Morningstar, 2012), either known or
unknown to the learner. In point-of-view video modelling,
the target skill is recorded from the user’s perspective,
without showing a model (Moore et al, 2013). In other
words, the camera is placed at eye level, so the user
can view the video as a real experience seen from her/
his point-of-view. Thus, point-of-view videos may be
more appropriate for tasks involving fine motor skills,
while watching a model at a distance may be more
appropriate for tasks involving gross motor skills.
Video prompting and priming
Video prompting interventions show the target skill in
stages. Thus, the target skill is broken down into small
steps with a pause embedded between each step. This
allows the user to perform each step before viewing the
next one in order to eventually accomplish the entire skill.
Video prompting is often used for teaching participants
with disabilities to perform complex tasks like cooking
(Sigafoos et al, 2005). Another variation of video-based
interventions is video priming. In video priming, the
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 Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review
video recordings of upcoming environments are used to
make the transition easier for individuals with autism and
thus, reduce their stress levels (Schreibman et al, 2000).
Video self-modelling
In video self-modelling, the individual on the autism
spectrum is the model herself/himself, who performs
the target skill in the video. There are two techniques
used to create self-modelling videos: positive self-
review and feedforward. In the positive self-review
the individual is recorded continuously in a natural
setting while performing the skill. Then, anything not
associated with performing the skill which is captured
in the video is edited out, so the learner is exposed
only to the positive example of the target skill (Ozkan,
2013). Feedforward consists of a video recording that
portrays an individual performing a skill that has not
been achieved in full yet. The smaller components
of the skill are videotaped and combined into a
complete task (Buggey, 2005). It is also possible to use
reinforcements, coaching, or provide hidden supports,
which are later edited out from the video. As well as
the opportunity for observational learning, video
self-modelling has the added value that the viewer is
watching themselves perform the task.
Video feedback
Video feedback involves videotaping the learner as
they learn the skill and showing the recording without
editing it, to demonstrate improved performance. It has
been used specifically for improving communication
skills for learners on the autism spectrum such as
spontaneous requesting or social communication
(Deitchman et al, 2010).
Video-based interventions can also be used in combina-
tions for example basic video modelling, when the user
watches the whole video, followed by video prompting
where the user watches each step one at a time.
Comparing formats
Several research studies have focused on the com-
parison of various video-based interventions and
their components. No differences in effectiveness
have been found between basic video modelling and
video self-modelling (Ozkan, 2013). On the other hand,
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gap_may_2016_text.indd 56
Ayres and Langone (2005) indicated that basic video
modelling using peers was less effective compared to
the basic video modelling when the model was an adult,
regardless of familiarity of the model to the student. In
turn, video prompting was found to be more effective in
teaching daily living tasks to adults with developmental
disabilities than video modelling (Cannella-Malone et al,
2006). When compared to the training which involves
practice during video recording, some researchers
established the superiority of video modelling for teach-
ing various skills to individuals on the autism spectrum
(Charlop-Christy et al, 2000), while others found both
strategies to be effective (Gena et al, 2005).
At the same time, video-based interventions alone
do not always lead to task/skill mastery. In the case
of a more complex task and/or skill, video instruction
may and should be supplemented by additional
interventions, such as in vivo training (Alcantara, 1994),
self-management strategies (Apple et al, 2005), or
social stories (Scattone, 2008), prompts (Shukla-Mehta
et al, 2010), and reinforcement (Lee et al, 2014).
Indeed, research shows that video-based interventions
included in a package with other procedures is more
effective than video as a single strategy (McCoy and
Hermansen, 2007).
Finally, while some learners on the autism spectrum may
need personal assistance while using a video-based
intervention (Dowrick, 1991) others do not require any
supervision (Mechling et al, 2014). Cognitive ability,
communication and attention skills may play an impor-
tant part in the success of video modelling interventions
(Buggey, 2007).
