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Tinashe Pikirai Wellington Matiye Netsayi Chari
Linia Hambura Trymore Shenjere
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Contents
TOPIC 1 G
EOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS)............. 1
Unit 1: Geographic Information System (GIS).......................................................................................1
Unit 2: Coordinate and coordinate systems..........................................................................................6
Unit 3: Map projection..............................................................................................................................15
Unit 4: Global Positioning System (GPS)................................................................................................23
Unit 5: Conceptual models of geographic space..................................................................................32
Unit 6: Georeferencing and spatial data capture..................................................................................44
Unit 7: The remote sensing principle.....................................................................................................52
Unit 8: Image acquisition and structure.................................................................................................56
Unit 9: Resolution.....................................................................................................................................67
Unit 10: Image interpretation..................................................................................................................71
TOPIC 2: GEO-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION.................................................. 82

Unit 11: Levels of measurement.............................................................................................................82
Unit 12: Univariate statistics....................................................................................................................87
Unit 13: Bivariate statistics......................................................................................................................98
Unit 14: Graphs and maps.......................................................................................................................105
Unit 15: Research techniques..................................................................................................................116
Unit 16: Spatial interpolation..................................................................................................................125
Unit 17: Measures of spatial autocorrelation........................................................................................130
TOPIC 3: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT............................................................................. 134

Unit 18: Environmental pollution and environmental degradation...................................................134
Unit 19: Causes, effects and control measures of pollution...............................................................139
Unit 20: Causes, effects and control measures of environmental degradation...............................155
Unit 21: Environmental impact assessment..........................................................................................161
Unit 22: Environmental management projects.....................................................................................168
TOPIC 4: ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA......................................................... 172

Unit 23: Energy Budgets...........................................................................................................................172
Unit 24: The earth-atmosphere energy budget....................................................................................180
Unit 25: Weather processes and phenomena.......................................................................................188
Unit 26: Air masses.................................................................................................................. .................197
Unit 27: Microclimate...............................................................................................................................207
Unit 28: Climate change.......................................................................................................... .................216
Unit 29: Weather and climatic hazards and mitigation........................................................................ 228
TOPIC 5: GEOMORPHOLOGY...................................................................................................... 242

Unit 30: Plate tectonics.............................................................................................................................242
Unit 31: Rocks and weathering...............................................................................................................258
Unit 32: Slope development....................................................................................................................267
Unit 33: Tropical landform development...............................................................................................275
Unit 34: Hazards impact and mitigation................................................................................................285
TOPIC 6: HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL PROCESSES.................................................................... 290

Unit 35: The drainage basin system.......................................................................................................290
Unit 36: Rainfall discharge relationships within drainage...................................................................300
Unit 37: River channel processes and landforms.................................................................................310
Unit 38: Hydrological hazards and mitigation.......................................................................................322
TOPIC 7: BIOGEOGRAPHY........................................................................................................... 328

Unit 39: Factors affecting distribution of vegetation............................................................................328
Unit 40: Plant succession.........................................................................................................................335
Unit 41: Soil forming factors, soil profiles and soil catena..................................................................343
Unit 42: Measurement of soil characteristics........................................................................................355
Unit 43: Sustainable management of ecosystems...............................................................................363
Unit 44: Biogeochemical cycles...............................................................................................................371
Unit 45: Gerschmel diagrams..................................................................................................................379
Unit 46: Biomass and biomes..................................................................................................................384
Unit 47: Biodiversity (plant and animal diversity).................................................................................395
Unit 48: Plant and animal adaptation....................................................................................................402
TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION................................................................................. 409

Unit 49: Population indicators.................................................................................................................409
Unit 50: Population growth......................................................................................................................421
Unit 51: Population health and diseases...............................................................................................430
Unit 52: Population-resource relationship............................................................................................437
Unit 53: Migration.....................................................................................................................................449
Unit 54: Patterns of migration.................................................................................................................457
Unit 55: Causes and impacts of migration.............................................................................................462
Unit 56: Population policies.....................................................................................................................469
TOPIC 9: SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS............................................................................................. 474

Unit 57: Site and location of settlements...............................................................................................474
Unit 58: Settlement hierarchy.................................................................................................................479
Unit 59: Growth points.............................................................................................................................483
Unit 60: Land reform and resettlement.................................................................................................488
Unit 61: Functions of rural and urban settlements..............................................................................494
Unit 62: Rural-urban interaction.............................................................................................................498
Unit 63: Urbanisation and counter urbanisation..................................................................................503
Unit 64: Spheres of influence..................................................................................................................507
Unit 65: Delimitation of the (CBD)..........................................................................................................510
Unit 66: Rural and urban landuse planning..........................................................................................513
TOPIC 10: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY ............................................ 517

Unit 67: Agricultural production and food security..............................................................................517
Unit 68: Agricultural location...................................................................................................................522
Unit 69: Farming systems in the tropics................................................................................................527
Unit 70: The green revolution.................................................................................................................541
Unit 71: Land reform and food security in Zimbabwe.........................................................................547
Unit 72: Value addition and agribusiness..............................................................................................552
Unit 73: Climate change and other threats to food security...............................................................558
Unit 74: Responses to climate change...................................................................................................563
TOPIC 11: MINING AND MINERAL BENEFICIATION ................................................................ 592

Unit 75: Mining legislation and mining policies in Zimbabwe.............................................................566
Unit 76: Environmental Impact Assessment in mining........................................................................573
Unit 77: Prospecting methods.................................................................................................................580
Unit 78: Mineralogy..................................................................................................................................585
Unit 79: Small- and large-scale mining enterprises..............................................................................592
Unit 80: Impact of mining and mitigation..............................................................................................599
Unit 81: Value addition and beneficiation methods.............................................................................607
Unit 82: Safety and health in mining......................................................................................................611
TOPIC 12: INDUSTRIAL DYNAMICS ........................................................................................... 616

Unit 83: Industrial linkages and agglomeration ...................................................................................616
Unit 84: Small and Medium Enterprises................................................................................................623
Unit 85: Hi-tech industries ......................................................................................................................630
Unit 86: Tourism industry........................................................................................................................638
TOPIC 13: ENERGY SOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT................................................................... 648

Unit 87: Energy sources in Zimbabwe: Actual and potential...............................................................648
Unit 88: Clean sources of energy (going green)....................................................................................653
Unit 89: Green energy generation..........................................................................................................657
Unit 90: Global distribution of energy....................................................................................................662
Unit 91: Global trends in energy use......................................................................................................666
Unit 92: Sustainable manag9ement of energy sources.......................................................................670
TOPIC 13: TRANSPORT SYSTEMS AND TRADE........................................................................... 674

Unit 93: Distribution of transport systems and their purposes in Zimbabwe..................................674
Unit 94: Transport enterprise..................................................................................................................676
Unit 95: Trade opportunities in the local area .....................................................................................680
Unit 96: Current trends in Zimbabwean trade......................................................................................683
Unit 97: Global inequalities in trade flows and solutions ...................................................................686
Unit 98: Factors influencing global trade patterns...............................................................................690
Unit 99: Trade opportunities in the local area......................................................................................693
TOPIC 15: REGIONAL INEQUALITIES AND DEVELOPMENT...................................................... 696

Unit 100: Indicators of economic development....................................................................................696
Unit 101: Economic activities and their role in economic development............................................699
Unit 102: Regional inequalities................................................................................................................702
Unit 103: SME’s in Zimbabwe and their impact on economic development.....................................707
Examination ....................................................................................................................................710
TOPIC 1: G
EOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS)
AND REMOTE SENSING (RS)
Geographic Information
Unit
System (GIS)
1
Unit objectives spatial data such as error or level of accuracy; storing data;
retrieving data; and metadata. Data management is one of
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: the key issues determining the usability of spatial data.
•• describe the nature of GIS. Data analysis – this is what allows users to answer
•• outline the components of a GIS. questions that may not be explicitly stated in the data.
•• explain the advantages and disadvantages of using GIS. Data output – the method used to visually display analysis
•• describe the various applications of GIS. performed using GIS. Output can be in the form of jpg to
large plotted images.
Introduction What is GIS?
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have developed GIS is a computer-based information system that is capable
rapidly since the late 1970s in terms of both technical and of spatial data capture/input, storage, organisation/
processing capabilities and today are widely used all over management, analysis and visualisation. This implies that
the world for a wide range of purposes. Map making and a GIS user can expect support from the system to enter
geographic analysis are not new but a GIS performs these (georeferenced) data, to analyse it in various ways and to
tasks better and faster than do the old manual methods. produce presentations (including maps and other types
from the data). These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and makes it valuable to a wide range
Glossary of terms of public and private enterprises for explaining events,
Spatial data – describes the absolute and relative location predicting outcomes and planning strategies. GIS deals with
of geographic feature. spatial data:
Attribute data – describes characteristics of the spatial (a) Geographic data: distribution, location, configuration of
features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or topographic features and human features.
qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as (b) A
ttribute data: attributes (names, descriptions and class
tabular data. numerical value).
Scanners – the devices for converting analogue data into
digital grid-based images. Activity 1.1
Data layers – the result of combining spatial and attribute
1. How does GIS resemble the following?
data. Essentially adding the attribute database to the spatial
(a) Storage cabinet.
location.
(b) Processing room.
Data input – the creation of digital spatial data. (c) Garage.
Data management – unique issues in the maintenance of (d) Display room.
TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 1
Data input
(a) Manual digitising – coordinate entry via keyboard,
digitising tablet with cursor, mouse cursor on the
flood zone
computer monitor.
(b) Automatic digitising – scanner. parcels
(c) Semi-automatic digitizing – line following devises. land cover

(d) Input of available digital data – magnetic tape or CD
ROM and via computer network. elevation
Database: data management/organisation

real world
Database encompasses data storage, query and maintenance.
Types of queries
Figure 1.4 GIS layers used for overlay analysis (visualisation)
Table 1.1 Types of queries
Questions Answers GIS functions Activity 1.2
Display of data as maps,
reports and tables, e.g. 1. Describe the devices responsible for the following data
Storage and input methods:
What is__? "What are the name and
query functions. (a) manual digitising.
address of the owner of
that land parcel?" (b) digital digitising.
(c) semi-automatic digitising.
Patterns in the data, e.g.
What Query functions (d) input of available digital data.
all parcels with an area
pattern__? with constraints. 2. Which devices are used for the following data outputs?
size greater than 2000.
(a) Hard copy
A prediction about the (b) Soft copy
Modelling
What _ if_? data at a certain time or (c) Output of digital data sets
functions
at a certain location. 3. What is a query?
Data analysis
GIS benefits organisations of all sizes and in almost every
Retrieval, classification and measurement industry. Some of the benefits include:
functions
•• Better decision making – typically makes better
•• Retrieval (selection without modification). decisions about location, for example, real estate
•• Classification (new entities). site, route/corridor selection, conservation and
•• Generalisation (new entities). natural resources extraction.
•• Measurements (characteristic of objects). •• Improved communication – GIS are a new
language that improves communication between
Overlay functions different teams, departments and disciplines.
Neighbourhood functions •• Record keeping – many organisations have
a primary responsibility of maintaining
•• Search functions (within window). authoritative records about the status and
•• Line in polygon or point in polygon. change of geography (geographic accounting).
•• Proximity (buffer zone). GIS provides a strong framework for managing
•• Topographic functions (slope, aspect). these types of systems with full transaction
•• Interpolation. support and reporting tools.
Connectivity functions •• Improvement of existing practice – capturing
and analysing data digitally is easier and faster
•• Network analysis.
than manually (time is saved).
Data output: visualisation •• Saves cost – in the long run what is done
through the computer cost cheaper than
•• Hard copy – printer, plotter, film writer. employing a dozen people with a monthly salary
•• Soft copy – computer screen. to do different aspects of a task. GIS brings many
•• Out of digital data set – magnetic tape, CD ROM things together (data capture, storage, analysis,
and computer network. display and updating).

•• Problem solving – GIS out-classes other (g) N
atural hazards – areas vulnerable to earthquakes,
technologies in its abilities to solve complex floods, cyclones, storms, drought, fire, volcano,
spatial problems. landslides, and soil erosion can be used to accurately
•• Social integration – GIS has the ability to predict future disasters.
integrate social issues (feelings, human values (h) Environmental – the environmental field has long used
and judgments). GIS for a variety of applications that range from simple
•• Improved employee morale – the satisfaction inventory and query, to map analysis and overlay, to
that comes with delivering efficient service using complex spatial decision-making systems. Examples
high-tech and the result is higher self-esteem. include; forest modelling, air/water quality modelling
•• Ease of transferring data digitally – analog and monitoring, environmentally sensitive zone
paper maps and huge cabinet files are difficult mapping, analysis of interaction between economic,
to transfer compared to GIS digital files. meteorological, and hydrological and geological change.
Applications of GIS and remote sensing (i) Infrastructure and utilities – GIS technologies are
also widely applied to the planning and management
Some of the applications of GIS include the following: of public utilities. Typical uses include management
of the following services: electric, gas, water, roads,
(a) Agriculture, forestry and range – identify crop,
telecommunication, storm sewers, TV/FM transmitting
forest and rangeland types, measure cropland area,
facilities, hazards analysis, and dispatch and emergency
assess condition and estimate yields.
services. Typical data input includes street network,
(b) Monitor changes – forest fragmentation; loss of topographic data, demographic data and local
wetlands; loss of farmland, soil erosion; tropical government administration boundary.
deforestation; loss of biodiversity and habitat.
(c) Climate change – global warming and climate change,
Activity 1.3
ozone depletion, atmospheric pollution and toxic
chemicals in the environment.
Describe how GIS can be used in:
(d) Water resources – lake water quality monitoring,
(a) agriculture.
inventory and mapping of wetlands, ground water
(b) forestry and range.
contamination, lake water quality, flooding (Figure
(c) water resources.
1.5).
(e) Urban dynamics – monitor land use and change and
urban sprawl.
Exercise 1.2
(f) Archaeology – as a spatial discipline, has used
GIS in a variety of ways. At the simplest level, GIS 1. GIS is a ‘problem solver’, ‘record keeper’ and a
has found applications as database management ‘cost saver’. Briefly describe the meaning of these
for archaeological records, with the added benefit statements.
of being able to create instant maps. It has been 2. What measures can be put in place to reduce
implemented in cultural resource management challenges faced in GIS?
contexts, where archaeological site locations are 3. Complete the table below.
predicted using statistical models based on previously
identified site locations. Question Answers GIS functions
What is ____________? _____________ _______________
What ____ pattern __? _____________ _______________
What if _____________? _____________ ______________
Summary of the unit

•• GIS is a computer-based information system
that is capable of spatial data capture/input,
storage, organisation/management, analyses and
visualisation.
•• GIS thrives on the existence of five components
namely; hardware – which include the computers
and printers, software – which provides the
function and tool needed to store, analyse and
Figure 1.5 Flood analysis
4 Unit 1: Geographic Information System (GIS)

display geographic information, data – include attribute, spatial and meta data, people – the GIS users which range
from technical specialists to those who use it to help them to perform their everyday work, procedures – how data
would be retrieved, input into system, stored, managed, transformed, analysed, finally presented in a final output.
•• GIS is important because; it has the ability to search databases and perform geographic queries, it’s a decision tool,
presentation of information is clear in the form of maps, multiple services can be evaluated efficiently and effectively
and GIS products can be produced quickly among others.
•• GIS has got many applications for example; disaster management – hazard modelling, change detection, flood, soil
erosion, landslide, prediction for early warning; climate change, agriculture urban morphology and transport among
others.
Unit Revision Exercise

Structured Questions
1. ith reference to examples describe the benefits of GIS over manual methods.
W
2. What are the challenges of using GIS?
3. With the use of examples, discuss the various applications of GIS.
4. Using Figure 1.2 explain the functional components of GIS.
5. What are the different ways in which spatial data is built in GIS core?


TOPIC 1: G
Coordinates and Coordinate

Unit
Systems
2
Unit Objectives Geoid – the surface on which gravity is the same as its
strength at mean sea level.
At the end of the unit, you should be able to: Geodesy – the science of measuring the size and shape of
the Earth and its gravitational and magnetic fields.
•• describe coordinate systems.
•• distinguish the major coordinate systems. What is a coordinate system?
•• identify different coordinate systems on both digital
A coordinate system is a reference system used to
and hard copy maps.
represent the locations of geographic features, imagery,
•• locate features using the different coordinate types.
and observations, such as Global Positioning System (GPS)
locations, within a common geographic framework. It can
Introduction also be defined as a standardised method for assigning
codes to locations so that locations can be found using the
Coordinate systems are standardised methods for assigning
codes alone. Standardised coordinate systems use absolute
numeric codes to locations. Coordinate systems enable us
locations.
to integrate data sets within maps as well as to perform
various integrated analytical operations such as overlaying A map captured in the units of the paper sheet on which it is
data layers from disparate sources and coordinate systems. printed is based on relative locations or map millimetres. In
This unit is going to dwell on two major types of coordinate a coordinate system, the x-direction value is the easting and
systems which are geographic and projected coordinate the y-direction value is the northing. Most systems make
systems. both values positive. There are two classes of coordinate
systems which are geographic coordinate systems and
Glossary of terms projected coordinate systems.
Spatial reference – a series of parameters that define the Each coordinate system is defined by the following:
coordinate system and other spatial properties for each •• Its measurement framework, which is either
dataset in the geodatabase. geographic (in which spherical coordinates are
Projected coordinate system (PCS) – a flat, two- measured from the earth’s centre) or planimetric
dimensional surface. (in which the earth’s coordinates are projected
Datum – a mathematical model of the Earth which serves onto a two-dimensional planar surface.
as a reference or base for calculating the geographic •• Units of measurement (typically feet or meters
coordinates of location. for projected coordinate systems or decimal
Transformation – the conversions between datums. degrees for latitude-longitude).
Flattening – the difference in length between the two axes •• The definition of the map projection for
expressed as a fraction or as a decimal. projected coordinate systems.
Geodetic Reference System – set of all theoretical •• Other measurement system properties such
conventions to define a coordinate system for geodetic as a spheroid of reference, a datum, one or
purposes. Reference surface (ellipsoid + rules for handling more standard parallels, a central meridian, and
geodetic measurements). possible shifts in the x- and y-directions.
6 Unit 2: Coordinates and Coordinate Systems

Converting DMS into DD 4. What is a spatial reference system? Describe the
characteristics of spatial reference systems.
Degrees, minutes and seconds can be converted into 5. Explain the importance of using coordinate systems.
decimal degrees using the formula below:
DD = degrees + minutes/60 + seconds/3 600 Cartesian coordinate system
On the Cartesian system we fix an origin at point O and

Activity 2.1 then take two lines are perpendicular to each other
passing through 0. These two lines are the axes, the x axis
1. Convert the following DMS into DD is horizontal and the y axis, the x coordinate and also its
(a) 30°21’ 14’’ displacement from 0 in the direction of the y axis, the y
(b) 63°10’ 18’’ coordinate.
(c) 29°08’ 12’’
(d) 89°41’13’’
2. Explain the elements which define any coordinate y
system.
P(r.Ѳ) = P(x.y)
Projected coordinate systems

r
A projected coordinate system (PCS) is defined on a flat, y
two-dimensional surface. Unlike a geographic coordinate
system, a projected coordinate system has constant lengths,
angles, and areas across the two dimensions. A projected O
coordinate system is always based on a geographic
coordinate system that is based on a sphere or spheroid. In
Figure 2.4 Cartesian or plane coordinates
addition to the geographic coordinate system, a projected
coordinate system includes a map projection, a set of Converting between Polar and Cartesian
projection parameters that customize the map projection coordinate systems
for a particular location, and a linear unit of measure.
Ordered coordinate pairs (r, θ) and (x, y) are readily
2. Polar coordinate system converted from one coordinate system to another.
Figure 2.3 Polar coordinates
We take an origin O and a fixed initial line OA. A point P is

then described by specifying a distance r, the distance O to
P along the radius direction and the angle θ we have had
to turn from the initial line to be looking along the radius Figure 2.5 C
onversion of coordinate from one coordinate into
direction. The point then has polar coordinates (r, θ). the other
From the diagram there are two pairs of equations we can

Exercise 2.1 use to move from one system to another. To convert from
polar coordinate to Cartesian coordinate;
1. Define the following terms:
X = r Cos θ y=r Sin θ
(a) Parallels.
(b) Meridian. To convert from Cartesian to polar coordinates;
(c) Coordinate system.
r² = x² + y² θ= tan¯¹ (y/x)
2. Distinguish between geographic coordinate system
and projected coordinate system. The angle θ is defined as the azimuth angle clockwise from
3. Outline the characteristics of geographic and polar the North not the more common trigonometric convention
coordinate systems. of being measured from the East.

Calculating distances
The Pythagoras distance between two points A and B on 14 B
a plane is:
13
Distance (A,B) = √ [(XB - XA)2 + (YB - YA )2] 12
Where points are located (XA ,YA) and (XB,YB) 11

10
AB = √ (12- 3)2 + (14 - 1 )2
9
= √ (9)2 + (13 )2 8
= √ 81 + 169 7
6
= √250
5
= 5√ 10 4
= 15.81 3
2
1 A C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Figure 2.6 Calculating distances using the Pythagoras theorem
Activity 2.2 90°

North pole
80°
Eastern
70° zone
Study the diagram on Figure 2.5 and carry out the N 60° boundary
following task. o 50°
r
t 40°
(a) Given that x= 7, y = 9. Calculate angle θ and r. h Central
30° Meridian
(b) Given that θ=58°, y = 10, calculate the value of x. L 20°
a 10° Equator
(c) G
iven the same angle in (ii) above and that x =12, t
i 0° 10.000km
calculate the value of y. t 6 degrees of longtude
u 10°
d 20°
8.000km
e
30°
6.000km
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) S
o
40°
coordinate system u 50°

4.000km
t 60°
Western
h zone
70° boundary 2.000km
A plane coordinate system to relate the coordinates of 80° South
points on earth’s curved surface with the coordinates of the 90° pole 0km
100km
300km
900km
700km
500km
same points on a plane or flat surface. The world is divided

into 60 (Figure 2.7) North-South zones each covering a strip
of 6°wide in longitude. Each UTM Zone is 6°of longitude
wide and extends 84° North to 80° South.
These zones are identified by numbers and cover the

complete surface of the Earth from 0°to 180°W and from
0°to 180°E (see Figure 2.7. The origin of each zone is the
intersection of the central meridian at the Equator.
Displacements in the x and y directions are called UTM

Eastings and UTM Northings respectively. The origin of
each zone is offset to the West and assigned a False Easting
of 500 000 m so that in each zone eastings are always
positive. The False Northing of the Equator the Southern
hemisphere, it is 10 000 000 m in order to avoid negative Figure 2.7 UTM coordinate system in detail
northings. The UTM spatial referencing system requires
three sets of numbers; (a) the easting.
(b) the northing.
(c) either the Zone number or the central meridian.

5157
8 tenths This is the hundreds of meters

3 tenths This is the hundreds of meters
465 466 5156
•• It should now read as 465300. •• It now reads as 5156800.

•• The full UTM 13 figure grid reference is
Determining Northings
4653005156800 UTM Zone 35S/36S.
•• From the point on the map, look to the left NB. The zone can be found at the bottom of the map
(or right) edge of the map. Find the nearest (Figure 2.7)
coordinate below (south) of your point.
Activity 2.3
5157
Study the map extract on the next page (figure 2.9).
Find the UTM grid reference for the following features on

the map.
5156 (a) Marngu.
(b) St Stephens school.
(c) Fodja.
(d) Hotel.
(e) Riffle range.
465 466 (f) Trigonometrical station 276/t 1383.6.
(g) Spot height 1340.
•• The coordinate is 5156000. (h) Folkington siding.
•• Count or estimate the number of tenths from (i) Spot height 1233.
the coordinate below your point to the corner. (j) Spot height 1239.
Figure 2.9 Rusape 1: 50 000

Approximation of the Earth The Earth
The Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is wider at along

the equator than between the poles therefore a better
approximation to the shape of the Earth is a spheroid
(ellipsoid – an ellipse rotated about its minor axis).
Independent handling
of horizontal and vertical
The ellipsoid The Geoid
Lorem ipsum Spheroid Topographic

(Ellipsoid)
Surface Ellipsoid (GPS)
Figure 2.10 Spheres and spheroids
Geoid
The shape of a Geographic coordinate system is defined by
a sphere or spheroid (Figure 2.10). A sphere is based on a
circle while a spheroid (or ellipsoid) is based on an ellipse.
The shape of an ellipse is defined by two radii, the longer
radius is called the semi major axis and the shorter radius
Earth
is called the semi minor axis. Using these two-axis length
ellipticity (flattening) of an ellipsoid can be calculated. Figure 2.12 Ellipsoid and Geoid
North Pole
Geodetic datum
b
In order to manage the complexities of the shape of a geoid
model of the earth, we use a geodetic datum. A datum
Equator a is a mathematical model of the Earth which serve as the
reference or base for calculating the geographic coordinates
of a location. Datums are used as reference base for
mapping, can be horizontal or vertical and always tied to a
reference ellipsoid. Particular datums are based on specific
spheroids. While a spheroid approximates the shape of the
South Pole earth, a datum defines the position of the spheroid relative
to the centre of the earth. A datum provides a frame of
Figure 2.11 Ellipticity of the Earth
reference for measuring locations on the surface of the
The equation is; ƒ = (a-b)/a earth. It defines the origin and orientation of latitude and
longitude lines. There are many datums used worldwide.
Small values of ƒ tells us that the Earth is very close to being
a sphere but not close enough to ignore its ellipticity if we Commonly used ellipsoids
want to accurately locate features on the earth. A spheroid
Table 2.1 E
llipsoids with their semi minor and semi major values
that best fits one region is not necessarily the same that fits
and where they best fit
another region. The position of locations on the face of the
globe will thus be somewhere on the spheroid. Different Name Date a (m) b (m) use
spheroids can be drawn; some are local while other are Everest 1830 6377276 6356079 India, Burma, Sri Lanka
global.
Bessel 1841 6377397 6356079 Central Europe,Chile
The Earth as a Geoid Airy 1849 6377563 6356257 Great Britain
Clarke 1866 6378206 6356584 N. America, Phillipines
Instead of using a regular shape like an ellipsoid, a
Clarke 1880 6378249 6356515 France, Africa (parts)
more complex model that takes into account the Earth’s
irregularities can be created. The only thing shaped like the Helmert 1907 6378200 6256818 Africa (parts)
Earth is the Earth itself thus the term Geoid (earth like) its Hayford 1924 6378388 6356912 World
shape is based on the earth’s gravity field, correcting for the Krasovsky 1940 6378245 6356863 Russia, Eastern Europe
centrifugal force of the earth’s rotation. GRS80 1980 6378137 6356752 N. America
WGS84 1984 6378137 6356752 World

TOPIC 1: G
Unit Map projection
3
Unit Objectives Developable surface – a simple geometric form capable of
being flattened without stretching.
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
Graticule – spherical coordinate system based on lines of
•• describe a map projection. latitude and longitude.
•• identify developable surfaces of map projections.
Rhumb line – a line on the surface of the Earth cutting all
•• outline projection properties. meridians at the same angle. It shows true direction.
•• describe a forward and inverse projection.
•• project a vector layer from one coordinate system to
What is a map projection?
another. A map projection is a mathematical described technique
of how to represent curved planet’s surface on a flat
Introduction map. There’s no way to flatten out a pseudo-spherical
surface without stretching more some areas than others:
Every projection has its own set of advantages and compromising errors.
disadvantages, there is no best projection. A map projection
is used to portray all or part of the Earth on a flat surface, Mapping on a 2D surface means assigning plane
this cannot be done without some distortion. Therefore, coordinates (x, y) to each point on a reference surface
the map maker must select the one best suited to the of geographic coordinates (λ, Ф). It is possible for a GIS
needs, reducing distortion of the most important features. to manipulate all spatial data in geographic coordinates
Projections can be based on axes parallel to the earth’s (latitude and longitude). However, all spatial data are
rotation axis (equatorial) at 90° to it (transverse) or at any ultimately visualised on paper on a monitor using planar
other angle (oblique). coordinates.
Mapping equation
Glossary of terms
A map projection is a mathematical function by which
Map – a graphic depiction on a flat medium of all or part of Geographic coordinates are transformed into Cartesian
a geographic realm in which the real-world features have map projection coordinates.
been replaced with symbols in their correct spatial location
X, Y (projected) = f (f, l) Forward equation.
at a reduced scale.
Tangent projections – have a single standard point
or standard line (for conical and cylindrical projection
Activity 3.1
surfaces).
What are the advantages of a 2D planar map surface over
An ellipsoid – an ellipse rotated in three dimensions about
a 3D globe?
its shorter axis.

Figure 3.2 Secant projections
Conic projections
A conic projection has a tangent to the globe along a line
Standard
of latitude distortion increases away from the standard parallel
parallel. The normal aspect is the N or S pole where the

axis of the cone (the point) coincides with the pole. Conic
Central
projections can only represent one hemisphere, or a portion meridian
of one hemisphere, for the cone does not extend far beyond
Figure 3.4 Conic secant projection
the centre of the sphere.
Cone secant – a cone is placed over a globe but cuts Exercise 3.1
through the surfaces. The cone and the globe meet along
two latitude lines; these are the standard parallels which
1. In what ways do cartographers group map
results in less distortion.
projections?
2. Describe map projection and the mapping equation.
3. What is a developable surface? With the aid of
Standard diagrams describe the developable surfaces used in
parallel
map projections.
4. Describe the rule of thumb in map projection.
5. Distinguish between tangential and secant
Central
meridian projections.
Figure 3.3 Conic projection 6. Outline the main characteristics of a conic projection.
Plane/azimuthal projections
Figure 3.5 Planar projections

Representation of geographic feature depends on the
spacing of the parallels. When equally spaced the projection
is equidistant in the north south direction but neither
conformal nor equal area such as the equidistant conic
projection. For small areas the overall distortion is minimal.
On the lambert conic conformal projection, the central

parallels are spaced more closely than the parallels near the
border. Albers equal area conic projection the parallels near
the northern and southern edges are close together than
the central parallels and the projection displays equivalent
areas
Figure 3.9 Equal area projection

Activity 3.2
(c) Equidistant projection
1. With the aid of diagrams outline the aspects of map
projections.
2. What are the main features of plane and cylindrical
map projections?
Exercise 3.2
1. Distinguish between cylindrical and plane projections

2. What is the most common cylindrical map
projection? Which imaginary line does it use as its
line of tangency?
3. Cartographers group map projections according
to properties they preserve’. Describe what the
following projections preserve;
(a) conformal
Figure 3.10 Equidistant projection (b) equal area or equivalent
(c) equidistant
Preserves the distance between certain points, they (d) azimuthal.
maintain scale along one or more lines. 4. “Representation of geographic features depends on
the spacing of parallels.” Discuss the meaning of this
(d) Azimuthal statement.
Cylindrical Projections: Universal

Transverse Mercator
The UTM is used as basis of the UTM coordinate system
which is widely used for topographical maps, satellite
images. The projection is based on a secant transverse;
the cylinder is wrapped around the Poles on the Equator
Projection. Maximum distortion is 0.04%. The real world
is divided into 60 zones, each 6°of longitude in width, each
with its own UTM projection.
The central meridian which runs down the middle of the

zone is used to define the position of the origin. To minimise
Figure 3.11 Azimuthal projection distortion across each zone the central meridian is reduced
by a scale factor of 0. 9996. This produces two parallel lines
Preserves directions or azimuths of all points on the map
of zero distortion approximately 180km either side of the
with respect to the centre. They can also be conformal,
central meridian.
equal area and equidistant.

Changing map projections topological maps:
(a) Projection.
To represent parts of the surface of the Earth on a flat map (b) Spheroid.
or screen, the curved horizontal reference surface must (c) Datum.
be mapped onto the 2D mapping plane. Mapping onto a (d) Zone.
2D mapping plane means transforming each point on the 4. Explain how distortions are minimised across each
reference surface with geographical coordinates (Φ, λ) to a zone on UTM zones.
set of Cartesian coordinates (x, y) representing positions on
the map plane.
Summary of the unit
Forward mapping equation transforms the geographical
•• Map projection is a systematic transformation
coordinates (Φ, λ) to a set of planar coordinates (x, y)
of points on the Earth’s surface to corresponding
representing the position of the same point on the map
points on a planar surface.
plane.
•• Because we are going to change 3D Earth to 2D
planar surface projections always introduce some
(x, y) = f (Φ, λ) types of distortion. So, when choosing a map
projection, we choose a particular projection to
Inverse mapping equation transforms mathematically the minimise the distortions that are important to a
planar coordinate system of a point on the map plane to particular application.
a set of geographic coordinates on the curved reference
•• Cartographers group map projections by the
surface.
preserved property into conformal, equal area,
(Φ, λ) =f (x, y) or equivalent, equidistant and azimuthal or true
direction. They also use a geometric object (a
cylinder, cone, or plane) and a globe to illustrate
Activity 3.3 how to construct a map projection.
•• Map projections have the following parameters;
1. The globe is subdivided into how many zones? standard line (standard parallel or standard
2. Each UTM zone is ______ wide and extends _______ north meridian), principal scale, scale factor, central lines,
to _______ south. false easting and false northing.
3. Explain why the UTM is used as the basis of the UTM •• Tangent projections have a single standard point
coordinate system on topological maps. while a secant projection has a multiple standard
line of contact between the developable surface
Exercise 3.3 and the globe.
•• Conformal projections preserve the shape of the
features across the map, equal area projections
preserves the area of a feature across the map,
equidistant projection preserves distances between
Cartesian reference Cartesian reference certain points and Azimuthal projections preserve
coordinate system I coordinate system II
direction of all points on the map with respect to
the centre.
•• Errors and distortions increase from the origin of
the projection towards its edges.
•• Conic projections are used for mid latitude zones
that have an east west orientation. More complex
conic projections contact the globe at two locations
Figure 3.16 T he principle of changing from one projection into (secant), these are defined by two standard
another parallels and as such has less distortion than the
tangent. Where the axis of the cone does not line
up with the polar axis of the globe it’s an oblique
Exercise 3.3 projection.
•• Cylindrical projection: The Mercator projection is
1. Distinguish between inverse and forward projection.
the most common cylindrical projection and the
2. Illustrate the inverse and forward mapping
equator is usually its line of tangency.
equations.
3. Describe the following properties of Zimbabwean •• Forward and inverse mapping equations are

TOPIC 1: G
Global Positioning System

Unit
(GPS)
4
Unit Objectives User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE) – errors associated
with satellite and receiver clocks, the atmosphere, satellite
At the end of the unit, you should be able to: orbits, and the environmental conditions that lead to
multipath errors.
•• demonstrate knowledge on how GPS measure location.
•• mark location using GPS. What is Global Positioning System (GPS)?
•• navigate using GPS.
GPS is a network of orbiting satellites that send precise
•• identify possible errors in GPS positions and suggest details of their position in space back to earth, it is made
solutions. up of at least 24 satellites. The signals are obtained by GPS
•• collect data in the field using GPS. receivers. GPS is well known for its military uses
•• display collected vector data in a GIS.
History of GPS
Introduction The U.S Department of Defense (USDOD) originally put the
satellites into orbit for military use, but they were made
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based available for civilian use in the 1980s. It was developed to
navigations system that provides location and time aid it in its global intelligence efforts at the height of the
information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near Cold War. Ever since the early 1980s it has been freely
the earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four available to anyone with a GPS receiver.
or more GPS satellites. The GPS technology has tremendous
It was first developed in the 1960s to allow ships in the
amount of applications in GIS & Remote Sensing data
US Navy to navigate the oceans more accurately. The first
collection, surveying and mapping. The technology seems
system had five satellites and allowed ships to check their
to be beneficiary to the GPS user community in terms of
location once every hour. Today portable navigation devices
obtaining accurate data up to about 100m for navigation,
can give precise location to within a few metres. Military
metre-level for mapping and down to millimetre level for
applications have much higher precision so that location can
geodetic positing. In simple words it can be said that if one
be pinpointed within a few centimetres.
has a small GPS receiver, he can get his position anywhere in
the land, sea, air, desert or forest in terms of any co-ordinate GPS satellite system
system.
The 31 satellites that currently make up the GPS space
segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above
Glossary of terms us. These satellites are constantly moving, making two
Space segment – the satellites that orbit the Earth, and the complete orbits in less than 24 hours. They travel at speeds
radio signals that they emit. of roughly 7,000 miles an hour. Small rocket boosters keep
each satellite flying on the correct path.
Control segment – the ground stations that monitor and
maintain the space segment components.
User segment – the users with their hard and software to

conduct positioning.

The User Segment Exercise 4.1
The GPS user segment consists of the GPS receivers and
the user community (Figure 4.3). GPS receivers convert 1. Describe the term GPS.
SV signals into position, velocity and time estimates. 2. With the aid of diagrams, explain the term GPS
GPS receivers are used for navigation, positioning, time constellation.
dissemination and other researches. Navigation in three 3. Describe the importance of GPS.
dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation 4. With the aid of diagrams, describe the components
receivers are made for aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles of GPS.
and for hand carrying by individuals. The GPS set consist of 5. Describe briefly the history of GPS.
five principal components which are antenna, navigation/ 6. ‘Control segment maintains the satellites and their
receiver, processor, input/output device and power supply. proper functioning’ how does it accomplish this task.
7. Identify any four GPS receivers.
Figure 4.3 Examples of GPS receivers
Activity 4.1 How GPS does works?

GPS satellites circle the Earth twice a day in a precise
1. Describe the GPS satellite system orbit. Each satellite transmits a unique signal and orbital
2. What powers GPS satellites parameters that allow GPS devices to decode and compute
3. How many satellites make a full constellation? the precise location of the satellite. GPS receivers use
4. What do you understand by the GPS? this information and trilateration to calculate a user’s
5. What is the official USDOD name for GPS? exact location. The GPS receiver measures the distance to
each satellite by the amount of time it takes to receive a
transmitted signal. With distance measurements from a few
more satellites, the receiver can determine a user’s position
and display it electronically to measure running routes, map
a golf course, find a way home.

(n) Automated vehicle use state-of-the-art technologies to produce and sell more
paper and wood products, but there is growing concern
With the help of GPS location and routes for cars and trucks over the devastation wrought by their methods of obtaining
to function without a human driver. materials.
(o) Agriculture
The rate with which large, luscious forests are being cut
down. The trees are being removed much more quickly than
we can hope to replant, as trees take many years to grow to
their full potential. One solution-orientated man is leading
team, developing ways to replant forests as quickly and
efficiently as possible, using GPS technology.
(q) Cartography
Both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
Activity 4.3
Describe the applications of GPS in the following fields:

(a) Astronomy.
Figure 4. 8 Farming with the help of GPS (b) Cartography.
(c) Sport.
GPS-based applications in precision farming are being used
(d) Robotics.
for farm planning, field mapping, soil sampling, tractor
(e) Fishing.
guidance, crop scouting, variable rate applications, and yield
mapping. GPS allows farmers to work during low visibility
field conditions such as rain, dust, fog and darkness.
Exercise 4.3
(m) Fishing and GPS
1. Explain methods used to improve the accuracy of
Synoptic maps of the main concentrations of fisherman
GPS.
villages, fishing ports and beach landing points, markets,
2. Identify any other five satellite navigation systems in
processing, freezing and transhipment points, coastal
various countries.
landforms can be studied with the help of GPS.
3. Besides calculating user location, what other
(n) Oil leak and GPS functions does a GPS perform?
4. ‘GPS accuracy is related to the quality of signal
GPS tracking technology is helping with the study by reception’. Explain the meaning of this statement.
examining how currents are influence by winds and waves
and measuring wind speed to find out how oil would
spread from the ocean, onto the beach. Many instruments Summary of the unit
are being used in the study to gather as much data as •• The GPS constellation consist of the nominal 24
possible. After data is collected, researchers plan to use 3D satellites, which are positioned in six Earth centred
pictures of oil transports and hope to come up with more orbital planes with four satellites in each plane.
information about oil spills, how to mitigate their damage, The constellation provides a 24-hour global user
and how to protect the environment. navigation and time determination capability.
(o) Astronomy •• The space segment consists of 24 satellites on six
orbits, each satellite has a clock and completes two
Both positional and clock synchronisation data is used orbit per day, the accuracy is 21m, 95% of time.
in astrometry and celestial mechanics calculations. It is •• The control segment maintains the satellites in
also used in amateur astronomy using small telescope to their proper orbital positions. It also updates each
professional observations, for example, when finding extra satellite clock, ephemeris and almanac and other
solar planets. indicators in the navigation message once per day
(p) GPS and forestation or as needed. Workers in the station transmit data
from the satellites to the unit and from the unit to
GPS Technology makes tree planting more efficient. the satellite.
Deforestation and disappearing wildlife habitats are a big •• The user segment refers to all units and equipment
problem in the modern world. Manufacturing industries by anyone connected to the GPS unit. It also refers
30 Unit 4: Global Positioning System (GPS)

to the receiver itself and all of its components, for example, the screen, antenna, and mother board inside the GPS.
•• GPS satellites circle the Earth twice a day in a precise orbit. Each satellite transmits a unique signal and orbital
parameters that allow GPS devices to decode and compute the precise location of the satellite. GPS receivers use this
information and trilateration to calculate a user’s exact location.
•• Some GPS errors include satellite clock – where slight inaccuracies in time keeping by satellites can cause errors in
calculating position on earth; multipath error – where signals may be reflected by local obstructions before it reaches
the receivers antenna; atmospheric – where signals have to travel through charged particle and water vapour in the
atmosphere slowing transmission; receiver error – error often occurs from their clocks or internal noise and selective
ability – intentional error introduced by DOD to make sure that hostile forces could not use the accuracy of the GPS
against the US or its allies.
•• Garmin GPS receivers are typically accurate to within 10 metres. Accuracy is even better on the water.
•• Some Garmin GPS receiver accuracy is improved with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System).
•• This capability can improve accuracy to better than 3 meters, by providing corrections to the atmosphere. No additional
equipment or fees are required to take advantage of WAAS satellites.
•• Users can also get better accuracy with Differential GPS (DGPS), which corrects GPS distances to within an average of 1
to 3 metres.
•• The U.S Coast Guard operates the most common DGPS correction service, consisting of a network of towers that receive
GPS signals and transmit a corrected signal by beacon transmitters. In order to get the corrected signal, users must have
a differential beacon receiver and beacon antenna in addition to their GPS.

1. ith reference to examples, discuss the benefits and weaknesses of using GPS.
W
2. Explain the measures put in place to rectify GPS errors.
3. Describe how the following works in reducing errors in GPS.
(a) Differential positioning.
(b) Nationwide DGPS.
(c) WAAS.
4. How has GPS been applied to the following fields;
(a) Agriculture.
(b) Surveying.
(c) Disaster relief.
(d) Mining.
(e) Tectonics.
5. Distinguish between geostationary satellites and polar satellites.
6. Define the following terms:
(a) Pseudorandom code.
(b) Ephemeris data.
(c) Almanac data.
7. Explain the points you would consider when selecting a GPS receiver.


TOPIC 1: G
Conceptual Models Of
Unit
Geographic Space
5
Unit Objectives Rasterisation – the process of converting an image made
up of raster cells into one described by vector.
Layer type – refers to the way spatial and attribute
•• distinguish between vector and raster models. information are connected.
•• use appropriate model for a given geographic data set.
•• visualise vector data in a GIS.
Raster Data Model
•• visualise raster data in a GIS. Raster data represents geographic features as a pattern of
grids of squares called cells (pixels). Each cell is assigned
Introduction a position in the data file and given a value based on the
attribute at that position. Its row and column coordinate
Spatial data models begin with a conceptualisation - a view may identify individual pixel.
of the real-world phenomena. The data model represents a
set of guidelines to convert the real world (called entity) to the
digitally and logically represented spatial objects consisting
of the attributes and geometry. There are two major types
of geometric data model. Vector model uses discrete points,
lines and/or areas corresponding to discrete objects with
name or code number of attributes. Raster Model Raster
model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific sequence. Environment
An element of the grid cell is called a pixel which contains Forest

a single value of attributes. Raster and vector are two basic
data structures for storing and manipulating images and
graphic data in a computer. Major GIS software packages
available today are primarily based on one of the two
The Raster GIS references phenomena by grid cell location in a matrix.
structures, either raster based or vector based while they The grid cell is the smallest unit of resolution and may vary from
have extended functions to support other data structures. centimeters to kilometers depending on the application.
Figure 5.1 Raster view of the world

Glossary of terms
Raster data models are the natural means to represent
Tessellation – is defined as the process to cover a surface continuous spatial features or phenomenon such as
through the repeated use of a single shape. elevation, precipitation, slope, pollutant concentration.
Each raster cell represents a given area on the grid and is
Topology – the way in which geographical elements are
assigned a value that may be considered to apply for the
linked together.
cell. A raster cell may also be used to represent discrete
Data model – refers to objects in a spatial database plus data and to represent land cover in an area.
the relationships among them.
32 Unit 5: Conceptual Models Of Geographic Space

3. What is the meaning of ‘resolution of raster’, attribute Irregular tessellations
data, pixel and layer type?
4. Explain the types of spatial operations suitable for Irregular tessellations are partitions of space into mutually
raster. exclusive cells, but now the cells vary in size and shape,
5. What is a tessellation? With the aid of diagrams, allowing them to adapt to the spatial phenomena they
identify common tessellations. represent for example, the quad tree.
6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of regular
tessellations.
7. With reference to examples, describe ways of
assigning values to raster data.
Grid size and resolution

A pixel is the smallest unit of a transformation available
in an image or raster map. It is commonly used in remote
sensing to describe each unit in an image the more the
pixels, the more the detail (high spatial resolution) and the
lesser the pixels, the lesser the information (low spatial
resolution). Figure 5.12 A region quad tree
Region quad trees have various interesting characteristics

71m2
73m2 72m2 80m2 for example, square nodes at the same level represent
1m cell 2m cell 4m cell
Polygon 16 x 16 cells 8 x 8 cells 4 x 4 cells
equal area sizes. This allows quick computation.
High Resolution
Quad trees divides a raster into a hierarchy of quadrants

that are subdivided based on similarly valued pixels. The
division of the raster stops when a quadrant is made
entirely of the same value. It is a raster data structure with
a variable spatial resolution, raster cells are combined
Low Resolution and adjusted within the data layer to fit into each specific
area feature. Large raster cells that fit entirely into one
Figure 5.10 C
hosen coarseness of raster has implications on the
uniform area are assigned successive smaller cells are then
representation
fit halving the cell dimension that each iteration until the
Raster data structures smallest cell size is reached.
Exhaustive enumeration – in this data structure every pixel

is given a single value, hence there is no compression when
many like values are encountered.
Figure 5.11 Cell by cell encoding of raster data Figure 5.13 Quad – tree encoding of raster data
Data compression Run length coding

Due to the inherently large size of raster data various data This is the most common raster image data compression
compression schemes have been developed that allow method. If a raster contains groups of cells with identical
GIS software to load a raster faster. Data compression is values, run length encoding can compress storage. Instead
based on algorithms that reduce the size of a computer file of storing each cell each component stores a value and a
while maintaining the information contained in the file. It count of cells with that value for example, an 8 sequential
is often applied to discrete raster data for example, when cell type of B might be listed as B7 instead of BBBBBBBBB,
representing polygons or area information in a raster GIS. thus, 8 cells would be represented but two characters.

Scale determines resolution (cell size). Depends on source Determining flow direction using DEM
data. Resolution determines use of DEM and what spatial
features are visible. DEMS are useful for finding drainage networks and
drainage divides. Direction is determined by the elevation
Types of DEM: of surrounding cells. Water can flow only into one cell – the
cell with the lowest elevation surrounding the current cell.
A DEM can be represented as a raster (a grid of squares,
Water is assumed to flow into one other cell, unless there is
also known as a height map when representing elevation)
a sink.
or as a vector-based triangular irregular network (TIN). The
TIN DEM dataset is also referred to as a primary (measured)
DEM, whereas the Raster DEM is referred to as a secondary
(computed) DEM.
Creation of DEMs
DEMs are commonly built using data collected using remote
sensing techniques, but they may also be built from land
surveying.
(a) Conversion of printed contour lines
The first method is conversion of printed contour lines and

Figure 5.17 Flow directions in DEM for every cell
use it in raster or vector form. The elevation contours are
“tagged” with elevations. Any other additional elevation DEM applications
data are created from the hydrography layer. Finally, an
algorithm is used to interpolate elevations at every grid (a) Estimating elevation.
point from the contour data. (b) Estimating slope and aspect.
(c) Determining drainage networks.
(b) Photogrammetry
(d) Determining the watershed.
This can be done manually or automatically:
(e) Terrain stability – Areas prone to avalanches are high
•• Manually, an operator looks at a pair of stereo slope areas with sparse vegetation, which is useful
photos through a stereo plotter and must move when planning a highway or residential subdivision.
two dots together until they appear to be one (f) Soil mapping – DEMs assist in mapping soils which is
lying just at the surface of the ground. a function of elevation (as well as geology, time and
•• Automatically, an instrument calculates the climate).
parallax displacement of a large number of (g) To create a profile graph from digitised features of a
points. surface.
Uses of DEMs Raster resampling

(a) DEMs are used to determine terrain attributes such as Raster resampling involves reassigning the cell values
elevation at any point, slope and aspect. when changing raster coordinates or geometry. Since cell
edges and coordinate system axes are typically aligned,
(b) Terrain features like drainage basins and channel
data often must be resampled when converting between
networks can also be identified from the DEMs.
coordinate systems of changing the cell size. Cell centre
(c) DEMs are widely used in hydrologic and geologic in the old coordinate system do not coincide with cell
analyses, hazard monitoring, natural resources centre in the new coordinate system and so the average
exploration, agricultural management. value represented by cell must be recomputed. Common
methods include:
(d) Hydrologic applications of the DEM include
groundwater modelling, estimation of the volume of Nearest neighbour – involve staking the output larger
(a)
proposed reservoirs, determining landslide probability value from the nearest input layer cell centres.
and flood prone area mapping.
Bilinear interpolation – a distance-based averaging
(b)
(e) DEMs are used often in geographic information of the four nearest cells.
systems, and are the most common basis for digitally
(c) ubic convolution – a weighted average of the
C
produced relief maps.
sixteen nearest cells.