Creating video-based interventions
Educators can create video-based interventions in ten
steps regardless of the video format (Figure 1). These
steps were adapted from LaCava (2008) who suggests
that after identifying target skills and preparing the
necessary equipment, task analysis and video planning
follow. In this step the educator should analyse the task,
separating the steps into a sequence of skill and then
creating scripts that demonstrate the exact elements
to be included in the video. Then, the baseline levels
of performance need to be established through data
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 Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review
Figure 1: Steps of creating a video-based intervention (LaCava, 2008)
1 – Identifying 2 – Equipment
the target preparation
behaviour
8 – Progress 7– Presenting
observation the video to the
student on the
autism spectrum
9 – Troubleshooting 10 – Withdraw
in case of no video and
progress prompts
collection. This step allows the scripts to be aligned
with users’ abilities and needs, and also supports data-
driven progress monitoring for individuals on the autism
spectrum. Before recording the video, the teacher
should examine and determine the most appropriate
video modelling type for teaching the target skill.
For example, if this is a new task, using basic video
modelling would be the most appropriate choice, so
that the learner is exposed to the task from a broad
perspective. If the target skill is already at least partially
performed by the learner video self-modelling might be
the appropriate choice. Next, an environment should
be prepared to review the video. The environment
should be a comfortable and suitable environment
for the user. When the teacher shows the video to the
student, it is important to prompt their attention as
necessary. The number of times the video is presented
will depend on the student’s abilities and needs. When
the student begins to initiate the skills modelled in the
video, the teacher should observe and collect data on
the student’s progress in order to monitor the effective-
ness of the video-based intervention on the target skills.
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3 – Task analysis 4 – Establish a
and video baseline based
planning on collected
data
6 – Prepare a 5 – Video
video review creation
environment
If the learner does not show any progress, the teacher
should review and address any errors previously noted
and document changes that may need to be applied.
An example of troubleshooting might include changing
the video format type, reinforcing the target skill, or
increasing the number of times the video is shown.
More data should be collected after making adjust-
ments. When the learner masters the target skill, the
video-based intervention should be faded out, so that
the skill can be used independently.
The development and use of video-based interventions
may require equipment such as a video recording
device, video editing software, and a device to play
back and review the video. The recording device could
be a portable camera, a hand-held or micro video
camera, a digital or traditional camera. The editing
software can be the embedded software in computers
such as Windows Live Movie Maker built into PC
computers or MovieMaker built into Mac computers.
The review device can be a computer screen, portable
devices, or a television. These days, there are a range
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 Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review

of applications which can be used to create and Table 1: Examples of applications for
present video modelling on smart phones and other development and use of video-based
mobile or portable devices such as iPads, iPhones interventions
or cooperative Android devices. Table 1 lists some
applications that can be used for the development and Application Cost Device Application
use of video-based interventions. name (January icon
2016)
Educators should strive to implement four pivotal factors
iMovie £3.99 iPad
when creating and using video: (a) grasping the learner’s
attention by providing stimuli in the video model; (b)
retention of the presented images; (c) reproduction
of the presented skills according to the students’
repertoire; and (d) ensuring the benefit of the presented Model Me Free Apple and
video in order to gain student’s motivation (Corbett Kids-Going Android
and Abdullah, 2005). Furthermore, video-based inter- Places 1 devices
and 2
ventions might be made more beneficial and enjoyable
by embedding alternative narration, captions, and
interactive features into the video (Evmenova and Social Skill $24.99 Apple
Behrmann, 2014). These features increase students’ Builder devices
comprehension and learning acquisition (Evmenova
et al, 2011). Educators can assure the acquisition of
the targeted behaviour by including preferred conse-
quences in the video clip (Plavnick et al, 2013). iModeling £8.99 Apple
devices
Concluding comments
Video-based interventions are used as an evidence-
based intervention for teaching individuals on the
autism spectrum in various settings (Bellini and AutisMate $149.99 Apple and
Android
Akullian, 2007). This approach, on its own or in combi-
devices
nation with other interventions, leads individuals on the
autism spectrum to acquire specific taught skills (Ayres
and Langone, 2005; Mason et al, 2013a; McCoy and
Hermansen, 2007; Shukla-Mehta et al, 2010). Moreover, My Video $11.99 Apple
Schedule devices
video interventions can be implemented with learners
from different cultures and backgrounds. Along
with its effectiveness in improving skill performance,
video-based interventions can be highly motivating
and build confidence in users on the autism spectrum
(Delano, 2007). With the advances in technology,
the creation and use of video-based interventions is
becoming less cumbersome and complicated. All in
all, video modelling is an effective strategy for students
with autism in different age groups and with different
abilities, and it is very important for educators to
understand the correct approach to implement this
intervention.

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 Video-based educational interventions for individuals on the autism spectrum: a literature review
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