Exercise 5.4 (b) Topological data model
L6
1. What vector type (point, line, and polygon) best
represents the following features: state boundaries,
telephone poles, buildings, cities, region, stream
networks, mountain peaks, soil types, flight tracks.
L5
Which of these can be represented by multiple vector
L4
types? What conditions might lead to you to choose L3
one vector type over another. L1
2. Draw a point, line, polygon feature on a simple
Cartesian coordinate system. From this drawing, L2
create a topological data model that incorporate arc
nodes, arc polygon?
3. Describe two geographic entities that are best
defined by the vector data model. Figure 5.23 Topological data model
4. Define the term vector data model.
Topological data model is characterised by the inclusion of
topological information within the data set. Topology is a set
Vector data structures of rules that model the relationship between neighbouring
points, lines and polygons and determine how they share
There are different models to store and manage vector
geometry. Topology is also concerned with preserving
information.
properties when the forms are bent, stretched or placed
(a) Spaghetti data model
L6
5 A, 6 (Identifier of polygon and number of vertex)
vi v
1, 3 (coordinates of the first vertex)
1.8, 2.6
4 iv B
+ 2.8, 3
iii xii 3.3, 4
3 ii
i
3.2, 5.2
L5 2
C ix x
1, 5.2
vii viii 1,3 (coordinates of the first vertex again)
L4 1 B, 1 (Identifier of the point and number of vertex)
L3 4,4
L1 C, 4 ( Identifier of the line and number of vertex)
1 2 3 4 5 1,2
List of coordinates "Spaghetti" 3.5, 2
4.2, 2.7
L2 - simple
5.2, 2.7
- easy to manage
- no topology
- lots of duplication, hence need for large storage space.
- very often used in CAC (Computer assisted cartography)
Figure 5.22 Spaghetti model and list of coordinate
Spaghetti model is an early model originally developed to under similar geometric transformations which allow for
organize and manipulate line data. Each point, line and or more efficient projections of map files.
polygon feature is represented as a string of x, y coordinate
pairs (or as a single x, y coordinate pair in the case of a
Major topologic concepts
vector image with a single point) with no inherent structure. 1. Connectivity
Each polygon must be uniquely defined by its own set of x,
y coordinate pairs, even if the adjacent polygon share the Describes the arc node topology for the feature data set.
same exact same boundary information. This creates some Nodes are the intersection points where two or more
redundancies within the data model and therefore reduces arcs meet. In addition, between each node pair is a line
efficiency. segment (link) which has its own identification number and
references both from node and to node.

Rasterisation and vectorisation
Rasterisation
Rasterisation is the process of converting an image made up of raster cells into one described by vector data.
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
3
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3
1 1 4 4 6 3 3 6 6
5 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6
5 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7
5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7
7
5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7
5
Figure 5.27 Converting vector data into raster data
Vectorisation
Vectorisation is the process of converting an image made up of vector into one described by raster cells.
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3
1
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
3
1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3
1 1 4 4 6 3 3 6 6 1 1 4 4 1 3 3 6 6 6
5 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 4
5 4 4 5 6 6 6 7 7 5 4 4 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 5
5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 5 6
5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
Figure 5.29 Converting from raster data into vector data
Conversion between raster and vector data models
Figure 5.30 Conversion between raster and vector data models

Summary of the unit Unit Revision Exercise
•• A raster-based system stores data by using a grid 1. Define the terms region, shape file and interface.
of cells. A unique reference coordinate represents 2. From figure 5.31 show a comparison of spatial
each pixel either at a corner or in the middle of accuracy associated with vector data model and
the cell. Each cell or pixel has discrete attributes raster data model of a road and a reservoir.
assigned to it. Raster data resolution is dependent
on the pixel or grid size and may vary from sub-
meter to many kilometres.
•• Raster data stores different information in layers;
elevation, soil type, geology, forest type, rainfall
rate. Generally, raster data requires less processing
than vector data, but it consumes more computer
storage space. Remote sensors on satellites store
data in raster format. Digital terrain models (DTM)
and digital elevation models (DEM). Continuous
data (FIELD) suit a raster structure. A raster can
use any reasonable geometric shape, as long as
it can be connected in such a way as to create a
continuous surface
•• Vector data model uses geometry: points, polyline
and polygons to represent the real world 3. How would you choose the type of spatial data
•• There are three major topologic concepts: model to use?
connectivity – arcs connect each other at nodes, 4. Distinguish between vector data and raster data
area definition – arcs that connect to surround using the following:
an area define a polygon. Contiguity – arcs have (a) Data structure.
direction and left and right sides. (b) Coordinates, datum and project conversion.
(c) Positional precision.
•• Examples of where topology rules can be defined
(d) Visualisation.
for real world features in a vector map: Area edges
(e) Accessibility.
of a polygon must not overlap, area edges of a
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
district map must not have gaps (slivers), polygons
raster data model?
showing property boundaries must be closed.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
Undershoots or overshoots of the border lines are
vector data model?
not allowed, contour lines in a vector line layer
7. Write an explanatory account of how you would
must not intersect (cross each other).
convert a raster data into vector data and a vector
•• Two types of data models: spaghetti and topologic data into raster data.
model. 8. Define the terms rasterisation and vectorisation.
•• Spaghetti model – polygons are described by 9. Which spatial model is the best for visualisation? Give
listing co-ordinates of points along boundary, reasons for your answer.
all data are stored in one file, co-ordinates for 10. Explain why it is important to ensure that our
adjacent polygons are stored twice, no topological geographical data is error free.
information about polygons, although spatial 11. Using the picture below describe show you would
features are recorded, the spatial relationship represent the different features using data and raster
between the features are not encoded (no data models.
adjacency, containment…)
•• Topological models – mopology expresses the
spatial relationships between connecting or
adjacent vector features (points, polylines and
polygons) in a GIS, topological or topology-based
data are useful for detecting and correcting
digitising errors, (for example, two lines in a roads
vector layer that do not meet perfectly at an
intersection).

TOPIC 1: G
Georeferencing and spatial

Unit
data capture
6
Unit objectives Georeferencer window – is the control and information
centre for the georeference process.
Digitizing – is the process of converting geographic features
•• identify ground control points. on a paper map into digital format.
•• georeference a scanned/embossed hard copy in GIS. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) – is the difference
•• capture spatial data from the map using on screen between the desired output ground control points
digitization. coordinate (reference) and the actual output coordinates
•• calculate the georeferencing error using RMSE. (source) for the same point after transformation.
•• digitise selected features. Georeferencing
•• resample the georeferenced image.
Georeferencing is the process of defining the position of
•• produce a map layout from the captured vector data
geographical objects relative to a standard reference grid
in a GIS.
for example, the allocation of geographical coordinates
to street intersections. The process of georeferencing
Introduction essentially defines the location of a raster file and assigns
real-world coordinates to the image so that it may be
The Georeference process lets you create, edit, store and
analysed with geographic data. In a GIS environment, raster
control information that relates the positions of raster cells
data is georeferenced using a control layer such as a highly
and geometric elements in your spatial objects to map
accurate road network, but any layer that contains known
coordinates in a specified coordinate reference system.
coordinates can be used as a point of reference.
Accurate georeferencing allows you to overlay a spatial object
correctly with all your other project materials. Georeferencing a scanned topo map
1. Open QGIS – click on the QGIS desktop from the
Glossary of terms desktop or the task bar.
Control points – are locations within the spatial object 2. Install the Georeferencer Gdal – click Plugins on the
where map coordinates in some coordinate reference menu bar. Click Manage and Install plugins, you
system have been determined and stored. should see a dialogue box named Plugins. Search for
Georeferencer Gdal and select it by clicking on it.
Georeferencing – is the process of aligning imagery (maps,
Close the dialogue box and go back to QGIS.
air photos) with spatial data such as point, lines or polygons
(for example, roads and water bodies).
Figure 6.1 Plugin dialogue box
44 Unit 6: Georeferencing and spatial data capture

9. Repeat the same step (7) for the remaining points. 10. Transform settings – click Transform settings,
You should now have a set of four points in your you should see a dialogue box named Transform
Map Document, to use as reference points for Settings. On Transformation type choose
georeferencing. Polynomial 1, on Resampling Method select
Figure 6.5 Four GCPs

Nearest Neighbour, on Target CRS, click the small 12. Start georeferencing – click Start Georeferencer,
picture and chose a Coordinate Reference System e.g. you should see a message – Raster was successfully
WGS84/UTM Zone 36S (ESPG :32736). On Output georeferenced. Close the Georeferencer and go back
Raster, click on the three dots and you will be directed to QGIS software. Your map should appear as the
to Documents, create a New Folder and name it (A’ one below
Level Georef Prac) and Save. You should get back to
Transform Settings, tick on Load in QGIS when done.
Click OK and go back to the Georeferencer.
Figure 6.7 A georeferenced map
Digitising
Figure 6.6 Transform settings After transposing and positioning the image in its general
location, it is time to begin selecting and adding control
11. Save your work by doing a print screen – look for
points
Prt sc button on the keyboard, do a long press and
hold for a few seconds. Open Microsoft Word and 13. Creating and saving new Shapefile Layers: before
paste. You should see your map with the GCP table you can digitise make sure to create Shapefile Layers
and visible ground control points. Save, browse to first. Click Layer on the Menu bar, place your cursor
Documents – new folder (you created on step 9, put on Create Layer, click New Shapefile Layer and you
file name (e.g. GCP print screen) and Save. Go back to will see a dialogue box named New Shapefile Layer.
the Georeferencer.
46 Unit 6: Georeferencing and spatial data capture

Activity 6.1 Unit Revision Exercise
Describe how you would carry out the following properties
in a GIS. 1. Define the terms:
(a) Georeferencing a scanned map. (a) Georeferencing.
(b) Digitising. (b) Digitising.
(c) Resampling. (c) RMSE.
2. You are provided with a scanned map of Rusape. Use
Quantum GIS 2.18.4 for georeferencing the map.
Exercise 6.1 (a) Add the following GCPs.
1. Distinguish between analogue and digital data. X Y

2. Define the term resampling. 395000 7927000
3. Explain the following methods of resampling: 396000 7940000
(a) nearest neighbour. 403000 7936000
(b) bilinear interpolation.
400000 7930000
(c) cubic convolution.
4. Describe the root mean square error. 497000 7935000
5. What is the importance of the RMSE?
(b) Save the map with ground control points.
6. Explain the steps take to rectify a map.
(c) Georeference the map. Produce a hard copy.
7. What is georeferencing?
(d) D
igitise the following features (at least 3 features
on each).
Summary of the unit (i) Huts
(ii) Schools
•• Georeferencing is the process of defining the
(iii) Roads
position of geographical objects relative to a
(iv) Rivers
standard reference grid.
(v) Cultivation
•• Each control point is assigned a number in the ID (vi) Tracks
column; this ID is also shown in the Input View next (vii) Quarry
to the point’s symbol. (e) Open new print composer.
•• Each control point also has a pair of object (i) Add new map.
coordinates that define its position using the (ii) Add tittle.
internal coordinate’s native to the object. (iii) Add new legend.
•• Since we are working with a raster object, the object (iv) Add direction arrow.
coordinates in this case are the fractional column (v) Export the new map as image.
and row positions within the raster, and the object (vi) Print the map.
coordinate columns are thus labelled Column and NB: You may carry out this exercise with as many
Row. maps as possible for practice).
•• Steps of rectification, collect ground control 3. Which digitising challenges did you face? How did you
points, create equations relating the image pixel overcome them?
coordinates at those GCPs to their real-world 4. What other associated challenges did you come
coordinates. Transform the pixel coordinate based across?
on the equations. Resample the pixel value (BVs)
from the input image to put values in the newly
georeferenced image.
•• The RMSE measures the accuracy of control points
and can be used to find and delete inaccurate
entries.


TOPIC 1: G
Unit The remote sensing principle
7
Unit Objectives SONAR – Sound Navigation and Ranging which is based on
the transmission of sound waves through a water column
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: and then recording the amount of energy backscattered
from the bottom of from objects within the water column.
•• define remote sensing principle.
•• illustrate remote sensing principle. Sensor – refers to the imaging system that is camera/
detector system.
•• outline the components of remote sensing.
•• identify the importance of each component of the Scattering – refers to when particles or large gas molecules
remote sensing in image acquisition. present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the
electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original
path.
Introduction
Transmission – occurs when radiation passes through a
The remote sensing is basically a multi-disciplinary science target.
which includes a combination of various disciplines such as
Radiation – occurs when radiation bounces off the target
optics, spectroscopy, photography, computers, electronics
and is redirected.
and telecommunication. All these technologies are integrated
to act as one complete system in itself, known as remote What is remote sensing?
sensing. The sun is a source of energy or radiation, which
provides a very convenient source of energy for remote Remote sensing is defined as the science and art
sensing. The sun’s energy is either reflected, as it is for visible of obtaining information about an object, area, or
wavelengths, or absorbed and then reemitted, as it is for phenomenon through the analyses of data acquired by
thermal infrared wavelengths. Remote sensing makes it the sensor that is not in direct contact with the target
possible to collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. of investigation. This can be done by the use of either
Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection recording or real-time sensing device(s) mounted on
on the ground, ensuring in the process that areas or objects aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, buoy or ship.
are not disturbed.
The Remote Sensing Principle
Glossary of terms The sun is the major source of energy, radiation and
illumination. At any given moment our sun is bombarding
RADAR – radio detection and ranging which is based on the earth with a variety of wavelengths of EMR, including
the transmission of long wave microwave through the visible light, infrared, radio and microwaves. Detection and
atmosphere, and recording the amount and energy back discrimination of surface features means detecting and
scattered from the terrain. recording of radiant energy reflected or emitted by surface.
LIDAR – light detection and ranging which is based on the Different features return different amount and kind of
transmission of relatively short wavelength laser light and energy in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
then recording the amount of light backscattered from the incident upon it.
terrain.
52 Unit 7: The remote sensing principle

TOPIC 1: G
Unit Image acquisition and structure
8
Unit Objectives Particle – the light that strikes a solar cell to produce an
electric current.
Photon – individual packets of electromagnetic energy.
•• distinguish between passive and active sensors.
Wave – a travelling disturbance.
•• identify image bands based on the electromagnetic
spectrum (ems). Frequency – the number of waves per second.
•• illustrate the ems.
Wavelength – the distance from the peak on one wave to
•• identify the reflectance associated with key target the next one.
material.
•• interpret spectral signatures of target materials. Swath – the area imaged on the surface.
•• distinguish image space and feature space. Spectral signature – is the parameter which determines
•• identify bandwidths from selected multispectral the character of the object under observation. This can
scanners. be defined as a unique pattern of wavelengths radiated/
reflected by an object.
Introduction Sensor – is the device that gathers energy (EMR or others),

converts it into a signal and presents it in a form suitable for
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy obtaining information about the target under investigation.
source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy
Spectral Reflectance (ρ(λ) – is the ratio of reflected energy
to the target of interest. After which the energy travels from
to incident energy as a function of wavelength.
the source to its target and interacts with the atmosphere
it passes through. Once the energy makes its way to the Spectral Signature – are the values of the spectral
target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target reflectance of objects averaged over different, well defined
depending on the properties of both the target and the wavelength intervals comprise the spectral signature of the
radiation. After the energy has been scattered by, or emitted objects or features by which they can be distinguished.
from the target, we require a sensor (remote – not in contact
with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic Passive and active remote sensing
radiation. The energy recorded by the sensor has to be
Passive remote sensing
transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and
processing station where the data are processed into an Passive remote sensors record electronic magnetic radiation
image (hardcopy and/or digital). This unit dwells on how that is reflected (for example, blue, green red and near
various sensors collect and record EMR. infrared light) or emitted (for example, thermal infrared)
from the surface of the Earth. Passive sensors can only be
Glossary of terms used to detect energy when the naturally occurring energy
is available. For all the reflected this can only take place
Orbit – the path followed by a satellite. during the time when the sun is illuminating the Earth.
56 Unit 8: Image acquisition and structure

(b) RADAR (Radio Detecting and Ranging): which is based obtained using aerial photography.
on the transmission of long wavelength microwave •• Providing information on surface roughness
through the atmosphere and then recording the dielectric properties and moisture content.
amount of energy backscattered from the terrain.
Disadvantages
•• Active systems require the generation of a fairly

large amount of energy to adequately illuminate
targets.
Sensors and platforms

Sensor
A sensor is an imaging system that is camera or detector

systems. For a sensor to collect and record energy reflected
or emitted from a target or surface, it must reside on a
stable platform away from the target or surface being
observed.
A platform is the craft or vehicle onto which the imaging

system is mounted e.g. aircraft, satellite
transmitted
pulse
target
antenna
beamwidth
echo pulse
from target
radar antena
Figure 8.5 Remote sensing platforms
(a) round based remote sensors – are found very

G
Figure 8.4 RADAR aircraft
close to the ground. They are used to record detailed
(c) SONAR (Sound Navigation Ranging): SONAR is based information about the surface which is compared with
on the transmission of sound waves through a water information collected from aircraft or satellite sensors.
column and then recording the amount of energy Sensors may be placed on a ladder, scaffolding, tall
backscattered from the bottom or from objects within building, cherry-picker, and crane.
the water column. (b)
Aerial remote sensing – are primarily stable wing
aircraft often used to collect very detailed images
Advantages of active sensors and facilitate the collection of data over virtually any
•• Enables sending and receiving electromagnetic portion of the Earth’s surface. They acquire any event
radiation that can pass through clouds and any time, variable spatial resolution by changing flight
precipitation. altitude and camera focal length. There is however,
•• Images can be obtained at user specific times high geometric effects, and require sophisticated
even at night. geometric correction models.
•• Sending and receiving electromagnetic radiation (c) Satellite based sensors – in space, remote sensing
that can penetrate tree canopy, dry surface, is sometimes conducted from the space shuttle
deposits, snow. or, more commonly, from satellites, because of
•• Permits imaging at shallow look angles resulting their orbit satellite permit repetitive coverage of
in different perspectives that cannot always be the Earth’s surface on a continuing basis. There are

Advantages of multi spectral scanners over photographic Frequency of wave curves
systems Crest 4 3 2
Amplitude
1
Wave length Undisturbed
position
•• The spectral range of photographic systems
is restricted to the visible and near-infrared
regions while MSS systems can extend this range Velocity of the wave
Trough
into the thermal infrared.
•• They are also capable of much higher spectral Figure 8.10 Properties of a wave
resolution than photographic systems. Multi-
Wave theory vs particle theory
band or multispectral photographic systems use
separate lens systems to acquire each spectral Electromagnetic energy radiates in accordance with
band. This may cause problems in ensuring the basic wave theory. The wave theory describes the
that the different bands are comparable electromagnetic energy as travelling in a sinusoidal fashion
both spatially and radiometrically and with at the velocity of light, while the particle theory offers insight
registration of the multiple images. into how electromagnetic energy interacts with matter. It
•• MSS systems acquire all spectral bands suggests that electromagnetic radiation is composed of
simultaneously through the same optical system many discrete units called photons/quanta.
to alleviate these problems.
•• Photographic systems record the energy Atmospheric windows
detected by means of a photochemical process
The atmosphere essentially closes down in certain portions
which is difficult to measure and to make
of the spectrum while atmospheric window exists in other
consistent.
regions that transmit incident energy effectively to the
•• MSS data are recorded electronically, it is easier
ground. Atmospheric window refers to the spectral bands
to determine the specific amount of energy
for which the atmosphere is relatively transparent.
measured, and they can record over a greater
range of values in a digital format. It is in these windows that remote sensing systems must
•• Photographic systems require a continuous function because it is in these zones where energy from the
supply of film and processing on the ground sun can be detected or measured. The combined effect of
after the photos have been taken. atmospheric absorption, scattering and reflectance reduce
•• The digital recording in MSS systems facilitates the amount of radiation reaching the earth surface.
transmission of data to receiving stations on the
ground and immediate processing of data in a
Ultra Reflected Thermal Far
Visible
computer environment. 100% Violet Infrared Infrared infrared
% transmission
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) 0%
which varies in magnitude in a direct perpendicular to the 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 10 20 30
Wavelength (microns) - not to scale

direction in which the radiation is travelling and a magnetic
field (M) oriented at right angles to the electric field.
Figure 8.11 The atmospheric windows (denoted in green colour)
Both these fields travel at the speed of light. The two
characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly The atmosphere selectively transmits energy of certain
important for understanding remote sensing are wavelengths. Atmospheric windows are present in the
wavelength and frequency. visible part (.4 µm - .76 µm) and the infrared regions of
the EM spectrum. In the visible part transmission is mainly
A wave is a travelling disturbance. The properties of affected by ozone absorption and by molecular scattering.
waves are wavelength, frequency, velocity and amplitude. The atmosphere is transparent again beyond about λ=
Frequency is the number of waves per second. 1mm, the region used for microwave remote sensing.
Frequency is often measured in hertz. Wavelength is the
distance from the peak on one wave to the next one. Activity 8.2
Amplitude is equivalent to the height of each peak (Figure
8.10). Amplitude is often measured as energy levels
1. Identify any five types of sensors.
expressed as watts per square metre per micrometre (that
2. State any two framing systems.
is, as energy level per wavelength interval).
3. What is an IFOV?
4. What is FOV?

•• Ultraviolet light lies between 10 and 300 Where electromagnetic energy is incident upon any object
nanometres. Humans cannot see the UV light there are three fundamental energy interactions that are
but bees, bats, butterflies and some small possible. Various functions of the incident energy are
rodents and birds can. reflected, absorbed and or transmitted.
•• X-rays follow ultraviolet light and diminish into
Reflection
the hundred-billionth of a meter range. These
rays have enough energy to penetrate deep into Of all the interactions in the reflective region, surface
tissues and cause damage to cells. reflections are the most useful and revealing in remote
•• Gamma rays carry the most energy and have the sensing applications. Reflection occurs when a ray of light
shortest wavelength, less than one trillionth of a is redirected as it strikes a non-transparent surface. The
metre (10¯¹²). reflection intensity depends on the surface refractive
index, absorption coefficient and the angles of incidence
Activity 8.3 and reflection. We refer to two types of reflection, which
represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy
is reflected from a target: specular reflection and diffuse
1. Using coloured markers or crayons and the chart reflection.
below, reproduce the electromagnetic spectrum as
you see it. Be sure to maintain the proportions of
the colour widths. Write the names of the colours
beneath the chart.
2. State whether the statements on the EMS below are Figure 8.16 Specular and Diffuse reflection
true or false.
When a surface is smooth, we get specular or mirror-
(a) X-rays have a higher frequency than Gamma rays.
like reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is
(b) M icrowaves have a shorter wavelength that radio
directed away from the surface in a single direction. Diffuse
waves.
reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the energy
(c) X
rays are used for radar.
is reflected almost uniformly in all directions. Most earth
(d) Ultra violet waves are used in domestic microwave
surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular
ovens.
or perfectly diffuse reflectors.
(e) I n general, the most dangerous waves are the high
frequency ones. Transmission
3. Why do people working on aircraft carrier decks wear
those weird suits? Transmission of radiation occurs when radiation passes
4. Why don’t we use X-Rays to scan unborn babies? through a substance without significant attenuation. For
5. Which electromagnetic wave is used to treat cancers? a given thickness, or depth of a substance, the ability of a
6. Which type of electromagnetic waves do we use for medium to transmit energy is measured as transmittance
the remote control for your television set? (T).
7. Which electromagnetic wave travels fastest?
Reflectance properties
Everything in nature has its own unique distribution
Energy interactions with the target
of reflected, emitted and absorbed radiation. These
radiation spectral characteristics can be used to distinguish one
thing from another or to obtain information about shape,
reflected size, and others. Spectral reflectivity is the fraction of
incident radiation reflected by a surface. The reflectance
characteristics of Earth’s surface features may be quantified
by measuring the portion of incident energy that is
reflected. This is measured as a function of wavelength (λ)
and it is called spectral reflectance. Spectral reflectance is
responsible for the colour or tone in a photographic image
absorbed transmitted of an object.
Figure 8.15 Interaction of electromagnetic energy with a target

60 Example 1
Dry soil Given that NIR = 188 and R = 11, calculate NDVI
(5% water)
Reflectance (%)
40 Wet soil Solution

(20% water)
NDVI = (188-11)/188+11
20
=177/199
Clear lake water
Turbid river water
= 0.88944
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 Interpretation
Wavelength (micrometers)
1 2 3 SPOT XS Multispectral Bands Vegetation indices ranges from -1 to +1. A negative answer
1 2 3 4 Landsat TM Bands 5 7 implies that the presence of water, ice, clouds; a positive
answer indicates that the pixel is vegetated and 0 shows
Blue
Middle Infrared
Red
Grn
Near Infrared Reflected Infrared

that the ground is bare or its bare rock.
Figure 8.17 Interactions of EME with surface materials
Reflectance characteristics Activity 8.4

(a) Vegetation
1. Calculate NDVI when:
Reflectance varies with wavelength, plant pigment in leaves (a) NIR=15, R=15
(chlorophyll) strongly absorb radiation in the red and blue (b) NIR=168, R=11
wavelengths but reflects green wavelength. The internal (c) NIR=88, R=118. Comment on your answers
structure of healthy leaves acts as diffuse reflector of near 2. Calculate VI when NIR=88, R=118
infrared wavelength. There is low reflectance in visible due
to chlorophyll absorption in blue and red. There is high
reflectance in near due to plant structure. There is lower Examples of images taken by multispectral
reflectance in mid due to absorption by water in plants. sensors
(b) Water Both the XS1 (green) and XS2 (red) bands look almost
identical. In contrast, the vegetated areas now appear bright
The majority of radiation incident upon water is not in the XS3 (NIR) band due to high reflectance of leaves in
reflected but is either absorbed or transmitted. Longer the near infrared wavelength region. Several shades of grey
visible wavelengths and near infrared radiation is absorbed can be identified for the vegetated areas, corresponding
more by water than by visible wavelengths, thus water looks to different types of vegetation. Water mass (both the river
blue or green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter and the sea) appear dark in the XS3 (near IR) band.
wavelengths and darker if viewed at red or Near Infrared
wavelength. The factors affecting variability in reflectance of
a water body are; depth of water, materials within the water
and surface roughness of water.
(c) Soil
Characteristics of soil that determines its reflectance

properties are its moisture content, organic matter content,
texture, structure and iron oxide content. The soil curve
shows less peak and valley inclinations. The presence of Figure 8.18 T hree bands multispectral image extracted from Spot
moisture in soil deceases its reflectance. XS1 (Green), XS3 (Red), XS3 (NIR) respectively
Vegetation indices Six separate wavelength bands of reflected sunlight by the

Landsat 5 satellite ranging from visible wavelength into the
A vegetation index is some mathematically combination reflected infrared wavelengths. Vegetation absorbs sunlight
or transformation of spectral bands that accentuates the strongly in the visible wavelength (bands 1, 2 and 3) and
spectral properties of green plants so that they appear reflect sunlight most strongly in the near infrared (band 4).
distinct from other image features Absorption by vegetation increases slightly in bands 5 and 7
1. Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). which records mid infrared reflected wavelength.
NDVI = (NIR – red)/NIR + Red).
2. Vegetation Index = NIR/R.
Where NIR is Near Infrared, R is Red.

Summary of the unit end of the spectrum and decreases as wavelength
increases. Hence, clear water appears dark-bluish.
•• EMS is the entire range of electromagnetic waves •• The reflectance of bare soil generally depends
in order of increasing frequency and decreasing on its composition. In the example shown, the
wavelength. This radiation consists of the spectrum reflectance increases monotonically with increasing
of energy ranging from radio waves on one end to wavelength. Hence, it should appear yellowish-red
gamma rays on the other. to the eye.
•• Electromagnetic energy is the energy source
required to transmit information from the target to
the sensor. It is a crucial medium that is described
as an electromagnetic spectrum. Many of the basic Structured Questions
forms of energy in the universe are related as part
of the electromagnetic spectrum. On this spectrum, 1. Electromagnetic energy may be detected either
many forms exist that describe energy in a specific photographically or electronically. Outline the
region of the electromagnetic spectrum. These are photographic process?
visible light, radio waves, microwaves, infra-red, UV 2. Define the term atmospheric window.
rays, x-rays and gamma rays. 3. Which two wavelength bands are combined to
•• Electromagnetic radiation is one of the calculate NDVI?
fundamental forms of energy in the universe. EMR 4. With reference to spectral reflectance explain why is
is a dynamic form of energy that propagates as water blue, and why vegetation looks green.
wave motion at a velocity of light. 5. Visible light has wavelengths from 0.4um to 0.7um.
•• The light which our eyes (our remote sensors) can Which colour has the highest frequency?
detect is part of the visible spectrum. It is important 6. With the aid of diagrams, distinguish between image
to recognise how small the visible portion is space and feature space.
relative to the rest of the spectrum. There is a lot 7. Outline why feature space is useful.
of radiation around us which is “invisible” to our 8. Define the terms particle, photon.
eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing 9. Briefly describe the concept EMS.
instruments and used to our advantage. 10. Describe the waves of the EMS in the order they are
•• Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the arranged.
atmosphere can reach and interact with the Earth’s 11. Discuss the uses and dangers of each wave.
surface. There are three (3) forms of interaction 12. With reference to examples explain how EMR
that can take place when energy strikes, or is interacts with targets.
incident (I) upon the surface. These are: absorption 13. Figure 8.17 shows EMR interactions with surface
(A); transmission (T); and reflection (R). The total targets. Describe and explain the interactions shown.
incident energy will interact with the surface in one
or more of these three ways. The proportions of
each will depend on the wavelength of the energy
and the material and condition of the feature.
•• Remote sensing systems which measure energy that
is naturally available are called passive sensors.
Passive sensors can only be used to detect energy
when the naturally occurring energy is available.
•• Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their
own energy source for illumination. The sensor
emits radiation which is directed toward the target
to be investigated. The radiation reflected from that
target is detected and measured by the sensor.
•• Vegetation has a unique spectral signature which
enables it to be distinguished readily from other
types of land cover in an optical/near-infrared
image. The reflectance is low in both the blue and
red regions of the spectrum, due to absorption by
chlorophyll for photosynthesis. It has a peak at the Distributed by EDUBOTIQUE ZIM
green region which gives rise to the green colour of Official Distributors of EXCEL A Level New Curriculum textbooks
vegetation.
•• The reflectance of clear water is generally low.
However, the reflectance is maximum at the blue

TOPIC 1: G
Unit Resolution
9
Unit Objectives Landsat – a series of unmanned NASA earth resource
satellites that acquire multispectral images in the visible and
At the end of the unit, you should be able to: infrared bands.
•• explain the types of resolutions. NIR – remote sensing of energy naturally reflected or
•• distinguish between spatial, temporal, and spectral radiated from the terrain.
resolutions. Multispectral scanner (MSS) – is a scanning system used
•• select the ideal remote sensing data for specific to collect data over a variety of different wavelength ranges.
analysis.
IFOV– instantaneous field of view: the solid angle through
•• choose the best remote sensing data to use in
which a detector is sensitive to radiation.
solving a given situation based on resolutions.
Resolutions
Introduction Resolution is the dimension of a grid cell. It is a major
With modern remote sensing systems covering the globe sensor parameter which has a bearing on optimum
almost continuously, the opportunities to genuinely analyse utilisation of data. There are four categories of resolutions
a specific issue are greatly increased – an image is “a picture which are spatial (what areas and how detailed), spectral
worth a thousand words.” Even more importantly, different (what colours – bands), temporal (time of day, season, year)
imaging systems enable scientists to examine areas of and radiometric (colour depth).
interest using different technical constraints that might shed Spatial resolution
critical information on a problem. In addition, to different
levels of spatial location accuracy, separate systems offer
variable temporal resolution (length of time between repeat
coverage of features being monitored), spatial resolution
with respect to size of objects recorded, spectral resolution
(number of separate wavelength bands recorded) and
radiometric resolution.
Figure 9.1 F eature extraction at resolutions of 1m, 10m (Sentinel

Glossary of terms 2) and 30m (Landsat) for the same region
RGB: Red, Green and Blue – the colours used in Spatial resolution describes how much detail in a
constructing visible and false colour image representations. photographic image is visible to the human eye. It refers
Band – refers to broadcasting frequency within given limits. to the size of the smallest possible feature that can be
detected (Figure 9.1). The intrinsic resolution of an imaging
Bandwidth – refers to the total range of frequency required
system is determined primarily by the instantaneous field of
to pass a specific modulated (spectral resolution) signal
view (IFOV) of the sensor, which is a measure of the ground
without distortion or loss of data.
area viewed by a single detector element in a given instant
in time.

megabyte (Mb) is 1024 kilobytes. How many Unit Revision Exercise
megabytes of computer disk space would be required
to store an 8-bit Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) Structured Questions
image (7 bands), which is 6000 pixels by 6000 lines in
1. Suppose you have a digital image which has
dimension?
a radiometric resolution of 6 bits. What is the
2. Calculate the maximum values for data in Table 9.1.
maximum value of the digital number which could be
represented in that image?
2. Explain why data from the Landsat TM sensor might
Exercise 9.2 be considered more useful than data from the
original multispectral scanners’ sensor. (Refer to their
1. How may changes in spectral characteristics over spatial, spectral and radiometric resolution).
time be detected? 3. Look at the detail apparent in each of the two images
2. Define the terms temporal and radiometric in Figure 9.8. Which of the two images is of a smaller
resolution. scale? What clues did you use to determine this?
3. Computer monitors are constructed to display which Would the imaging platform for the smaller scale
bands of digital imaging. image most likely have been a satellite or an aircraft?
4. Using an examples describe finer radiometric
resolution.
Summary of the unit

•• Spectral resolution is the wavelength of the
different frequency bands recorded usually; this is
related to the number of frequency bands recorded
by the platform. Spectral bands of imagery can be
recorded as computer images. Computer monitors 4. If you wanted to monitor the general health of all
are constructed to display the three primary vegetation cover over the Matabeleland provinces
colours in the visible light (RGB) and thus can for several months, what type of platform and sensor
display 3 bands of digital imaging simultaneously. characteristics (spatial, spectral, temporal resolution)
The band widths include panchromatic, colour, would be best for this and why?
multispectral and hyper spectral. 5. Figure 9.9 shows GeoEye /EyeQ Satellite images of
Japan, north of Sendai area, before and after the
•• Temporal resolution is the capability to view the
tsunami of 2011 at a spatial resolution of 1.65m.
same target under similar conditions at regular
intervals. When repeated monitoring of a location is
required the temporal resolution is a major factor
in whether a specific system can be used.
•• Spatial resolution is the sensors ability to image
(record) closely spaced objects so that they are
distinguishable as separate objects. High resolution
image refers to one with a small resolution size.
Fine details can be seen in a high-resolution image.
On the other hand, a low-resolution image is one Describe and explain the changes shown in the
with a large resolution size that is only coarse photographs.
features can be observed in the image. 6. Which resolution best captures changes in spectral
•• Radiometric resolution describes the actual characteristics of features. Give reasons for your
information content in an image. The radiometric answer.
resolution of a system describes its ability to 7. Define the term revisit period. What is the revisit
discriminate very slight differences in energy. The period for the following satellites?
finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor the (a) MODIS
more sensitive it is to detecting small differences in (b) Quickbird
reflected or emitted energy. (c) Landsat
8. What are the advantages of MODIS over Landsat?
9. Distinguish between radiometric and temporal
resolution.
70 Unit 9: Resolution
TOPIC 1: G
Unit Image Interpretation
10
Unit Objectives Composite image – is an image made up of data in three
bands.
Image – is a matrix of pixels with one layer for each spectral
•• apply the colour theory in visualising satellite images. band.
•• visualise satellite images using selected colour
Multispectral classification – is an information extracting
composites.
process that analyse spectral signatures and assign the
•• interpret images based on image characteristics.
pixels to classes based on similar signatures.
NCC – Natural colour composite.

Introduction
FCC – False colour composite.
The extraction of qualitative and quantitative information
which are in the form of maps, photographs of location, SWIR – Shortwave infrared.
structures, buildings, functions and object relationships are
defined as image interpretation. It’s all done with the help of Digital Image Processing
human experience and knowledge. Image interpretation is a
Image processing also known as digital image processing as
powerful technique that enable us to identify and distinguish
it handles digital data involves four basic steps. These are:
various features in remote sensing images/aerial photos and
allows gaining the knowledge and information about them. (a) Pre-processing functions involve those operations
These features are identified by the way they reflect or emit that are normally required prior to the main data
radiations and also by their association and location. analysis and extraction of information, and are
generally grouped as radiometric or geometric
Glossary of terms corrections. Radiometric corrections include correcting
the data for sensor irregularities and unwanted sensor
Photo Interpretation – the examination of aerial or atmospheric noise, and converting the data so they
photographs/images for the purpose of identifying objects accurately represent the reflected or emitted radiation
and judging their significance. measured by the sensor. Geometric corrections
include correcting for geometric distortions due to
Inference – is the logical process by which observation
sensor -Earth geometry variations, and conversion
and in addition to ratios of individual bands, more complex
of the data to real world coordinates (for example,
ratios may be computed.
latitude and longitude) on the Earth’s surface.
IKONOS – a high-resolution earth observation satellite (b) Image enhancement, is solely to improve the
launched in 1999, which occupies a 682-km sun appearance of the imagery to assist in visual
synchronous orbit and employs linear array technology interpretation and analysis. Examples of enhancement
collecting data in four multispectral bands at a nominal functions include contrast stretching to increase the
resolution of 4 m, as well as a 1-m-resolution panchromatic tonal distinction between various features in a scene,
band. and spatial filtering to enhance (or suppress) specific
spatial patterns in an image.

R = XS3 (Near IR band) G = (XS3 - XS2)/ (XS3 + XS2) (NDVI The three images show the three bands of a multispectral
band) B = XS1 (green band) image extracted from a SPOT multispectral scene at a
ground resolution of 20m. The area covered is the same as
that shown in the above panchromatic image (Figure 10.16)
XS1 (Green) and XS2 (Red) bands look almost identical to the
panchromatic image.
In contrast the vegetated areas now appear bright in the

XS3 (NIR) band due to high reflectance of leaves in the
near infrared wavelength region. Several shades of grey
can be identified for the vegetated areas, corresponding
to different types of vegetation. Water mass (both the river
and the sea) appear dark in the XS3 (near IR) band.
Figure 10.15 NDVI Colour Composite of the SPOT Exercise 10.2

At least three types of vegetation can be discriminated 1. Define the terms natural colour composite, false
in this colour composite image: green, bright yellow and colour composite.
golden yellow areas. The green areas consist of dense trees 2. ‘Selecting appropriate bands to use in the colour
with closed canopy. The bright yellow areas are covered composite has a huge impact on which features
with shrubs or less dense trees. The golden yellow areas are can be seen /highlighted in a particular image’. With
covered with grass. The non-vegetated areas appear in dark reference to examples describe any schemes used in
blue and black. false colour composites.
3. Distinguish between false colour and natural colour
Interpretation of selected satellite images composites.
using selected colour composites 4. Distinguish between RGB colour model and CMY
colour model.
5. With reference to illustrations explain the HSV colour
model.
6. Define the terms hue, saturation, value as used in
colour theories.
7. What is a panchromatic image?
8. Which two wavelength bands are combined to
calculate the NDVI?
9. Figure 10.18 shows a false colour composite image.
Figure 10.16 SPOT panchromatic image
The urban area (Figure 10.16) at the bottom left and a

clearing near the top of the image have high reflected
intensity, while the vegetated areas on the right part of the
image are generally dark. Roads and blocks of buildings
in the urban area are visible. A river flowing through the
vegetated area, cutting across the top right corner of the
image can be seen. The river appears bright due sediments
while the sea at the bottom edge of the image appears dark. Describe the various land use classes in it and
explain how it is useful than other composites.
Elements of image interpretation

Recognising differences between feature and its
background are generally based on some of these visual
interpretation keys generally known visual interpretation
elements, viz., shape, size, pattern, tone, texture, shadow
Figure 10.17 Multispectral XS1 (Green), XS3 (Red), XS3 (Near IR) and association.

•• False colour images are a representation of a The ability to obtain a historical image record to
multispectral image produced using any bands document change: – The photographs or images
other than visible red, green and blue as the red, are valuable historical records of the spatial
green and blue components of the display. False distribution of natural and man-made phenomena.
colour composites allow us to visualise wavelengths •• The study of change increases our understanding
that the human eye cannot see (that is, near- about the natural and human-induced processes in
infrared and beyond). Using bands such as near the landscape.
infrared highlights the spectral differences and
often increases the interpretability of the data.
There are many different false coloured composites
that can be used to highlight different features. Structured Questions
•• Band combinations are selected for a number of
1. Take a look at the aerial photograph below.
reasons and it is helpful to understand the spectral
reflectance profiles of features you are interested
in studying. For example, in the NIR false colour
composite shown above healthy vegetation appears
bright red as they reflect more near infrared
than green. Another common combination uses
the shortwave infrared (shown as red), the near
infrared (green), and the green visible band (shown
as blue). In this false colour composite vegetation
appear bright green, bare ground appears reddish
and snow appears bright blue.
•• A panchromatic image consists of only one band.
It is usually displayed as a grey scale image, i.e.
the displayed brightness of a particular pixel is
proportional to the pixel digital number which Identify the following features in the image and
is related to the intensity of solar radiation explain how you were able to do so based on the
reflected by the targets in the pixel and detected elements of visual interpretation described in this unit.
by the detector. Thus, a panchromatic image may (a) Race track
be similarly interpreted as a black-and-white (b) River
aerial photograph of the area. The Radiometric (c) Roads
Information is the main information type utilised in (d) Bridges
the interpretation. (e) Residential area
(f) Dam
•• The size of an object is one of the most
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
distinguishing characteristics and one of the most
shadow as an element of visual interpretation?
important elements of image interpretation. Many
3. What are the advantages of a digital image over a
natural and man-made features on the ground
photographic one?
have very unique shapes that can be referenced in
4. Study figure below.
photo and image interpretation.
•• The shadow in the image provides real clue to an
object’s identification, for example, height. The
ability to visually appreciate or measure the height
(elevation) or depth of an object or landform is
one of the most diagnostic elements of image
interpretation.
•• Texture and patterns could be important clues;
such as right angles imply human influence.
Many shapes together give connections that could
support interpretation, for example, a river will end
in a delta.
•• Importance of photo/image interpretation: We
can obtain a 3-dimensional view of the terrain by
Describe and explain the features using site, situation
viewing the two images of the terrain from two
and association.
slightly different vantage points at the same time.
80 Unit 9: Resolution
TOPIC 2: G
EO-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND
PRESENTATION
Unit Levels of measurement
11
Unit Objectives Data – these are unprocessed, raw facts which can be
manipulated to draw conclusions.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Level of measurement – it is a way of assigning values to
•• distinguish the levels of measurement. objects.
•• describe and explain the levels of measurement.
Levels of measurement
•• determine the range of statistical analyses that can be
done on each data type. The level of measurement is a basis for any scientific
investigation as it determines the variables’ levels to
different statistical analysis.
Introduction
The levels of measurement determine how data should be
Statistics are an integral part of Geography and just summarised and presented. It also indicates the type of
like other behavioural sciences; statistics and statistical statistical analysis that can be performed to each data type.
concepts are used every day. Statistics are tools used in There are five levels of measurement which are nominal
research and are important in the study of Geography, data, ordinal data, interval data, ratio data and cyclic data.
since more knowledge is obtained through observation
(a) Nominal data
and measurements. Normally, when one hears the term
measurement, they may think in terms of measuring the It is the data that indicates a difference only, with categories
weight of something (that is, the weight of a person) or that are exhaustive and exclusive but not rank ordered.
measuring a quantity of something (that is, a cup of sugar).
Nominal data is the lowest level of measurement involving
In statistics, the term measurement is used more broadly and
names in which data are coded by number or letter that is
is more appropriately termed scales of measurement. Scales
assigned to a category or group. This type of scale data only
of measurement refer to ways in which variables/numbers
gives names or labels to various categories such as isolated
are defined and categorised. Each scale of measurement
dwelling, hamlet, town or city.
has certain properties which in turn determine the
appropriateness for use of certain statistical analyses. This Nominal scale may also include numerical values as used to
unit will describe and explain the levels of measurement in specify the categories like; 1, 2, 3 or 4 to stand for excellent,
statistical analysis and presentation as well as outlining the good, fair, poor or 1 for male and 2 for females. The
range of statistical analysis for each data type. nominal scale data is mainly used in qualitative research
where emphasis is not in the numerical sense of the data.
Glossary of terms However, while numbers may be assigned to the variables,

they are not used as a basis for ranking the variables in
Statistics – is the methodology used in studies that collect, question. Other examples of nominal data scale include the
organise and summarise data through graphical and natural farming regions, soil types, minerals.
numerical methods, analyse the data and ultimately draw
These categorised data and numbers are simply used as
conclusions.
identifiers or names thus, being classified as a nominal scale
of measurement. In nominal data there are no arithmetic
82 Unit 11: Levels of measurement

operations, no mean or standard deviation but mode, bar (c) Interval data
graphs and pie charts are used.
It is a scale which represents quantity and has equal units
(b) Ordinal data but for which zero represents simply an additional point of
measurement (the interval scale data does not have a true
An ordinal data scale of measurement represents an zero).
ordered series of relationships or rank order.
The categories of the data are exhaustive, exclusive and
The ordinal scale data is similar to nominal scale because rank ordered like the ordinal data but with equally spaced
the measurements involves categories but the categories intervals. An example of interval scale is temperature, where
in this case are ordered by rank and the assignment 0°C does not imply that there is no temperature but a point
of numbers or numerical values is meant to rank the on a scale with numbers below and above it.
categories in some form of order.
The distance between 10°C and 15°C is 5°C and is the same
The observations are ranked in terms of size or importance as the 5°C distance between 50°C and 55°C and 0°C is just
for example; the hierarchy of settlements which can be a point on the scale. Another example is the measurement
assigned values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and rated as hamlet, village, of the sea level where zero does not represent the absolute
growth point, town, city respectively as shown below; lowest value.
Rather, it is a point on the scale with numbers above it

City and below it. While it is possible to conduct all ordinal
tests for example, the mean, standard deviation, addition,
Town subtraction can be done to analyse the data, it is not
possible to multiply, divide or calculate ratios since the zero
Growth point is not a true zero.
Village Interval data is used in qualitative research where emphasis

is in the numerical sense of the data. Arithmetic operations,
Hamlet all descriptive measures, histogram and line graphs,
scatter, estimation and hypothesis testing, correlation and
regression are used in this level of measurement.
Figure 11.1 The hierarchy of settlements as ordinal data
(d) Ratio data
In the raking of settlements shown above, the value
It is the highest level of measurement which represents
assigned to each category indicates its rank in the list.
quantity, has equality of units and an absolute zero exists
Ordinal values only describe order and not quality, thus it
(no numbers exist below the zero). The zero value is
does not mean the village is twice bigger than the hamlet.
absolute, 0=0, which means if we say there are zero dollars
The statistics attempt to provide quality or position. In it means there is absolutely no money at all.
another example, hotels ranked 2 stars do not necessarily
The ratio scale is the most advanced level of measurement,
mean that a two-star hotel is twice bigger than a one-star
which can handle most types of mathematical operations.
hotel. Similarly, a second order stream is not necessarily
Any statistical operation can be done using the data as long
twice as a first order stream.
as it is in line with the research question for example, the
The assignment of numerical value 2 merely confers mean is used to analyse the data because zero is absolute.
position in the ranking of the hotels and streams.
Measurements have equal intervals and examples include
In ordinal data there are no arithmetic operations, no mean weight, rainfall, distance, height, energy, density and
or standard deviation used, but the mode, bar and pie stream discharge. If one is measuring the rainfall received
charts, Spearman rank correlation are used. in an area in millimetres (mm), there is quantity, and that
measure cannot go below zero millimetres.
Activity 11.1 It therefore means a negative rainfall measurement is
not possible; when the recorded rainfall is 0 millimetres,
Classify the following data into respective levels of it means no rainfall has been received in that area. In
measurement: this scale of data, arithmetic operations, all descriptive
Weight, Temperature, Mauritius, City, Altitude, Mean, Lake measures, histogram and line graphs, scatter, estimation
Kariba. and hypothesis testing, correlation and regression are used.
TOPIC 2: GEO-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION 83

Levels of measurement
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Data may only be Data are ranked Meaningful difference Meaningful 0 point and
classified. between values ratio between values
- Jersey numbers - Your rank in class - Temperature - Number of patients seen.

of football players - Team standings in - Dress size - Number of sales calls
Make of car the Southeastern made
conference - Distance to class
Figure 11.2 Summary and examples of the characteristics for levels of measurement
(e) Cyclic data (a) Descriptive statistics
This is the data consisting of obvious directions or times These are techniques concerned with careful collection,
in which the measurement scale is cyclic. It is the data that organisation, summarising and analysing from large set of
exhibits rises and falls that are not of fixed period. data obtained from the field work where the population is
large. It refers to techniques used to describe data, either
Cyclic data is finite, repetitive and has a known starting and numerically or graphically.
end point. An example can be given of time or dates where
after 23.59 comes 00.00 and after 31 December comes 1 The purpose of descriptive statistics is to replace what
January. may be an extremely large set of numbers in some dataset
with a smaller number of summary measures. Various
Special techniques are required for summarising and data presentation methods are used to illustrate the data
modelling all types of cyclic data for example, the usual and examples of descriptive statistics are annual rainfall,
histogram is replaced by the circular histogram or the rose temperature and population census data.
diagram. Examples of Cyclic data are power usage, business
cycles, traffic flows, year, degrees and Elnino seasons. (b) Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics includes methods used to make

Exercise 11.1 statements about a population characteristic on the basis of
information from a sample. This seeks to draw conclusions
from data that are subject to random variation (for example,
Identify the following as nominal level, ordinal level,
observational errors, sampling variation).
interval level, or ratio level data.
Inferential statistics are most often concerned with two
1. Colour codes used on a map.
sets of properties of a distribution (sample or population).
2. Amount of money in savings accounts.
It involves a more detailed enquiry into the statistical data,
3. Students classified by their reading ability: Above
seeking for the validity of the hypothesis spelt out and
average, below average, Normal.
correlation between two sets of data, among other aspects.
4. Letter grades on a Geography essay.
5. Religions. Statistical data
6. Commuting times to work.
7. Ages (in years) of students in a class. Data refers to the actual pieces of information or facts
8. Ice cream flavour preference. collected in a study. An example of data can be given of
9. Years of important historical events. temperature recorded over a week as; 20, 22, 25, 19, 23.
10. Tasks classified as: Easy, fair or Difficult. Most data fall into the following groups which are qualitative
and quantitative data.
Statistical analyses (a) Quantitative data
Statistical analysis includes methods used to collect, It is obtained through measurement, such as temperature
organise, present, and analyse data. It can thus be viewed and rainfall, distance travelled, weight, income, or
as the link between data and information. There are two agricultural output. Quantitative data is often termed
main statistical methodologies that are used in data analysis numerical data, meaning it is data described by numbers.
which are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Numerical data can be further broken into two types:

(i) Discrete data represent items that can be counted; Summary of the unit
they take on possible values that can be listed out.
The list of possible values may be fixed (also called •• The levels of measurement determine how data
finite); or it may go from 0, 1, 2, on to infinity (making should be summarised and presented.
it countably infinite). •• The five levels of measurement are nominal data,
ordinal data, interval data, ratio data and cyclic
(ii) Continuous data represents measurements; their data.
possible values may not be whole numbers as they •• Nominal data only gives names or labels to various
may appear on a continuous scale. Continuous data categories.
have infinite possibilities such as 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, •• Ordinal data scale of measurement represents an
1.4142, and 1. 141421. Rounding off is often necessary ordered series of relationships.
when dealing with continuous data. •• Interval data is a scale which represents quantity
(b) Qualitative data and has equal units and does not have a true zero.
•• Ratio data represents quantity, has equality of units
It represents characteristics that cannot be quantified. The and the value of zero is absolute.
data cannot be expressed in terms of number for example •• Cyclic data is the data that exhibits rises and falls
a person’s gender, marital status, hometown or occupation. that is not of fixed period and has a known starting
Terms such as Poor, Fair, Good, Better, Best are used to and end point.
describe data. Qualitative data are often termed categorical •• In nominal data, there are no arithmetic
data. operations, no mean or standard deviation but
mode, bar and pie charts.
Variable – it is anything or characteristic that data may
•• Ordinal data has no arithmetic operations, no
have, or an attribute which changes in value under given
mean or standard deviation, but mode, bar and pie
conditions. Variables include population size, age, sex,
charts, Spearman’s rank correlation.
altitude, temperature and time. Variable can be classified
•• Interval and ratio data have arithmetic operations,
into two major forms:
all descriptive measures, histogram and line
An independent variable - is a variable factor which graphs, scatter, estimation and hypothesis testing,
influences the changes of other variables or outcomes, correlation and regression.
for example, sex, and year. When drawing graphs, the •• There are two main statistical methodologies that
independent variable must always be found on the are used in data analysis which are descriptive
horizontal axis. The independent variable is also known as statistics and inferential statistics.
the manipulated variable. •• Descriptive statistics refers to techniques used to
describe data, either numerically or graphically.
The dependent variable - is an outcome or result that has •• Inferential statistics includes methods used to make
been influenced by other variables. A dependent variable statements about a population characteristic on
does not influence or change other variables. It is called the basis of information from a sample.
dependent because it “depends” on the independent •• Most statistical data falls into qualitative data and
variable. For example, the higher the altitude the lower quantitative data.
the temperature and vice versa, for that reason increase •• Quantitative data is often termed numerical data,
or decrease of temperature depends on attitude. This meaning it is data described by numbers.
explains why the temperature is on the horizontal axis on •• Qualitative data represents characteristics that
temperature height graphs. cannot be quantified and cannot be expressed in
terms of number.
Exercise 11.2
Unit Revision Exercises
Using examples, outline the range of statistical analyses Structured Questions
that can be done on the following data types.
1. Explain the following terms as used in statistical
(a) Nominal data. measurements;
(b) Ordinal data. (a) Nominal data.
(c) Interval data. (b) Ordinal data.
(d) Ratio data. (c) Interval data.
(e) Cyclic data. (d) Ratio data.
(e) Cyclic data. [15]

2. Outline and explain instances where cyclic data can be used. [10]
3. (a Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics. [6]
(b) Using examples outline the range of statistical analysis that can be used on the following scales of data;
Nominal data, Ordinal data, Interval data, Ratio data. [10]
4. Outline the differences and conditions of the dependant and independent variable. [10]
5. With the aid of examples, distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data. [10]
6. Identify the scales of measurement, starting with the scale that provides the most precise information about the
amount of a variable present and ending with the scale that provides the least precise information. [10]


TOPIC 2: G
PRESENTATION
Unit Univariate Statistics
12
Unit Objectives Variance – it calculates the deviations from the mean.
Mean deviation – it measures the distance of every score
from the calculated mean.
•• identify the univariate measures of central tendency. Standard deviation – is a measure that is used to quantify
•• describe and explain the measures of dispersion. the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values.
•• describe geographic data using simple univariate
measures of central tendency.
The importance of statistics to the user
•• apply univariate statistics to solve geographic issues. Statistics is important in geography because of the following
reasons:
Introduction •• It enables the geographers to handle large sets

of data and summarise them in a way that can
Univariate statistics are statistical analyses that deal with a
be easily understood.
single variable at a time. They are numerical descriptions of
•• Statistics is very useful for planning at local and
a single variable from a sample, such as height of plants. The
national levels. For example, statistics on census
analysis of univariate data can be based on two measures
can be used to plan for social services.
which are measures of central tendency and measures of
•• It can also enable the geographers to make
dispersion.
comparisons between geographical phenomena,
for example, to compare the amount of rainfall
Glossary of terms and agriculture production or population
distribution in different regions.
Mean – the mean is the average score, located at the
•• Statistics translates data into mathematical
mathematical centre of the distribution.
ways which make the application of quantitative
Mode – it is the most frequently occurring score in the data techniques possible.
and is usually used to summarise nominal scores. •• It enables the geographers to store the
Median – the median is the score at the 50th percentile and information in forms of numbers, graphs, tables
is used to summarize ordinal or highly skewed interval or and charts.
ratio scores. •• Statistics give precise rather than generalized
information. This offers a lot of satisfaction to
Frequency – it is the rate of occurrence of anything or times the user.
an event has occurred.
Probability – probability is the likelihood that a given event
Measures of central tendency
happens. These are scores that summarise the location of a
Hypothesis – is an assumption taken to be true for the distribution on a variable. These focus on the middle or
purpose of argument or investigation. typical value from a selected set of univariate data. They
summarise the statistic that represents the central values
Range – this is the difference between the maximum and
in the set of data. Measures of central tendency are an
the least values in a sample.
indication of the reliability of the set of information.

Using the above table values, Estimate the mean age? Example
Solution The information below relates to annual rainfall totals, in
millimetres, recorded over a period of 9 years. 845; 830;
To obtain the mean, first find the midpoint of each interval.
815; 819; 823; 848; 827; 835; 800.
This obtained using the formula:
Calculate the median?
Lower Class Boundary + Upper Class Boundary
Midpoint =
2 Solution
The mean can then be obtained by multiplying the midpoint (i) The first thing is to arrange the values in ascending
of each interval by the corresponding frequency, adding up order as shown below;
the products and dividing by the total frequency (just as in 800, 815, 819, 823, 827, 830, 835, 845, 848.
the ungrouped frequency distribution.
(ii) The median can then be calculated using the formula
1
2 (n + 1) term in the set of data. In this case, n = 9,
th
Age Mid-point (x) Number of fx 1
people (f) So the median = 2 (9 + 1) th term
1
0– 4 2 20 40 = (10) th term = 5th term
2
5–9 7 85 595
(iii) N
ow, we count the terms, the 5th term in the row is the
10 – 14 12 134 1608
median and in the ordered list of values, the fifth term is
15 – 19 17 301 5117 827. Therefore, the median = 827
20 – 24 22 183 4026
Calculation of the median using the
25 – 29 27 65 1755
ungrouped frequency data
Σx = 788 Σfx =13141
First locate the median by using the formula:
Σfx 1
Mean = Median = 2
(n + 1) th term
Σx By analysing the frequencies, workout the value that
13141 corresponds to the central value.
=
788
Example
Mean =16.7
The table below shows the number of children selected in
Advantages of the mean 70 families.
•• It takes into account all observations. Number of children (x) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

•• The mean is the basis for further statistical
Frequency (f) 4 8 11 13 15 10 6 2 1
calculations and mathematical manipulations.
1
Median = (n + 1) th term. In this case, n = 70
Disadvantages of the mean 2
1
The median is thus the 2
(n + 1) th term;
•• It is affected by extreme values. =
1
(70 + 1) th term
2
•• It cannot be computed if there are missing
1
values (averaging not possible). = (71) th term
2
•• It cannot be calculated for categorical or ordinal
= 35,5th term
data as the categories cannot be added.
This means the median lies between the 35th and the 36th
Median terms.
This is the middle value when the values in a set of data are
We then add the frequencies, starting from the left until
arranged in ascending order. For a set of data with an odd
the sum, and the cell in which the sum first exceeds the 36
number of terms, the median is single value in the middle
and 37 corresponds to the median. In some cases, the two
when the data has been rearranged in order of size.
central values may not fall in the same cell, so we add the
If the set of data has an even number of terms, the median values of the variable x observed and divide by 2.
is the average of the two central values after arranging data
By adding the above frequencies, 36 falls in the cell
in order of size (add the two middle values then divide by 2).
containing 13 and 37 in the cell containing 14.
The median can also be located as the ½(n + 1) th term in the
set of data, where n is the number of values in the data set. This means the median is the sum of the corresponding
values divided by 2.

Upper quartile – this is the upper limit which shows the ii) Obtain the deviation of each value in the data set from
limit of the lower 75% ( 34 ) of the data. To locate it, we the mean. This is done subtracting each of the observed
calculate using the formula below; values from the mean obtained in (i) above, that is,
3
Upper quartile (Q3) = 4 (n + 1) th term (x – x ) values less than the mean will yield negative values
while those above the mean will give positive values.
( 25 50% 25%)
(b) S
quare the values to get rid of the negative values. This
lower end upper end
gives the value of (x - x )².
excluded middle 50% excluded
(c) Add up the values of (x - x ) ².
Inter quartile range (d) The variance can then be calculated.
The variance is the square of the standard deviation. To

Mean deviation
obtain the standard deviation, find the square root of the
It measures the distance of every score from the calculated variance.∑
mean. Formula: sum of every score from the mean.
Example
∑ (x- x )
n Suppose we are given the temperatures, in °C, for 11 days at
a particular weather station. 7, 5, 3, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 5, 4, 5.
Variance
Calculate:
It calculates the deviations from the mean. The deviations
(a) Range.
are squared to deal with the negative signs in an acceptable
(b) Upper quartile range.
algebraic manner. The variance can be calculated using the
(c) Lower quartile range.
formula shown below:
(d) Inter-quartile range.
∑ (x- x )² (e) The standard deviation.
n
Solution
Standard deviation – the standard deviation (SD, also
(a) Range = maximum T°C - minimum T°C
represented by the Greek letter sigma σ or the Latin letter
= 8 – 23 = 6°C
s) is a measure that is used to quantify the amount of
(b) To calculate the upper quartile, we first rearrange
variation or dispersion of a set of data values. Below is the
the values in ascending order as follow;
formula to calculate the standard deviation;
2;3;4;4;5;5;5;5;7;7;8
√ ∑ (x-n x )² Upper quartile (Q3) = 3

4
(n + 1) th term
= 34 (11 + 1) th term= 9th term.

A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend Upper quartile (Q3) = 7
to be close to the mean (also called the expected value) of
the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the (c) To calculate the lower quartile, we first rearrange
data points are spread out over a wider range of values. the values in ascending order as follow;
The standard deviation of a random variable, statistical 2;3;4;4;5;5;5;5;7;7;8.
population, data set, or probability distribution is the square Lower quartile (Q1) = 14 (n + 1) th term
root of its variance. A useful property of the standard = 34 (11 + 1) th term = 3rd term.
deviation is that, unlike the variance, it is expressed in the Lower quartile (Q1) = 4
same units as the data.
(d) Inter quartile range = Q3 – Q1
In addition to expressing the variability of a population, =7–4
the standard deviation is commonly used to measure =3
confidence in statistical conclusions. Further statistical
inferences can be done using the standard deviation and To obtain the standard deviation, first calculate the
the mean. For example, the margin of error in polling data is mean of the data;
determined by calculating the expected standard deviation ∑x
Mean =
in the results if the same poll were to be conducted multiple n
55
times. To find the standard deviation for a data set with = 11
variable x; =5
(a) Calculate the mean, ( x ) of the data.
92 Unit 12: Univariate Statistics

67.3 – 70 Number of male Students
= P(male) =
6/√25 Total number of Students
= -2.25 100
250
6. State the conclusion – this must be closely linked to = 0,4

the rejection criteria spelt out in (4) Since Zcal < -1.645, This can also be expressed as 2 or 40%.
5
reject H0 and conclude that, at the 5% level, there is
From this example, there are only two possible outcomes:
significant evidence that the farmer is overstating his
either the person chosen is male or female. The sample
annual output.
space in this case is defined as:
S = {total number of students at the college}
Activity 12.3
2. Mutually Exclusive Events
The management of a large referral hospital claims that
the mean age of people who die of AIDS related illnesses These are events that cannot occur together. Either event
is 45 years. Records of a random 100 patients who had A may happen or B may happen, but not both A and B may
passed away were taken and the mean was calculated to happen at the same time. For mutually exclusive events A
be 48.4 years. Taking the population standard deviation to and B,
be 18 years, test at the 5% significance level whether there
P (A and B) = 0
is evidence that the management’s claim is incorrect.
P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
Probability 3. Independent Events
Probability is the likelihood that a given event happens. It Two events are independent if the occurrence of one does
is a chance associated with the occurrence of a particular not affect the probability of the occurrence of the other; the
event. An event is a collection of one or more of the way to check whether or not the events are independent is
outcomes of the experiment. The probability of any event to check to see if the events can occur at the same time. For
lies between 0 and 1. independent events A and B.
A probability of 0 indicates that the event can never happen. P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
In an example, judging from the latitudinal location of P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
Zimbabwe, the probability of experiencing a temperate
depression is virtually 0. Values close to zero indicate very Example
slim chances that the event occurs. For instance, there 1. In a simple model, a meteorological department
might be a 0.002 chance of a hailstorm being experienced in claims that the probability of rainy weather on any day
June in Zimbabwe. in December is 0.6
A probability of 0.5 indicates that the event has equal (a) Using this model, calculate the probability that:
chances of happening or not happening. For instance, in a (i) it rains on two consecutive days.
population where the ratio of males to females is 1:1, the (ii) In a 3-day period, it rains only once.
probability of choosing a female respondent in a survey is (iii) No rain is received in a given 4-day period.
0.5. (iv) E stimate the expected number of rainy days
in December.
1. Basic Probability
(b) Comment on the validity of this model.
The probability of any event E can be stated as:
Let R be the event that “it rains on a given day” and R’
Number of possible outcomes (pronounced R complement) be the event that it does not
P(E) =
Possibility space rain on any given day. Now, from the information given:
P(R) = 0.6
The possibility space, or sample space, is the total number
of possible outcomes. Note that the probability that it does not rain on any given
day is obtained by subtracting the probability that it rains
Example from 1.
Consider a fieldwork survey which involves selecting P(R’) = 1 – P(R) = 0.4

respondents at random from a group of 100 male and 150 (a) (i) T he probability that it rains on two consecutive days is
female college students. The probability of choosing a male calculated as:
student is: P(R and R) = P(R) P(R)
= 0.6 0.6
= 0.36

1. Explain the following terms as used in statistical analysis:
(a) Mean.
(b) Mode.
(c) Median.
2. The table below shows the incomes for a company.
Income $ 450-499 500-549 550-599 600-649 650-699 700-749 750-799

Frequency 3 16 16 11 3 2 1
Using the information in the table above, calculate;

(a) Mean.
(b) Mode.
(c) Median.
3. Life expectancy at birth (in years) is shown for a random sample of 10 countries in 1979.
The data are drawn from the United Nations Human Development Report:
76.7; 64; 71.1; 40.1; 52.3; 64.5; 74.4; 78.6; 69.5; 62.6
(a) Calculate the following descriptive statistics for these data:

(i) Mean.
(ii) .
(iii) Range.
(iv) Upper quartile range.
(v) Lower quartile range.
(vi) Inter quartile range.
(vii) Variance.
(viii) Standard deviation.
(b) Write a brief summary of your findings about the distribution of life expectancy in these countries.
4. (a) In a simple model, a meteorological department claims that the probability of rainy weather on any day in January is
0.4. Using this model, calculate the probability that: (i) it rains on two consecutive days.
(ii) in a 3-day period, it rains only once.
(iii) no rain is received in a given 4-day period.
(iv) estimate the expected number of rainy days in January.
(b) Comment on the validity of this model.


TOPIC 2: G
PRESENTATION
Unit Bivariate Statistics
13
Independent variable – is the variable being manipulated
Unit Objectives in an experiment in order to observe the effect on a
dependent variable.
Scatter plot – a scatter plot is a graph that shows the
••explain bivariate statistics analysis. location of each pair of X–Y scores in the data.
••describe geographic data using bivariate statistics.
••apply bivariate statistics to solve geographic issues.
Bivariate data analysis
It is an analysis used to find out if there is a relationship
Introduction between two sets of values. Bivariate data analysis usually
involves the variables X (dependent variable) and Y
Bivariate statistics are statistical analyses that deal with two (independent variable). In the diagram below, X represents
variables at a time. Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest the dependent variable, while Y represents the independent
forms of quantitative (statistical) analysis. It involves the variable.
analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for the
purpose of determining the empirical relationship between X Y 8
them. Examples of bivariate statistics are, altitude and 7
1 1 6
temperature; distance and cost; yields and rainfall. When we 1 2 5
Y scores
1 2
are examining bivariate data, the two variables could depend 3 4 4
3 5 3
on each other, and one variable could influence another. In 3 5 2
5 7
this case, we say the bivariate data has a dependent variable 5 8
1
and an independent variable. An example of a dependent 5 8 0 1 2 3 4 5

X scores
and independent variable are age and heights of children in
which when age increases, the height also increases. In this Figure 13.1 Dependent and independent variable
case the age is the independent variable whilst the height is
the dependent variable (depends on the age increase). Bivariate data analysis is a statistical procedure that is
used to measure the extent to which two variables are
related indicating both the strength and direction of the
Glossary of terms relationship.
Correlation – is a measure of the linear statistical Two variables are highly correlated if they move well
relationship between two random variables. together such that it is possible to predict the movement of
Regression – is an equation using specified and associated one variable using knowledge about the movement of the
data for two or more variables such that one variable can be other variable.
estimated from the remaining variable (s). An example can be given of land value which is associated
Dependent variable – is the variable being tested and with the distance from the CBD, (other conditions held
measured in a scientific experiment. constant). If observed values are given for the two variables,
it is possible to analyse the nature of the relationship
existing between the two.
98 Unit 13: Bivariate Statistics

Exercise 13.1 The following adjectives may help you to describe the
degree of linear association between two variables:
1. (a) T
he following are samples of 10 workers aged Values of r Suitable adjectives
thirty to fifty years of the relationship between
+0.7 to +1.0 Strong, positive
age and the systolic blood pressure in a company.
+0.4 to +0.69 Fair/ moderate, positive
The results are presented in the following
bivariate data table. +0.3 to +0.39 Weak, positive
0.0 to -0.29 Negligible/ scant positive
Employee Age Systolic blood pressure
-0.3 to -0.39 Weak, negative
1 33 130
0.4 to -0.69 Fair/ moderate, negative
2 30 132
-0.7 to -1.0 Strong, negative
3 40 138
4 41 149 There are two commonly used correlation coefficients which
are:
5 44 143
6 47 156 (a) Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient(r)
7 48 162 (b) Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (r s).
8 51 148 Pearson’s product moment correlation
9 53 165 coefficient
10 55 161
Pearson’s correlation coefficient is calculated for ratio data
(i) Create a scatter plot to represent the data. or interval data. It is based on the mean and standard
(ii) Comment on the relationship between variables. deviation and therefore can be affected by extreme values.
(iii) C
alculate the equation of the regression line (the Pearson’s coefficient is obtained using the following
best fit line) to find out the slope of the line using computational formula:
the formula, Y= B0+B1X.
n ∑xy – ∑x∑y
(b) A
keyboard instructor at a community college
collected data comparing a student’s age and their √ n∑x2 – (∑x)2 √ n∑y2 –(∑y)2
typing speed. The equation for the line of best fit is
given as: Worked example
Y= -1.4x + 117.8. The following data are a random sample of indexed prices
If you are 25 years of age (x), what is your typing of gold and platinum over a six-year period:
speed (y)?
Gold (x) 12 10 14 11 12 9
Platinum (y) 18 17 23 19 20 15
Correlation coefficient
Calculate and interpret the correlation coefficient of the
It is a numerical measure of the strength of the linear data.
relationship between two variables X and Y. A correlation
coefficient takes values between -1 and +1 inclusive, that is Solution
-1 r+1.
n = 6 ∑x = 68 ∑x2 = 786
The correlation can be estimated from the scatter graph of ∑y = 112 ∑y2 = 2128 ∑xy = 1292
the two variables as follows: r
n ∑xy – ∑x∑y
If r = 0, there is no correlation between the two variables
concerned. Values close to zero indicate a weak correlation r = √ [n(∑x2) – (∑x)2] [n(∑y2) –(∑y)2
between the two variables.
6(1292) – (68)(112)
If r = 1, there is a perfect positive correlation between
r =√[6(786) - (68)2] [6(2128) - (112)2]
the variables. When plotted on a scatter graph, the
corresponding values of the variables produce a perfect
136
straight line. Values close to 1 indicates a strong positive r=
correlation.
√(92)(224)
If r = -1, there is a perfect negative correlation between = 0.9474
the variables. Values close to -1 indicate a strong negative
correlation.

TOPIC 2: G
PRESENTATION
Unit Graphs and maps
14
Unit Objectives Presentation of statistical data
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: The presentation of statistical data can be divided into two
groups according to the type of data collected and grouped
•• present geographic data on graphs. as follows:
•• present geographic data on maps.
•• describe geographic data using other relevant 1. Univariate statistical data – as previously discussed
diagrams. in chapter 12, univariate statistics are statistical data
that deals with a single variable at a time. They are
numerical descriptions of a single variable from a
Introduction sample, such as height of plants. This type of data can
be presented in the form of:
Data presentation refers to the process of organizing data
(a) Graphs - Bar, Compound, Histograms.
and presenting them into different forms such as line graphs,
(b) Pie charts.
pie chart, bar proportional diagrams, polygons and others.
(c) Maps: Choropleth map, Dot map, Flow line map.
After data have been collected, the next step is to present the
data in different ways and forms. Some of the forms in which 2. Bivariate Statistical data – bivariate statistics are
the data may be presented include charts, graphs, lists, statistics that deal with two variables at a time, for
diagrams, tables, essays, graphs, histograms, maps and even the purpose of determining the empirical relationship
sketches. This unit will look at explaining the geographic data between them. It is presented in the form of:
presentation techniques for both univariate and bivariate (a) Scatter diagrams.
data. (b) Line model graphs.
(c) Trends graphs.
Glossary of terms 1. Bar graphs
Graph – it is a diagram showing the relation between
A bar graph is a statistical graph in which bars are drawn
variable quantities and each measured along one pair of
either horizontally or vertically. The bars are drawn in such
axes at right angles.
a way that the height or length of each bar is proportional
Map - is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land to the frequency it represents. As a rule, the bars must be
or sea showing physical and or man-made features. of uniform widths. Also, equal spaces must be left between
the bars.
Statistical data - is data that is used to support some
statistical hypothesis. Bar graphs are used to represent discrete data (data
with whole number values only). For continuous data,
Graphical data - is data presented in the form of curves histograms and cumulative frequency curves become more
or lines drawn across the coordinate point plotted on its appropriate. Below is a simple bar graph showing covid-19
surface. cases in Zimbabwe.

TOPIC 2: G
PRESENTATION
Unit Spatial interpolation
16
Unit Objectives Spatial interpolation
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Interpolation predicts values for cells in a raster from a
limited number of sample data points. It can be used to
•• explain spatial interpolation predict unknown values for any geographic point data:
•• collect data on continuous geographic variables in the elevation, rainfall, chemical concentrations, noise levels,
field. and so on. For example, to make precipitation (rainfall) map
•• apply basic spatial interpolation techniques to describe for your province, you will not find enough evenly spread
continuous geographic phenomena. weather stations to cover the entire region.
Spatial interpolation can estimate the temperatures at

Introduction locations without recorded data using known temperature
readings at nearby stations as shown in figure 16.1;
Spatial interpolation is the process of using points with
known values to estimate values at other points. In GIS
applications, spatial interpolation is typically applied to
a raster with estimates made for all cells. In this sense
therefore, spatial interpolation is a means of creating
surface data from sample points. This chapter formulates
the problem of spatial interpolation from scattered data as
a method for prediction and representation of multivariate
fields. The role and specific issues of interpolation for GIS
applications are discussed and methods based on locality,
geostatistical, and variational concepts are described.
Glossary of terms
Interpolation – it is an estimation of a value within two
known values in a sequence of values.
Spatial analysis – is the process of manipulating spatial Figure 16.1 Temperature map
information to extract new information and meaning from
This type of interpolated surface is often called a statistical
the original data.
surface. The data for snow accumulation, precipitation,
Continuous variable – it is a variable which can take on water table, population density, and elevation data
an uncountable set of values between the lowest and the are other types of data that can be computed using
highest points of measurement. interpolation. Because of high cost and limited resources,
data collection is usually conducted only in a limited number
Spatial interpolation – is the process of using points with
of selected point locations.
known values to estimate values at other points.

This is one of the simplest and most readily available Activity 16.1
methods. It is based on an assumption that the value at
an unsampled point can be approximated as a weighted
average of values at points within a certain cut-off distance, The inverse distance weighting method is slightly better
or from a given number m of the closest points (typically 10 than the other methods and is also easy to implement in a
to 30). geographic information system. Explain why this is so?
Weights are usually inversely proportional to a power

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
of distance which, at an unsampled location leads to an
estimator. While this basic method is easy to implement This uses a triangular tessellation of the given point data
and is available in almost any GIS, it has some well-known to derive a bivariate function for each triangle which is
shortcomings that limit its practical applications. then used to estimate the values at unsampled locations.
A common TIN algorithm is called Delaunay triangulation
The method often does not reproduce the local shape
which tries to create a surface formed by triangles of
implied by data and produces local extrema at the data
nearest neighbour points.
points. Inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation is an
exact method that enforces that the estimated value of a It is a proximal method that satisfies the requirement that
point is influenced more by nearby known points than those a circle drawn through the three nodes of a triangle will
farther away. contain no other nodes. To do this, circumcircles around
selected sample points are created and their intersections
In figure 16.5 is an annual precipitation surface created by
are connected to a network of non-overlapping and as
the inverse distance squared method (left) and an isohyets
compact as possible triangles.
map created by the inverse distance squared method
(right). Delaunay’s triangulation with circumcircles around the red
sample data and the resulting interpolated TIN surface
created from the elevation vector points is shown in figure
16.6
Figure 16.5 (a) A

nnual precipitation surface created by the
inverse distance squared method (b) an isohyet
map created by the inverse distance squared Figure 16.6 TIN interpolation
method Delaunay’s triangulation has several advantages over other
Advantages of IDW interpolation triangulation methods:
•• It can estimate extreme changes in terrain such •• The triangles are as equi-angular as possible
as cliffs, fault lines. thus, reducing potential numerical precision
problems created by long skinny triangles.
•• Dense evenly space points are well interpolated
•• Ensures that any point on the surface is as close
(flat areas with cliffs).
as possible to a node.
•• Can increase or decrease amount of sample •• The triangulation is independent of the order
points to influence cell values. the points are processed.
Disadvantages The main disadvantage of the TIN interpolation is that the
surfaces are not smooth and may give a jagged appearance.
•• Cannot estimate above maximum or below
This is caused by discontinuous slopes at the triangle
minimum values.
edges and sample data points. In addition, triangulation is
•• Not very good for peaks or mountainous areas.
generally not suitable for extrapolation beyond the area
with collected sample data points as shown in figure 16.7 of
TIN result below.

TOPIC 2: G
PRESENTATION
Measures of spatial
Unit
autocorrelation
17
Unit Objectives GIS – a computer system for capturing, storing, checking,
and displaying data related to positions on Earth’s surface.
Spatial interpolation – the process of using points with
•• explain the importance of spatial autocorrelation in known values to estimate values at other points.
geographical analysis.
Autocorrelation
•• explain the spatial autocorrelation indices, Moran’s
index and Geary’s c index. Autocorrelation measures the correlation of a variable
•• apply relevant statistics to test for spatial with itself, when the observations are considered with a
autocorrelation. time lag (temporal autocorrelation) or in space (spatial
autocorrelation). Spatial autocorrelation is defined as the
positive or negative correlation of a variable with itself due
Introduction to the spatial location of the observations.
Spatial and spatio-temporal distributions of both physical
This spatial autocorrelation can first be the result of
and socioeconomic phenomena can be approximated by
unobservable or difficult-to-quantify processes that
functions depending on location in a multi-dimensional
combine different locations and, as a result, give rise to a
space, as multivariate scalar, vector, or tensor fields. This
spatial structuring of activities: interaction phenomena –
unit formulates the measures of spatial interpolation from
between agents’ decisions, for example, – or dissemination –
scattered data as a method for prediction and representation
such as phenomena of technological diffusion – in space are
of multivariate fields. The role and specific issues of
each phenomena that can produce spatial autocorrelation.
interpolation for GIS applications are discussed and methods
based on locality, geostatistical, and variational concepts In the context of the specification of econometric models,
are described. The main measures of spatial interpolation measuring spatial autocorrelation can be considered a tool
discussed in this unit are the Moran’s index and the Geary’s for diagnosing and detecting an incorrect specification –
C index. omission of spatial variables that are spatially correlated,
errors on the choice of scale on which the spatial
Glossary of terms phenomenon is analysed. It should be emphasised that
spatial structure and spatial autocorrelation cannot exist
Autocorrelation – it is a measure of the correlation of a independently of one another.
variable with itself, when the observations are considered
with a time lag or in space. The term spatial structure refers to all the links with which
the autocorrelated phenomenon will spread. Without the
Geographic Analysis – relates to the process of presence of a significant autocorrelated process, the spatial
manipulating and extracting information on places on Earth. structure cannot be empirically observed. The spatial
distribution observed is then considered the manifestation
Spatial analysis – the process of manipulating spatial
of the underlying spatial process.
information to extract new information and meaning from
the original data.
130 Unit 17: Measures of spatial autocorrelation

TOPIC 3: E
NVIROMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Causes, effects and control

Unit
measures of pollution
19
Unit objectives Environmental pollution
The types of pollution are;
•• air pollution.
•• outline the causes of environmental pollution.
•• water pollution.
•• identify effects of environmental pollution in
•• land pollution
rural and urban areas.
•• noise pollution.
•• evaluate mitigatory measures of pollution.
•• light pollution.
•• visual pollution.
Introduction •• thermal pollution.
Pollution refers to the addition of contaminants into the 1. Air pollution

natural environment that causes detrimental effects to
nature, natural resources, and mankind. Pollution has
always been an issue of great concern around the globe.
There are many ways in which the environment is polluted.
The types of environmental pollution are air, land, noise,
light, thermal, nuclear, visual and water pollution. The
pollution of the environment result in many effects. There
are pollution control methods which are used to manage
the environment and control the effects of all the types of
pollution.
Glossary of terms
Figure 19.1 Air pollution
Pollutant – refers to any substance which causes harmful
effects or uneasiness. Air pollution refers to the release of chemicals and
particulates into the atmosphere. It also refers to the
Biodegradable – capable of being decomposed by presence of abnormal concentration and abnormal
biological activity especially micro-organisms. constituents in the air. Air pollution is defined as the
presence of one or more disadvantageous content in such
Non-biodegradable – something which cannot be
quantity for such duration, as it is catastrophic to human
degraded by natural processes.
health and welfare, animal or plant life.
Environmental degradation – is the exhaustion of the
world’s natural resources that is land, air, water and soil.
TOPIC 3: ENVIROMENTAL MANAGEMENT 139

TOPIC 4: A
TMOSPHERIC PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA
Weather processes and

Unit
phenomena
25
Unit Objectives temperature, humidity, and wind. When a rising parcel of
unsaturated air cools more rapidly than the air surrounding
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: it.
Instability – this is when a rising air parcel will always cool

•• contrast atmospheric stability and instability to show
at a slower rate than the environment, even when it is
different weather phenomena.
unsaturated.
Lapse Rate – the rate at which temperature changes with

Introduction height in the Atmosphere.
In the previous unit you learnt about the energy budget. Dry Adiabatic lapse rate – the decrease in temperature
Incoming solar radiation is distributed on the earth in with increase in height of a rising dry air parcel.
various ways. As it reaches the earth it is either absorbed
or reflected back into the atmosphere. The lowest region Environmental lapse rate – the decrease in temperature
of the atmosphere, is known as the troposphere, this name of the environment usually expected with an increase in
derived from the Greek words tropos, turning, and spaira, height through the troposphere.
ball. In the troposphere temperature decreases with an Temperature inversion – occurs when the temperature
increase in altitude of height hence the saying that the increases with height.
higher you go the cooler it becomes. In simple terms there
is more heat close to the earth and as one moves upwards
temperature starts to decrease. It should be known that the
Atmospheric stability
troposphere is relatively unstable because of the decrease of Stability refers to the ability of the atmosphere to be
temperature with altitude. Air in the troposphere is poised turbulent, which you can determine from soundings of
to over-turn (to convect). This happens in the same way that temperature, humidity, and wind. The state of stability is
happens to water in a kettle being heated from a stove. Most when a rising parcel of unsaturated air cools more rapidly
of the weather of the planet is confined to the troposphere. than the air surrounding it. Because rising air cools faster,
To add on in the troposphere, there is sometimes stability by the time the rising air has reaches a certain height, its
or instability of the atmosphere. When you think of the temperature will be colder and denser than the surrounding
word stable, you typically think of an object that is unlikely air which will have cooled less.
to change or something that is balanced. The opposite is
If there is nothing to force the parcel of air to rise, for
true with something that is unstable. An unstable object is
example, mountains or fronts, it will sink back to its starting
likely to fall or change position with time. This unit looks at
point. The air is described as stable because dew point may
atmospheric stability, instability, lapse rates and theories of
not have been reached and the only clouds which might
raindrop formation.
have developed would be shallow, flat-topped cumulus
which do not produce precipitation. Stability is often linked
Glossary of terms with anticyclonic conditions when any convection currents
are suppressed by sinking air to give dry, sunny conditions.
Stability – refers to the ability of the atmosphere to be
turbulent, which you can determine from soundings of
188 Unit 25: Weather processes and phenomena

In most cases saturated adiabatic lapse rates starts as dry Types of rainfall
adiabatic lapse rate except in cases where condensation
takes place at ground level. We start with a parcel of air When instability occurs there is likely to be formation of
at the surface that has a given amount of water vapour, rainfall and there are three types of rainfall, distinguished
relative humidity. Since the parcel is unsaturated, it cools by the mechanisms which cause the initial uplift of the air.
at the dry adiabatic lapse rate if forced to rise and no Each mechanism rarely operates in isolation.
condensation occurs. But as the temperature continues to
1. Convergent and cyclonic (frontal)
decrease, the temperature may reach the condensation
point.
Condensation will start at this point, and the parcel will

cease cooling at the dry adiabatic rate. Latent heat is being
released, thus the process in no longer adiabatic. Addition
of heat makes the parcel cool at a slower rate. The resulting
lapse rate is called the saturated adiabatic lapse rate,
because the heat comes from condensation within the
parcel, not from the external environment.
This saturated adiabatic lapse rate, depends on

temperature and water vapour content, unlike the dry
adiabatic lapse rate that is the same everywhere in the
atmosphere. In other words it can also be explained by that
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate starts with a rising dry air
Figure 25.5 Convergent and cyclonic (frontal)
parcel which will be cooling at dry adiabatic lapse rate.
When the upward movement is sufficiently prolonged Convergent and Cyclonic (frontal) rainfall results from the
to enable the air to cool to its dew point temperature, meeting of two air streams in areas of low pressure. Within
condensation occurs and the loss in temperature with the tropics, the trade winds, blowing towards the equator,
height is then partly compensated by the release of latent meet at the inter-tropical convergence zone or ITCZ.
heat. The air is forced to rise and, in conjunction with convection
Saturated air, which therefore cools at a slower rate than currents, produces the heavy afternoon thunderstorms
unsaturated air, loses heat at the saturated adiabatic lapse associated with the equatorial climate. In temperature
rate (SALR). The SALR can vary because the warmer the latitudes, depressions form at the boundary of two air
air the more moisture it can hold, and so the greater the masses.
amount of latent heat released following condensation. At the associated fronts, warm, moist, less dense air is
The SALR averages about 5.4 per 1000m (i.e. approximately forced to rise over colder, denser air, giving periods of
0.5 per 100m). Once the air parcel starts to cool at saturated prolonged and sometimes intense rainfall. This is often
adiabatic lapse rate, the temperature of the air parcel augmented by orographic precipitation.
becomes lower than the environment (environmental
2. Orographic or relief
lapse rate). This happens gradually hence, the air parcel
will reach a point where it is equal to the temperature of
the environment but gradually becoming lower than the
temperature of the environment.
In such a case, the saturated adiabatic lapse rate will be

lower than the environmental lapse rate hence on the graph
it will be on the right side of the graph see diagram below.
Exercise 25.1
1. Using diagrams elaborate on the following;

(a) Adiabatic process.
(b) Dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Figure 25.6 Orographic or relief rainfall
(c) Environmental lapse rate.
(d) Saturated adiabatic lapse rate. Orographic or relief rainfall results when near-saturated,
2. What are factors that influence these lapse rates? warm maritime air is forced to rise where confronted by
TOPIC 4: ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA 193

1. (a) Explain the concept of stability and instability.
(b) Why do temperatures in the troposphere normally decrease with an increase in altitude?
(c) Explain the concept of temperature inversion diagrammatically.
(d) Under what conditions do temperature inversions occur in the earth’s atmosphere?
2. (a) Briefly explain the causes of condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere.
(b) Outline the weather conditions associated with conditional instability.
(c) Describe the weather associated with stability and instability in the atmosphere.
3. (a) Briefly outline the Bergeron process of raindrop formation.

(b) With the aid of labelled diagrams, discuss conditions and process leading to the development of;
(i) Convectional rainfall.
(ii) Frontal rainfall.
(c) How may the amount of rainfall be influenced by human activity?

196 Unit 25: Weather processes and phenomena

TOPIC 4: A
Unit Air masses
26
Unit Objectives Tropical air mass – it is an air mass that originates from the
tropics.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Maritime air mass – it is an air mass that passes through a
water body that is, ocean or sea surface.
•• distinguish air masses according to their source regions.
•• explain modification of air masses from source regions. Cyclone – is a large system of winds that circulates about a
•• examine the effects of air masses affecting Zimbabwe. centre of low atmospheric pressure.
•• explain weather associated with cyclones and
Anti-cyclone – it is a weather phenomena defined as a large
anticyclones.
scale circulation of winds around a central region of high
atmospheric pressure.
Introduction Sea breeze – it is a daytime surface flow of air from the
water toward the land.
Air is invisible but it can very well be felt. You are aware
that the air in the tube of cycle/ bike/car reduces, it is Katabatic winds – these are down slope winds created
pressed due to weight of the vehicle, which clearly manifests when the mountain surface is cooler than the surrounding
that air occupies certain space and it has its mass? For a air and creates slope wind.
clear understanding of the various types of atmospheric Anabatic winds – these are upslope winds driven by
disturbances, the study of air masses provides an essential warmer surface temperatures on a mountain slope than the
background. Air masses that move along as part of the surrounding air column.
large scale motion system of the general circulation are
largely responsible for bringing about changes in day to Air masses
day weather, particularly so in the middle latitudes. The
Temperate regions in the northern hemisphere may be An air mass is a large mass of air that has similar
considered to be the battle ground where air masses with characteristics of temperature and humidity within it. It can
contrasting physical properties very often meet. Travelling air also be viewed as a large body of air having nearly uniform
masses transport latent heat as well as other temperature conditions of temperature and humidity at any given level
characteristics from one region to another. Air masses also of altitude. Such air has distinct boundaries and may extend
carry large quantity of atmospheric moisture from over hundreds or thousands of kilometres horizontally and
sometimes as high as the top of the troposphere (about
The oceans to the continents to yield precipitation over there. 10 – 18km above the Earth’s surface). An air mass forms
In this module, an attempt has been made to discuss the whenever the atmosphere remains in contact with a large,
origin and classification air masses. relatively uniform land or sea surface for a time sufficiently
long to acquire the temperature and moisture properties of
Glossary of terms that surface.
An air mass acquires its characteristics from an area of

Air mass – an air mass is a large volume of air with uniform/
land or water known as its source region. When the air
similar characteristics of temperature and humidity within
mass sits over a region for several days, or longer, it picks
it.
up the distinct temperature and humidity characteristics of

•• In summer strong continental heating rapidly latitudes, heavy precipitation may occur when
modifies the coolness and dryness of the cP air the air is forced to ascend mountain slopes or is
mass as it moves to lower latitudes. caught up in cyclonic activity.
•• Daytime generation of cumulus clouds is the
rule, but the upper-level stability of the air mass Arctic
is usually such as to prevent rain showers.
•• This air mass can be either arctic continental or
•• In the winter, these regions are covered by snow
arctic maritime.
and ice. Because of the intense cold and the
•• Arctic air masses are very cold (especially
absence of water bodies, very little moisture is
in winter) and bring cold conditions across
taken into the air in these regions.
Scandinavia.
•• Note that the word polar, when applied to air
•• May become unstable if they hover along warm
mass designations, does not mean air at the
waters which can create torrential rainfalls and
poles (this area is covered by the words Arctic
hail.
and Antarctic).
•• They originate from continental areas (cA) such
•• Polar air is generally found in latitudes between
as Alaska, Canada or Greenland or from the
40 and 60 degrees and is generally warmer than
Arctic Ocean itself as (mA).
arctic air.
•• In this region, a gentle flow of air over the polar
•• The air over northern and central Asia are
ice fields allows an arctic air mass to form.
exceptions to this.
•• This air mass is characteristically dry aloft and
•• Polar Maritime (mp)
very cold and stable in the lower altitudes.
•• Originate from Polar Regions such as Canada,
Greenland, Antarctica and Arctic. Antarctic
•• The symbol for this air mass is (mP) since the air
mass originates from a water body (maritime) •• Antarctica is a great source region for
it therefore is cold and carries large amounts of intensely cold air masses that have
moisture. continental characteristics.
•• If these air masses move over warm waters •• Before the antarctic air reaches other land
they may become unstable which can produce areas, it becomes modified and is properly
torrential rainfalls. called maritime polar.
•• Maritime Polar (mP) air masses develop over •• The temperatures are colder than in the arctic
the polar areas of both the Northern and the regions.
Southern hemispheres. •• Results of Operation Deep freeze have revealed
•• The air mass generally contains considerably the coldest surface temperatures in the world to
more moisture than the other air masses. be in the Antarctic.
•• As they move inland in middle and high
Distribution of air masses on the globe
Figure 26.3 Distribution of air masses on the globe
200 Unit 26: Air masses

Daytime solar radiation penetrates to several metres into One of the features of the sea and land breeze is a region
the water, the water vertically mixes, and the volume is of low-level air convergence in the termination region of the
slowly heated. In contrast, daytime solar radiation heats the surface flow. Such convergence often induces local upward
land surface more quickly because it does not penetrate motions and cloud formations. Thus, in sea and land breeze
more than a few centimetres below the land surface. The regions, it is not uncommon to see clouds lying off the coast
land surface, now at a higher temperature relative to the air at night; these clouds are then dissipated by the daytime
adjacent to it, transfers more heat to its overlying air mass sea breeze, which forms new clouds, perhaps with showers
and creates an area of low pressure. occurring over land in the afternoon.
Thus, a circulation cell much like that depicted in the Another group of local winds is induced by the presence of
diagram is induced. It should be noted that the surface flow mountain and valley features on Earth’s surface. One subset
is from the water toward the land and thus is called a sea of such winds, known as mountain winds or breezes, is
breeze. induced by differential heating or cooling along mountain
slopes. During the day, solar heating of the sunlit slopes
causes the overlying air to move upslope.
These winds are also called anabatic flow. At night, as the

slopes cool, the direction of airflow is reversed, and cool
downslope drainage motion occurs. Such winds may be
relatively gentle or may occur in strong gusts, depending on
the topographic configuration. These winds are one type of
katabatic flow. In an enclosed valley, the cool air that drains
into the valley may give rise to a thick fog condition. Fog
persists until daytime heating reverses the circulation and
creates clouds associated with the upslope motion at the
mountain top.
warm air warm air

cool air
Figure 26.7 Typical sea-breeze (afternoon) and land-breeze

(night) circulations with associated cloud formations warming mountain sides
DAY
Since the landmass possesses a lower heat capacity than
water, the land cools more rapidly at night than does the
water. Consequently, at night the cooler landmass yields a warm air
cooler overlying air mass and creates a zone of relatively
higher pressure. This produces a circulation cell with air cool air cool air
motions opposite to those found during the day. This flow
from land to water is known as a land breeze. The land
breeze is typically shallower than the sea breeze since
the cooling of the atmosphere over land is confined to a
shallower layer at night than the heating of the air during
the day.
Sea and land breezes occur along the coastal regions of

NIGHT cooling mountain sides
oceans or large lakes in the absence of a strong large-scale
wind system during periods of strong daytime heating or
night-time cooling. Those who live within 10 to 20 km of Figure 26.8 Valley and mountain breeze
the coastline for example Durban and Cape Town of South
Africa often experience the cooler 19- to 37-km-per-hour When the valley floor warms during the day, warm air rises
winds of the sea breeze on a sunny afternoon only to find it up the slopes of surrounding mountains and hills to create
turn into a sultry land breeze late at night. a valley breeze. At night, denser cool air slides down the
slopes to settle in the valley, producing a mountain breeze.

TOPIC 5: G
EOMORPHOLOGY
Unit Rocks and weathering
31
Unit Objectives Rocks
Rocks are any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of
minerals or mineraloid matter. They are categorised by the
•• outline the main physical and chemical weathering minerals including their chemical composition and the way
processes. they were formed. There are three types of rocks namely;
•• discuss major rock types in the earth’s crust. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The relationship
•• assess the influence of climate on the rate and type of between these types of rocks can best be described by the
weathering. rock cycle.
•• explain other factors which influence the rate and type
of weathering.
Introduction
The previous unit dealt with Plate Tectonics a theory which
explained how plates moved forming some landforms in the
process. This unit looks at these huge landforms (both on
the surface and within the Earth. The first aspect is on rocks,
their formation and the types. Further on the unit looks at
how these rocks are worn down by weathering. Weathering
acts on all features at or near the Earth’s surface modifying
the landscape around and generating most essential
resources which is soil.
Figure 31.1 The rock cycle

Glossary of terms
The rock cycle is an illustration that is used to explain
Wedging – a kind of weathering as a result of the expansion how the three rock types are related to each other and
of the water as it is converted to ice, the growth of salt how the Earth processes change a rock from one type to
crystals or growth of plants. another. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock
or metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into
Hydration – a process where mineral structure in the rock
metamorphic rock as illustrated in Figure 31.1.
forms a weak bond with water.
Hydrolysis – a chemical process affecting silicates and Types of rocks

carbonate materials.
1. Igneous rocks
Chemical weathering – is the decomposition of materials
by a series of chemical reactions. Igneous rocks are of volcanic origin, and are usually
crystalline. There are various methods of classification,
including the degree of acidity and location of cooling, both
258 Unit 31: Rocks and weathering

Water enters the joints, freezes, the ice formed strains the
walls of the joints and causes the joints to deepen and
widen. See Figure 31.4. When the ice thaws, water flows
further into the rock. Repeated cycles slowly widen the
joints and in time causes the rock to shatter from the main
body into angular pieces (block disintegration). The blocks
collect at the base of the mountain as scree.
(d) Salt crystallisation
Salt crystallization causes disintegration of rocks when

saline solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks
and evaporate, leaving salt crystals behind. These crystals
Figure 31.3 formation of pressure release fractures and an expand as they are heated up exerting pressure on the
exfoliation dome (bare rock and rounded surfaces) confining rock.
Pressure occurs where the rock mass has been removed During the dry periods due to strong heating by the sun,
by the removal of overlying rock beds. When igneous water deep within the rock is drawn to the surface by
rocks for example granite are formed deep beneath the capillary forces. This water carries dissolved mineral salts
Earth’s surface, they are under a lot of pressure because where they get crystallised. As crystals become larger, they
of the overlying rock material. Denudation removes the exert stresses upon the rock causing it to disintegrate as in
overlying material and since al, rocks are slightly elastic the Figure 31.5.
rock responds to the reduction of pressure by expanding
upwards leading to the formation of fractures (cracks)
parallel to the surface.
The phenomenon of response of rocks to release of

confining pressure due to unloading is known as dilatation.
With time the sheets of rock break away from the exposed
rocks along the fractures (Figure 31.3).
(c) Freeze thaw
Freeze thaw occurs in rocks which contain crevices and

joints, in places where there is limited vegetation cover, a lot
of moisture and temperatures fluctuate around 0°C – alpine
and periglacial areas. Figure 31.5 Crystallisation of rocks by salts
Figure 31.4 Freeze thaw process and a rock broken by ice wedging

(e) Solution
3Fe + 2SiO3 + 12O2 Fe3O4 + 3SiO2
Pyroxene Oxygen Magnetite Quartz
Figure 31.10 Subsurface solution of halite causing overlying

rocks to collapse to form a crater like feature
Figure 31.8 A rock undergoing oxidation It occurs when minerals in rocks dissolve directly into water,
mostly rocks containing carbonates, or those with large
(d) Hydration amounts of halite or rock salt. Solution of large areas of
bed rock may cause sinkholes to form, where large areas of
It is a process where mineral structure in the rock forms a the ground subside or collapse forming a depression as in
weak bond with water. When rock minerals take up water Figure 31.10.
the increased volume creates physical stresses within
the rock for example, iron oxides are converted to iron 3. Biological weathering
hydroxides. Anhydrite can absorb two water molecules to
Biological weathering involves the disintegration of rock and
become gypsum.
mineral due to the chemical and/ or physical agents of an
organism. It involves processes that can either be chemical
or physical in nature.
Rocks can fracture because of burrowing by rodents and

rabbits and other animals which also mixes and transfer
minerals in some rocks. Plants widen cracks in some rocks,
as they grow their roots penetrate the rocks below and
thus forces the rock apart (Figure 31.11) Also many soil
organisms cause the movement of soil particles, introducing
the materials to different weathering processes found at
distinct locations in the soil profile. Lichens can extract iron
in certain rocks and concentrate it at surface as in Figure
31.11 below.
Figure 31.9 Formation of clays due to hydration processes
Once hydration occurs it accelerates other weathering

processes and may also be accompanied by hydrolysis and
oxidation. It accelerates the physical weathering of buried or
exposed rock. The boulder is surrounded by saprolitic soils
formed by the weathered rock, hydration processes cause
the formation of clays (see Figure 31.9) and contribute to
the reddish – tan colour of the saprolite.
CUSO₄ + 5H₂O CuSO₄.5H₂O
Anhydrous copper sulphate + water bluestone
Sometimes hydration produces products that are greater

in bulk than the original. When this happens the outer shell
of the rock wells and pulls away from the rock outcrop a Figure 31.11 Action of lichens and plant roots on rocks
process known as spheroidal weathering.

•• Rock structures such as bedding planes and fractures represent natural surfaces for physical and chemical weathering
processes. Sedimentary rocks and any rocks that contain abundant fractures are typically weathered more rapidly than
equivalent unfractured rocks. Warm temperatures and a plentiful supply of water accelerate chemical weathering.

1. (a) Describes the terms hydrolysis and chelation.
(b) Explain the factors which control the processes of weathering.
(c) Discuss the statement “there are distinct weathering processes for particular regions”.
2. (a) Distinguish between granite and limestone rocks.

(b) Figure 31.15 shows a certain type of weathering.
(i) D
raw an annotated sketch diagram to illustrate the main features of the landform.
(ii) D
escribe and explain how the feature may have formed.
3. (a) Describe the terms exfoliation and differential weathering.
(b) Describe and explain why physical weathering is a dominant process in some parts of the globe.
(c) What factors other than climate, influence weathering processes in the seasonally humid areas?


TOPIC 5: A
Unit Slope development
32
Unit objectives Glossary of terms
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Form – refers to the shape of the land surface which makes
up the slope.
•• identify different slope profiles.
Profile – refers to the shape of the slope viewed as a cross
•• outline factors affecting slope form.
section at right angle to the hillside.
•• describe slope development processes.
•• illustrate pediplanation, peneplanation and slope Process – refers to the actions that are bringing change to
decline. in slope form.
•• measure angles and height of slopes.
Slope evolution – is the development of slopes over time.
Heave – creeps or slow movements of materials down the

Introduction slope.
Slopes are a vital part of our landscapes. Slope is an inclined Slopes
land and is the most fundamental unit of the surface
landscape. A remarkable feature of the land surface of the Slopes are upward or downward inclination resulting from
earth is that it is largely made up of slopes. Everything at or the forms of the natural landscapes that is from hills and
near the surface of the Earth is pulled toward the Earth by the valleys. Since slopes are ubiquitous elements of the
the force of gravity. (“Gravity: it’s a law you can live with.”) land surface, they exert their influence on the development
That includes all Earth materials, rock and regolith. This is of soils, loss of soil by soil erosion and mining operations.
one of the central concepts of this unit. Its importance lies in Slope form indicates the morphology of a given region at
the fact that under certain circumstances those materials are a given time. Slope processes are the actual operation of
moved downslope by the pull of gravity. different agents which bring about changes in the physical
environment.
Slope profile
(a) rectilinear (b) concave-convex
convex or waxing slope convex (shedding slope)

denudation slope
cliff or free face

transfer zone
rectilinear or straight (debris zone)
slope (constant slope)
weathered debris with

concave or waning slope danger of landslides concave (receiving) slope
(accumulation slope) often resultingfrom
water carrying
material downhill
Figure 32.1 Slope elment models

TOPIC 6: HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL PROCESSES
Unit Rainfall discharge relationships
36
within drainage basins
Unit Objectives Velocity – is the speed of water in the river measured in

metres per second.
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: River load – is the material which is actually transported
and deposited by the river.
•• analyse the rainfall-discharge relationships within
drainage basins. Stream ordering – is another way of quantifying river
•• interpret the storm hydrograph. drainage basin and is used to define stream size based on a
•• describe and explain the stream ordering, density and hierarchy of tributaries.
intensity.
Stream density – is the total length of all the streams and
•• calculate the stream morphometry.
rivers in a drainage basin per unit area of the drainage basin
•• manage drainage basins.
usually expressed per km2.
Introduction The storm hydrograph
Discharge is the amount of water being carried by a river Storm hydrographs are graphs that show how a drainage
passing through a given point at a given time. Discharge basin responds to an episode of rainfall. It is a graph which
is closely related to rainfall as the rainfall received in an shows variation in river discharge following an episode
area is the input to the water in the drainage basin which of rain plotted against time. A storm hydrograph covers a
further flows in rivers as discharge. The discharge from a relatively short time period, usually hours or days rather
drainage basin depends on precipitation, evapotranspiration than weeks or months. It allows us to investigate the
and storage factors. River discharge is measured on a relationship between a rainfall event and discharge. The
storm hydrograph in cubic metres per second (cumecs). A diagram below shows a storm hydrograph.
hydrograph can be used to show annual discharge patterns
Features of the storm hydrograph
in relation to climate. Large drainage basins catch more
precipitation so have a higher peak discharge compared (a) A
pproach segment – refers to the river flow before the
to smaller basins. Smaller basins on the other hand have a storm (antecedent flow).
shorter lag time because precipitation does not have as far to
(b) R
ising limb – the rising limb of hydrograph reflects a
travel. This unit will analyse the relationship between rainfall
prolonged increase in discharge from a catchment area,
and discharge within the drainage basin.
typically in response to a rainfall event.
(c) Recession (or falling) limb – the recession limb extends

Glossary of terms from the peak flow rate onward. The recession limb
Hydrograph – it is a graph which shows variation in river represents the withdrawal of water from the storage
discharge following an episode of rain plotted against time. built up in the basin during the earlier phases of the
hydrograph.
Discharge – is the volume of water passing a measuring
point or gauging station in a river in a given time. (d) P
eak rainfall – the point on a flood hydrograph when
rainfall is at its greatest.
300 Unit 36: Rainfall discharge relationships within drainage basins

TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION
Unit Migration
53
Unit Objectives Emigrant – is a person who leaves a place/country for
another.
Internal migration – refers to movements from one place
•• explain the forms of migration. to another within the same country.
•• describe the trends in migration.
International migration – refers to the movements
from one country to another involving the crossing of
Introduction international borders.
Migration is a complex phenomenon and a fundamental Migration balance – is the difference between the number
component of structural transformation in developing of immigrants and those of emigrants.
countries. Migration patterns vary substantially across Net migration loss – occurs when a country loses
regions and countries, and flows have changed considerably more people through emigration than it gains through
over time. As the dynamics of a country changes as do the immigration, for example, Zimbabwe.
living conditions and quality of life. Similarly, economics and
politics also have a massive contribution to the standards of Net migration gain – occurs when a country receives
living in any particular country. Many households consider more people through immigration than it loses through
migration as a strategy to improve their livelihood, minimise emigration, for example, South Africa.
their risks and diversify their income sources. This unit will Gross migration – the volume of migration and includes all
loot to explain the concept of migration, forms of migration migration flows into and out of an area.
and the general trends in the movement of people in
Zimbabwe, Africa and the world at large. Migrant – a person who moves from one place to another
for the purpose of permanent residence.
Glossary of terms Brain Drain – is the exodus of educated or skilled personnel

for other regions or countries where there are perceived
Migration – the movement of people from one area to greener pastures.
another on a permanent or semi-permanent basis for a
period of over one year. Commuting – this is a daily movement of people to and
from work or school.
Mobility – this refers to all forms of population movements
in terms of processes, patterns and causes. Refugees – these are people who cannot return to their
country of origin because of the fear of persecution for
Immigration – is the process where people move into a reasons of nationality, race, politics or economy.
country for example, moving into Zimbabwe from China.
Asylum seekers – are people who have left their own
Immigrant – is a person who moves into a place/country. countries claiming persecution and are seeking a place
of safety and may be granted refugee status in their host
Emigration – is the process where people move out of a
country.
country for example, moving to china from Zimbabwe.
TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION 449

TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION
Unit Population policies
56
Unit Objectives Population control
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: It is the prevention of conception by various methods
(protective devices, hormonal control, sterilization, induced
•• explain pro and anti-natalist theories with reference to abortion, avoidance of insemination at times of ovulation).
relevant countries. It is important in attempts to limit family size especially in
•• outline population policies. overpopulated countries.
•• evaluate impact of population policies to the
economies of countries. Official birth control programmes are difficult to implement
and are not always successful. They may contravene
religious beliefs, be unwelcome in cultures where large
Introduction families are regarded as an economic resource in the family,
A population policy is a set of measures taken by a state a support for the age and infirm, and in some societies may
to modify the way its population is changing, either by be viewed as an economic plot to reduce the economic
promoting large families or limiting births to decrease it. A potential of large workforce in LEDCs.
population policy may also aim to modify the distribution of Population policies
the population over the country by encouraging migration or
by displacing populations. This unit will look at Pro and anti- Population policies are an integral part of overall
natalist theories and population Policies in countries such as development policies. They help governments to control
Zimbabwe, China, Sweden, Singapore and France. population growth that is, reducing birth rate (anti-natalist)
or increasing birth rates (pro-natalist). They control the
population distribution, promote the quality of life and
Glossary of terms reduce death rates. Below are some policies for different
Population policy – is a set of measures taken by a state countries.
to modify the way its population is changing, either by Pro-natalist policies
promoting large families or limiting births to decrease the
number of people in an area. It is a policy that encourages couples to have more children.
They are found in countries with either very slow natural
Population control – is the practice of artificially
increase or natural decrease and in areas with ageing
maintaining or attempting to limit the growth in numbers of
populations. A government cannot force couples to have
a population.
more children, so instead it must offer incentives. These
Anti-natalist policy – a policy that attempts to reduce birth incentives may include:
rates. This might be through better education and supply of •• Cash payments.
contraception or through much stricter policies like China’s •• Free or subsidised healthcare and childcare.
one child policy. •• Free or subsidised education.
Pro-natalist policy – is a policy that encourages couples to •• Reduced tax rates.
have more children or increases the birth rate/ fertility rate •• Child benefits for example, weekly or monthly
of an area. payments.
TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION 469

TOPIC 9: SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS
Unit Settlement hierarchy
58
Unit objectives Hierarchy
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: The hierarchy of a settlement normally depends on three
variables:
•• define the term urban hierarchy.
•• describe and suggest reasons for the hierarchy of 1. The size of population.
settlements and services. 2. The range and number of services.
•• describe and explain the rank size rule. 3. The sphere of influence.
•• outline the central place theory.
Introduction
Increase in size of Conurbation
settlement , population
Settlement hierarchy is the classification of settlement and more services
City
according to population size and functions. There are many
rules that try and explain urban hierarchies. This introduces Large town
the concept of urban primacy and Christaller’s central place Decrease in
frequency
theory which introduces the concept of range and threshold Small town
population.
Village
Glossary of terms Homlet
Central place set – provides goods and services to its Isolated dwelling
surrounding. It varies in size depending on the level of
development of a country.
Figure 58.1 Settlement hierarchy
Sphere of influence – the area under the economic, social
Obviously these three variables are very much
and political influence of the central place. It varies because
interconnected. For services to be offered there has to be
the size, spacing of other central places.
a minimum threshold population. When services are then
Range of a good – the maximum distance that people offered more people are attracted.
within a given area are prepared to travel for a particular
As more people are attracted more services are offered and
good or service. Range is governed by the value of the good.
the sphere of influence increases. As you move down the
Threshold population – refers to the maximum number settlement hierarchy the numbers of settlements increase.
of people who are required to support a certain service or
For example, you only get one capital city (near the top of
good.
the hierarchy) in each country, but you get thousands of
isolated buildings (farms - near the bottom of the hierarchy)
in every country.
TOPIC 9: SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS 479

•• Resources evenly distributed across the terrain. Considering transport, the smaller settlements will
•• Goods and services always obtained from the be midway from two large settlements such that they
nearest central place. occupy the middle of the hexagons. Shoppers in smaller
•• Customers have equal purchasing power. settlements divide into two equal groups when shopping in
•• No excess profit would be made by any central the two nearest larger settlements.
place.
Administration Optimising
•• Higher order central places will provide both
lower order (bread, newspaper, fresh milk) and
higher order goods (cars furniture).
The basic principles of Christaller’s

Central Place theory F 1 A
1 B
Market optimizing principle E
D C
1\3
Highest order settlements
F A Lower order settlements
1\3 1\3
E B Figure 58.6 Administration optimising
In terms of administration it will cause problems if a

D C settlement is to be administered from two central places so
the best will be that the settlements be inside the hexagons.
All shoppers in the smaller settlements shop in the nearest
large settlement.
The largest settlement, which is in the Centre of the

Highest order settlements hexagon, will be surrounded by a number of smaller
Lower order settlement
settlements. People from the small settlements will visit the
large settlement for a particular good or service that their
Figure 58.4 Market optimizing principle
village does not provide. People cannot cross the boundary
The shoppers in smaller settlements divide into three hexagons because Christaller says they must shop in their
equal groups when shopping in the three nearest larger nearest central place.
settlements.
Evaluation of the theory
Transport optimising Shortcomings of the theory
•• Isotropic plain rarely exist.

•• Transport means have changed over time and
there are number of transport means.
•• People do not always shop from the nearest
central place.
•• People do not have the same purchasing power.
•• Neither do they have the same demands for
goods and services.
•• There is always competition amongst service
providers with the aim of maximising profits.
•• Central places have varied functions.
•• Perfect hexagons are rare in trade areas.
•• People are not always economically minded.
•• Activities such as wholesaling represent open
systems so the theory cannot be used to explain
such systems.
Figure 58.5 Transport optimising

TOPIC 9: SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS
Unit Growth points
59
Unit Objectives Glossary of terms
At the end of this unit, you should be able to: Growth point – ‘growth’ suggests the generation of new
production and employment and ‘point’ that this will be to
•• describe and explain the features and functions of
an important extent at the centre itself, and not only in its
growth points.
hinterland.
•• discuss the rationale behind the establishment of
growth points. Decentralisation – is the act of creating other service
•• discuss the impacts of growth points on public service providers instead of relying on one or few central points.
delivery.
•• identify the merits and demerits brought by the
Rationale for establishing growth points
decentralisation of urban functions through the Growth points were carefully selected based on their
establishment of growth points. potential to stimulate industrial growth and employment
opportunities. Others view them as service centres
Introduction only elevated to growth point status based on political
considerations.
The term ‘growth points’ is popularly used to refer to centres
A growth point is “a centre with an identifiable resource
of widely different levels and potentials, in effect the term
base capable of stimulating specific production and
has been a bearer of some of the high popular hopes
marketing activities.” The term ‘growth point’ entails
and expectations for development in the long depressed
increasing the size, number of facilities, infrastructure and
Communal Areas (formerly called Tribal Trust Lands, and
services provided at an identified centre. Thus, rural centres
before that Native Reserves). The centres are intended to
designated for such growth are commonly known as growth
redress some of the effects of the settler colonial partitioning
points in Zimbabwe.
of the country into ‘European Areas’ and peripheral ‘Native
Reserves’. The growth point strategy inter alia aims to These centres are sometimes referred to as either ‘growth
decongest urban centres by elevating some business centres centres’ or ‘growth poles’. A growth point can generally be
to growth point status in order to curb rural and urban defined as a settlement which central and local government
migration with work opportunities and the provision of consider has potential for development and hence needs
basic essential services available at growth points. The to be supported by further public and private sector
growth point strategy was first introduced in Zimbabwe soon investment.
after independence in1980 with the aim of transforming
The centre can either be in a rural or urban area. Thus,
rural service and business centres into vibrant economic
a growth point can be described as a rural or urban
hubs for rural development. Consequently, some public
settlement with the potential to grow into a town and
services traditionally found in towns and cities have been
eventually into a city. In Zimbabwe, the concept of
decentralised to enable local communities to access such
growth poles, or growth points, was actually introduced
services at the growth points. Residential areas were also
before independence as part of a policy document called
established at the growth points in order to accommodate
‘Integrated Plan for Rural Development,’ that was introduced
business expansion.
in 1978.”

TOPIC 11: MINING AND MINERAL BENEFICIATION
Environmental impact
Unit
assessment in mining
76
Unit objectives developing world (Zimbabwe included) and is well embedded
in the planning process. This unit is therefore going to look at
By the end of this unit, you should be able to: EIA in mining.
•• define environmental impact assessment.

•• describe environmental impact assessment.
Glossary of terms
•• state and explain the objectives, guiding principles, Environmental Impact Assessment – is a planning tool
participants and strengths of environmental impact used to identify, predict and assess potential impacts either
assessment. negative or positive that may arise from planned projects,
•• state the main steps of environmental impact and come up with ways with which to minimise negative
assessment. impacts and enhance positive ones.
•• describe and explain the importance of environmental
impact assessment in mining. Environment statement – is a document in which the
results of an EIA are assembled.
Introduction Project cycle – refers to the logical stages which all projects
should be subjected to during the EIA process.
Zimbabwe has many resources that are used for a variety
Terms of Reference (TORS) – refer to a document which
of purposes. One such resource is minerals. Zimbabwe
details the main environmental issues which must be
has a rich and diverse mineral resource base. More than
addressed in the EIA study.
40 minerals are mined in Zimbabwe. Some of Zimbabwe’s
economic minerals are gold, silver, platinum, diamond,
Environmental Impact Assessment
chrome, coal, nickel, asbestos, copper, iron and pegmatite
minerals like tantalite, tin, wolframite, berly, mica, feldspar Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) refers to the
as well as gemstones such as emerald, aquamarine, evaluation of the environmental impacts likely to arise from
chrysoberyl, alexandrite and euclase. These minerals are any project significantly affecting environmental quality.
an important contributor to the sustainable growth and EIA can be broadly defined as a study of the effects of a
development of the country. The extraction of minerals in proposed project, plan or program on the environment.
Zimbabwe and the world over brings about positive impacts Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a planning tool
and negative impacts. A plenty of techniques have been used to identify, predict, and assess potential impacts either
developed to detect and mitigate environmental effects negative or positive that may arise from planned projects,
caused by mining operations. One of the widespread and come up with ways with which to minimise negative
technic used is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). impacts and enhance positive ones. EIA also refers to the
During mining development projects EIA should study local predicting, evaluating, and mitigating the biophysical, social,
environmental impacts and establish monitoring, restoration and other relevant effects of development proposals prior
and control procedures to reduce or even remove the to major decisions being taken and commitments being
impacts. EIA as a preventive environmental management made.
tool has now been recognised by the governments of the
TOPIC 11: MINING AND MINERAL BENEFICIATION 573

Unit Mineralogy
78
Unit Objectives Isotropic – is when physical properties are the same in all
directions.
Istropism – is when minerals are grouped according to their
•• define mineralogy. physical properties which may be direction dependent.
•• identify minerals that co-occur in Zimbabwe.
Mineralogy – is the branch of geology concerned with the
•• describe the physio-chemical properties of minerals.
study of minerals.
Mineral – is a naturally occurring, homogenous solid with a

Introduction definite chemical composition and a highly ordered atomic
structure.
Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers
description, crystallography, physical, chemical and Parting – is when a mineral breaks along planes of
environmental feature of all minerals. Mineralogy can also structural weaknesses.
be defined as the study of minerals, the building of blocks of
rocks, which are naturally occurring crystalline solids with a Polymorphism – is when physical properties of minerals
set chemical make-up. are directly related to their atomic structure, bonding forces
and chemical composition.
Glossary of terms Tenacity – is the resistance that a mineral offers to

breaking, crushing, bending, cutting, drawing or tearing.
Anisotropic – physical properties vary with crystallographic
directions. Minerals crystallized in tetragonal, orthorhombic, Mineralogy
hexagonal, monoclinic and triclinic systems are anisotropic.
Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers
Cohesion – the force of attraction existing between description, crystallography, physical, chemical and
molecules. environmental feature of all minerals. Mineralogy can also
be defined as the study of minerals, the building of blocks of
Elasticity – the force that tends to restore the molecules rocks, which are naturally occurring crystalline solids with a
of a body into their original position from which they have set chemical make-up.
been disturbed.
This includes the study of the chemical composition and
Cleavage – the tendency of a crystalline mineral to break physical properties of minerals as well as mineral formation
in certain directions yielding more or less smooth planar and geographic distribution, with particular emphasis on
surfaces. minerals with economic value.
Hardness – is the resistance that a smooth surface of a Branches of mineralogy

mineral offers to scratching.
The branches of mineralogy are crystallography, crystal
Homogeneous substance – is the one that can be divided and conformational chemistry, physical mineralogy,
into repeating units that are exactly the same.

Value addition and

Unit
beneficiation methods
81
Unit Objectives Beneficiation
Beneficiation refers to the transformation of a mineral or
a combination of minerals to a higher value product which
•• define beneficiation. can either be exported or consumed locally. Beneficiation
•• describe different types of beneficiation processes. is defined as the process of adding value from mining right
•• separate sample mineral ores using different through to the final fabrication of a consumer branded
separation methods. product.
•• explain the value addition process of diamonds.
Mineral beneficiation is also defined as a process by
•• match separation methods to mineral ores.
which valuable constituents of an ore are concentrated
by means of a physical separation process. It is a process
Introduction that improves (benefits) the economic value of the ore by
removing the gangue minerals, which results in a higher-
Mining is a very important industry to the economy as it grade product (concentrate) and a waste stream.
creates employment, provides raw-materials for industries
Beneficiation is the second step in the mining process,
and earns foreign currency for the country. However,
after removal of the ore from the ground. Beneficiation
exporting mineral resources in their raw forms has led to
is the technical term describing the industrial process of
great losses as raw materials are of law value. It is therefore
mechanically separating minerals from each other. No
important to bring in value addition and beneficiation. chemical changes to the minerals are made at this point in
the mining process.
Glossary of terms
Objectives of beneficiation
Beneficiation – a process that improves the economic value
•• To increase the metal grade of ore.
of the ore by removing the gangue minerals which results in
•• To reduce the amount of gangue minerals
a higher-grade product and a waste stream.
so that lower volume of slag forms in
Downstream beneficiation – is beneficiation which pyrometallurgical extraction of metals. Slag
involves a range of activities including large-scale capital- contains mostly gangue minerals.
intensive activities such as smelting and refining as well as •• To decrease the thermal energy required to
labour intensive activities such as craft jewellery and metal separate liquid metal from gangue minerals.
fabrication. •• To decrease the aqueous solution requirement
in hydrometturgical extraction of metals.
Sidestream beneficiation – refers to inputs, namely capital
goods, consumables, and services into the value chain.

TOPIC 15: R
EGIONAL INEQUALITIES AND
DEVELOPMENT
Unit SMEs in Zimbabwe and their

impact on economic development
103
Unit Objectives Informal sector – the work that is done by people on an
informal basis.
What are SMEs?
•• define small and medium enterprises (smes).
SMEs can be defined as business organizations with an
•• describe the nature/characteristics of smes.
•• evaluate the contribution of SMEs in the economy of asset value ranging from USD$10 000 to USD$2 million,
Zimbabwe. employs two to twenty people and has an annual turnover
that ranges from USD$30 000 to USD$5 million.
Introduction The Small and Medium Act chapter 24:12 legalizes

operations of the informal sector. It provides funding
SMEs are indispensable in all economies and can be organization through the Small Enterprise Development
described as a driving force of business, growth, innovation, Corporation (SEDCO).
competitiveness and are also very important employers. They
It works together the Agricultural Development Bank and
have played a key role on economic growth and equitable
development in many developing countries by poverty Infrastructural Development Bank of Zimbabwe to provide
alleviation and raising standards of people. This unit seeks to funding facilities.
define SMEs, outline their nature as well evaluate the impact
they make on economic development. 62 % 21 % 8% 3% 3% 3%
Glossary of terms
Informal sector – enterprises that are not formalized
ow
oth
did
ba
loa tive
ven
rel
through the legal structure.

nk
ns
nf
er
tur
no
a
ou
loa
rom
t in
ec
Employment structure – the percentage of the working

rce
ap
dic
population employed in primary, secondary, tertiary and

ita
ate
quaternary areas.
l
Infrastructure – a network of links which can include

communications (road, rail, air), telecommunications and Figure 103.1 SMEs source funding in Zimbabwe
basic utilities (water, electricity, sewerage system).
Bank loans and venture capital are not popular funders for
Gross National Product – the total value of goods and SMEs because they often lack collateral requirements for
services produced in a year. the loans.
TOPIC 15: REGIONAL INEQUALITIES AND DEVELOPMENT 707

EXAMINATION (i) short time periods, and
(ii) a whole year. [12]
PAPER 1: PHYSICAL COMPONENT (c) To what extent is the risk of flooding increased by
human activity? [7]
TIME: 3 Hours 5. (a) Distinguish between a serosere and hydro sere. [6]
(b)Describe and explain the sequence of vegetation
Answer any four questions. changes which would occur in a tropical rainforest
1. (a) Briefly explain the terms greenhouse effect and area which has been disturbed by volcanic eruption.
global warming. [6] [12]
(b) W ith reference to examples, explain how urban (c) With reference to specific examples, evaluate
heat islands develop. [12] attempts being made to preserve rainforests.[7]
(c) W ith reference to examples of air masses, describe 6. (a) Explain the differences between block
and explain the development of weather at the disintegration and granular disintegration. [6]
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in Africa. (b) (i) W ith the aid diagrams, describe the nature of
[7] deep weathered layers in tropical regions.
2. (a) Explain the terms water table and perched water (ii) E
xplain the conditions which favour their
table. development. [12]
(b) E xplain the influence of the following factors on the (c) How has the stripping of regolith contributed of
form and nature of the water table. landforms in the tropics? [7]
(i) Relief. 7. (a) Describe any three forms of translocation in soil
(ii) Rock type. forming processes. [6]
(iii) Geological structure. (b) D escribe and explain any three of the followings oil
(c) A
ssess attempts that can be made to reduce the forming factors:
occurrence of floods. [7] (i) Climate.
3. (a) D escribe albedo as used in climatology. [6] (ii) Topography/relief.
(b) F ig 1 shows, in simplified form, temperature energy (iii) Parent material.
exchanges and stores in the ground in a temperate (iv) Organism (biota).
region. (v) Time. [12]
(c) To what extend do human activities cause the
Maximum
energy exchanges and surface temperature
temperature
deterioration of soil? [7]
Minimum 8. (a) Which areas of the world are most at risk from
temperature
natural hazards? Give reasons for your answer. [9]
(b) W ith reference to any three natural hazardous
B surface tempaturecurve events, explain to what extent these may be
LAG LAG predicted and/or prevented. [16]
A
surplus store of energy 9. (a) Draw a labeled diagram to show the linkages that
deficit of energy exist in tropical grassland ecosystem.
losses of energy curve
(b) W ith reference to areas you have studied, explain
gains of energy curve the physical and human causes of soil erosion in
tropical grasslands. [12]
midnight 06 h noon 18h midnight 10. (a) Using a diagram, describe the main features of the
sunrise sunset desert piedmont zone. [9]
time of the day
(b) D iscuss two theories which have been proposed
to explain the formation of rock pediments in arid
(i) D
escribe and explain lag times A and B shown.[6]
and semi-arid environments. [16]
(ii) H
ow would the variations depicted in Fig 1 be
used to explain possible changes in the weather
between sunrise and sunset? [6]
(c) T
o what extent should the possible effects of global
warming be of serious concern? [7]
4. (a) With the aid of a diagram, describe and explain
how the velocity of a river varies across channel. [6]
(b) U sing examples, explain the main causes of
variations in the discharge of rivers over.
710 Unit 103: SMEs in Zimbabwe and their impact on economic development
Index Catena 343
CBD 453, 504-5, 510-2
A Central Place theory 479-82
Chemical weathering 2 58-9, 261, 263-6, 268, 275, 277-9, 243,
Abstraction 157, 160, 296, 297, 315, 677 345, 349, 581
Acid lava 249, 253 Climate change 4, 55, 216-7, 220-8
Active remote sensing 56, 57 Climax vegetation 339, 340, 390
Adaptation 216, 223-8,239-41 Colour composites 74
Adiabatic process, 192 Colour theory 73
Agglomeration 482-4, 513, 616-22,632, 704 Conic projection 17, 19
Agri-business 552-3, 556-7 Conservation 292, 363, 364, 365-70, 513
Agro-based industries 554-6 Constructive plate margin 244, 248
Air mass 189, 191, 193-5, 197-206, 213 Continental 559, 198-10, 242-5, 256, 331
Albedo 175, 178, 180-1, 185, 211 Continental crust 242-4, 254
Ammonification 373-4 Continental drift 559, 243-4, 256
Anticyclones 197, 201-4 Core and periphery model 704
AnyLogic package 677 Correlation 83-5, 99-104, 629, 712
Aridity 275, 338 Counter urbanisation 504-7
Atmospheric processes and phenomena 172 Cumulative Causation model 704
Atmospheric window 61, 66 Cyclones 141-2, 153, 197, 201, 202-6, 234-7, 323, 463, 537
Auto correlation 131, 132,133 Cylindrical projection 15-6, 18-9, 21
B D
Backward linkage 496, 553, 616, 618 Data 1-10, 32-60, 712
Basic lava 249, 250, 253 Data input 2-4
Beneficiation 566, 572, 607-10 Data output 1, 3, 42
Bifurcation ratio 304-5, 308 Database 1, 2, 4, 28, 60, 635
Binary distribution 480 Death rate 112-3, 409, 413-20
Biodiversity 4 , 134, 155-6, 158, 160, 216, 227, 233, 356, 363, Decarburisation 664
367, 390, 391-3, 395-403, 513, 530, 532, 533, Deficit 544, 559, 560, 614, 710
544, 600, 602, 605, 672 Delimitation 169, 482, 510, 511
Biogeochemical 337, 355, 371-7, 383 Demography 412, 414, 494, 497, 704
Biogeo-chemical cycle 371 Dependency load 409, 416, 420
Biological weathering 262, 343, 349 Desert 177, 199, 229, 261, 263, 265, 293, 298, 385,385, 392
Biomass 5 4, 220,234, 336-7, 366, 376, 379, 380-9,393, 603-4, Destructive plate margin 244, 248
649, 651, 667-8 Devegetation 295, 302
Biomes 328, 329, 345, 363, 381, 384, 389-94, 402-3, 407 Diamond policy 571
Biosphere 328, 329, 330-5, 371- 377, 379, 401-2, 408, 658 Diaspora 626
Birth rate 409-13, 417-28, 439-46, 463, 469-73, 689, 704, 711 Diasporas 683
Bock mountains 255 Digital image processing 71-72
Borlaug 542-3 Disaster risk management 285
Brain drain 449, 456, 564, 626, 651, 700 Disease 396, 414-20, 430, 463, 475, 520, 537, 542, 545, 560
Buttes 283 Diseconomies of scale 616, 612,
Distribution 563, 576, 581, 620-30, 640, 652, 662, 665, 674
C Diurnal 172, 176-178
Capacity development 694 Drainage basin 37, 290-302
Capillarity 297 Drainage density 301-304
Capital 136,142, 167, 199, 241, 286, 351, 395, 404, 424, 427, Duricrusts 275, 282, 301
438, 439, 443, 445, 446, 450, 459, 467, 479, 485, 496-
7, 499, 500, 514, 517, 519-22, 528, 533-9, 548, 553, E
555, 567, 578 593-4, 597-98, 607, 609, 620, 624, 627, Earthquakes 4 , 29, 111, 155, 232-3, 244-5, 247-8, 256-7, 286,
636, 647,636, 647, 668, 685, 687, 699, 702, 704, 707-8 336, 704
Carbon cycle 371-3, 375-6 Eastings 9
Carbonation 261, 263, 281 Ecological succession 336, 341-2
Cartesian coordinate system 8, 39 Economic activities 155-6, 447, 480, 485, 495, 511, 561, 645

Economic development 100, 421696, 698, 700-704 H
Economic growth 427, 463,485, 494, 525, 549, 594
Ecosystem 134, 137, 152, 223, 234, 646, 668 Halophytes 339
Edaphic climax 340 Hardware 2, 630
Electromagnetic radiation 52, 54, 58, 61, 183 Hazard 537, 558, 581, 603, 612, 228-234
Electromagnetic spectrum 52, 62, 66, 74 Hazardous mass movements 286
Ellipsoid 12-13 Hazards 228 231, 240, 285
Emigration 107, 410, 449, 455, 504 Heat transfer 176, 177, 188, 186
Energy 52-55, 61, 68, 70, 74, 134, 174, 176 Helicoidal flow 304, 319,
Energy budget 180, 181, 186 High tech industry 631
Environmental Impact Assessment 368, 573, 594 Hot spots 249, 257
Ergonomic 612, 614 Human Development Index 697
Ethical trade 681, 694 Hydrograph 300, 301, 304
Ethnicity 232, 466, 468 Hydrology 231, 290, 353
Evapotranspiration 180, 209-11, 291-3, 390 Hydrolysis 258, 261, 263
Exclusive Prospecting Orders 568 Hydroseres 339
Extrusive features 248, 252 Hypothesis 83, 85, 93, 123, 132, 169, 322
F I
Faulting 254-7, 269, 297, 305 Image space 56, 65
Feature space 65 Imaging system 52, 58, 67
Fecundity 411 Immigration 410, 426, 449, 705
Fertility 136, 158, 330, 359, 411, 415, 421, 427, 469, 688, 708 Industry 3, 144, 157, 211, 445, 459, 503, 509, 538, 591
Flood 4, 38, 154, 158, 222, 229, 231,710, 713 Infiltration 288, 291, 296, 301, 331, 591
Flood forecasting 324,327 Inputs 290, 292, 376, 438, 500, 536, 552, 563
Flood plains 330, 337, 320 Instability 188, 191, 193, 660, 704
Flood prediction 322, 326 Interaction 618, 639, 645
Flooding 4, 222, 332, 443, 561, 705 Interception 29-4
Fold mountain 245, 254 Interception loss 291
Folding 242, 244, 253 Intermodal transport 677
Forward linkages 554, 616, 618 Intrusive features 248, 249, 256
Forward mapping 21 Inverse mapping 10, 21
Frequency 229, 241, 248, 298, 304, 322, 559, 583
J
G Jenny’s formula 343, 344, 349,
Geochemical prospecting 580-3
Geodetic datum 12
K
Geographic analysis 1, 130 Karst landforms 284,
Geographic information system 2 Kimberly Process 566, 571-2
Geoid 6, 12-13 Knick points 310-3
Geopolitical 662
Georeferencing 44, 46-7, 51 L
Gerschmel 379, 380
Land reform 446, 488, 491
Gerschmel diagram 379, 382
Landform 30, 80, 242, 250, 255, 258, 275, 276
Global inequalities 686
Landowner 521, 526, 566
Global trade patterns 690, 692,
Landslide 285, 286, 288
Globe 12, 16, 18, 204, 237, 395, 544, 640
Landuse 47, 514, 711
Graded river profile 311, 312
Laterite 346, 276, 282, 283
Graph 316, 327, 328, 344, 348, 391, 497, 501, 511
Levees 310, 319, 324
Graphical data 105
Liberalisations 691
Green chemistry 366
LIDAR 52, 57
Gross Domestic Product 531,654, 625, 698
Limestone 299,314, 345, 372, 373
Gross National Product 697, 707
Linkages 496, 498, 500, 616, 618
Growth point 83, 465, 477, 4836, 702, 705
Lithosere 338
Gypsum blocks 361

Load 29, 35, 144, 300 Polar coordinate system 8
Location 301, 343, 347, 353, 462, 474, 488 Population ceiling 437, 443
Long profile 310 Population control 469, 473
Population growth 100, 145, 156, 411, 416, 421-3
M Population policy 469, 473
Positive water balance 293
Macroeconomic 608, 663, 685
Precipitation 293, 302, 346, 381
Map 1, 2, 6, 15, 18, 21-5, 37, 43-47, 76, 105
Premature ageing 293
Map projection 15, 21
Probability 37, 92, 95, 118, 123
Mapping equation 10, 15, 21
Projected coordinate system 6, 8, 13
Maritime 193, 198-200
Prospecting Licence 566-8
Mass wasting 269, 273, 286
Prospector 566
Mean 6, 13, 21, 44, 69, 88, 91
Psammosere 338
Mean deviation 87, 92, 123
Meanders 319 Q
Median 89, 93, 96
Micro climate 207, 213 Quadrant 35
Migration 107, 111, 152, 224, 308, 325, 400, 410, 417 Qualitative research 82, 83
Minerals 516, 555-8, 570, 580, 582, 585, 587
Mining legislation 566-67, 595 R
Mitigation 599, 603, 604
Racial segregation 462
Morbidity 415, 420, 430, 490
RADAR 52, 53, 63
Mortality 214, 238, 410, 413, 417, 420, 425, 465
Radiation 52, 56, 219, 388, 580
Musculoskeletal injuries 611
Raindrop formation 188
N Range 57, 60, 62, 68, 76, 87, 9-7
Rank Size Rule 479-80
Negative water balance 293 Refugees 431, 466, 489
Nitrogen cycle 371, 373, 375 Regional development 706
Nitrogenise 374 Regional inequalities 545, 702, 706
Nocturnal 172, 177, 179, 190, 407 Regression 83, 85, 100, 102, 123
Northings 9, 11 Rejuvenation 312, 604
Nucleation 477 Remote sensing 2, 4, 23, 35, 52, 53, 61
Nutrients 143, 156, 233, 330, 346, 359, 371, 380-3, 391, 545 Renewable 136, 141, 366, 385, 635, 648, 654, 666, 672
Research 152, 168-70, 240, 360, 400, 490, 499, 535
O Research design 116-7, 169-71
Resolutions 67, 68
Oceanic crust 242, 250,
Re-vegetation 295-6
Optical remote sensing 53, 72,
Rift valley 649, 222, 255-6
Options 48, 162, 226, 239, 363, 569, 574, 619, 632, 668,
River 310-15
Oxidation 261, 358, 376, 587,
River bed 312, 314, 310
Oxygen Cycle 371, 375-6
River deposition 310, 315
P River erosion 310, 312, 321
River load 300, 308
Passive remote sensing 53 River transport 310, 314, 312
Peak rainfall 300-1 Rock cycle 258, 261
Pedology 350 Rock types 258, 181
Peltier diagram 263 Rocks 137, 243, 246, 249, 252
Perched water table 296, 299, 710 Root mean square error 44, 50
Physical weathering 259, 263, 265, 268 Rural settlements 476-7, 494, 498
Plagioclimax community 341, 335
Plane projection 18 S
Plate boundaries 242, 244, 248,
Sampling 30, 38, 50, 116-20, 581
Plate tectonics 243, 244, 246,256
Satellite orbits 23, 27
Platforms 282, 633, 688-9,
Satellites 23, 28-30, 59
Plunge pools 317
Scanners 1, 60, 70
Polar 8, 13, 480
716 Unit 103: SMEs in Zimbabwe and their impact on economic development
Scatter plot 98-99, 103 Transnational Corporation 504, 702
Scoping 163, 576 Transport enterprise 676, 678
Secant projection 16-7, 21 Transport optimising 481
Seepage spring 298 Tributaries 290, 304
Sensors 29, 53, 56-9, 66, 153 Tropical rainforest 382, 390, 401, 403
Settlement 240, 369, 453, 463, 480 Tundra 339, 407
Settlement hierarchy 479-80, 482
Settlement site 474, 491 U
Shapefiles 47
Ultraviolet 435, 580, 612
Slope decline 267, 271
Universal Transverse Mercator 9, 19
Slope evolution 267, 271-2
Urban heat 140, 207, 209, 211
Slope processes 267-8
Urban primacy 480
Slope profile 267-8, 273
Urban settlement 494-5
Slope replacement 271-2
Slope retreat 272 V
Small to medium 623
Soil catena 352, 354 Variable 30, 619, 702,
soil characteristics 64, 362 Vegetation indices 64, 76,
soil creep 269 Velocity 61, 26, 300
soil formation 338, 344-9 Visual remote sensing 53,
Soil morphology 350 Volcanoes 249, 337
soil parameters 362 Von Thunen model 522-5,
Soil pH 357 Vulcanicity 248-9
soil profile 262, 353
Soil texture 355-7
W
SONAR 52 Water balance 292-3
Spatial analysis 125, 131, 511 Water cycle 322, 290,
Spatial reference system 7 Weathering 581, 254, 331
Spatial variations 525 Weathering front 269, 277, 275
Spectrographic 580, 581 Weathering profile 275, 282
Spring 212, 281, 296, 298
Stability 560, 626, 660, 704
Standard deviation 83, 87, 92
Statistical data 84, 105, 105, 511
Statistics 82, 84, 87, 97
Stoma 293, 518
Stream density 300
Stream ordering 300, 304
Subclimax 340, 340
Suburbanisation 451, 503
Succession 269, 335
Surface storage 291
Surplus 495, 503
Sustainable management 363-4, 670, 672
System Dynamics 677-8
T
Taiga 382, 393, 408
Technology 430 439-40
Tensiometers 361
Topographical maps 10, 19 For more info call us on 0242-749417, 0775673510, or email:
Tourism industry 638-9 eduboutiquehub@gmail.com
Trade 640, 662, 675, 680
Trade balance 663, 698
Transfers 182, 186, 381

Excel - Advanced - Level - Geography - 2021 The Best

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Geography

Tinashe Pikirai Wellington Matiye Netsayi Chari

Linia Hambura Trymore Shenjere

Distributed by EDUBOTIQUE ZIM

TOPIC 2: GEO-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION.................................................. 82

TOPIC 3: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT............................................................................. 134

TOPIC 4: ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA......................................................... 172

TOPIC 5: GEOMORPHOLOGY...................................................................................................... 242

TOPIC 6: HYDROLOGY AND FLUVIAL PROCESSES.................................................................... 290

TOPIC 7: BIOGEOGRAPHY........................................................................................................... 328

TOPIC 8: POPULATION AND MIGRATION................................................................................. 409

TOPIC 9: SETTLEMENT DYNAMICS............................................................................................. 474

TOPIC 10: AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND FOOD SECURITY ............................................ 517

TOPIC 11: MINING AND MINERAL BENEFICIATION ................................................................ 592

TOPIC 12: INDUSTRIAL DYNAMICS ........................................................................................... 616

TOPIC 13: ENERGY SOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT................................................................... 648

TOPIC 13: TRANSPORT SYSTEMS AND TRADE........................................................................... 674

TOPIC 15: REGIONAL INEQUALITIES AND DEVELOPMENT...................................................... 696

Introduction What is GIS?

(c) Semi-automatic digitizing – line following devises. land cover

Database: data management/organisation

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 3

Summary of the unit

4 Unit 1: Geographic Information System (GIS)

Unit Revision Exercise

Distributed by EDUBOTIQUE ZIM

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 5

Coordinates and Coordinate

6 Unit 2: Coordinates and Coordinate Systems

DD = degrees + minutes/60 + seconds/3 600 Cartesian coordinate system

On the Cartesian system we fix an origin at point O and

Projected coordinate systems

Figure 2.3 Polar coordinates

We take an origin O and a fixed initial line OA. A point P is

From the diagram there are two pairs of equations we can

8 Unit 2: Coordinates and Coordinate Systems

Where points are located (XA ,YA) and (XB,YB) 11

Figure 2.6 Calculating distances using the Pythagoras theorem

Activity 2.2 90°

coordinate system u 50°

same points on a plane or flat surface. The world is divided

These zones are identified by numbers and cover the

Displacements in the x and y directions are called UTM

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 9

8 tenths This is the hundreds of meters

465 466 5156

•• It should now read as 465300. •• It now reads as 5156800.

Find the UTM grid reference for the following features on

Figure 2.9 Rusape 1: 50 000

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 11

The Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is wider at along

The ellipsoid The Geoid

Lorem ipsum Spheroid Topographic

12 Unit 2: Coordinates and Coordinate Systems

Unit Map projection

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 15

parallel. The normal aspect is the N or S pole where the

Figure 3.5 Planar projections

TOPIC 1: GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) AND REMOTE SENSING (RS) 17

On the lambert conic conformal projection, the central

Figure 3.9 Equal area projection

1. Distinguish between cylindrical and plane projections

Cylindrical Projections: Universal

(a) round based remote sensors – are found very

Figure 9.1 F eature extraction at resolutions of 1m, 10m (Sentinel