Added Topics (NEET 2024) - Book by Dr. Anand Mani

CHAPTER 01
THE LIVING
WORLD
WHAT IS LIVING?
LIVING?
z The word living cannot be defined in one line, but there are certain characteristics exhibited by
living organisms like,
1. Growth
2. Reproduction
3. Ability to sense and respond to the environment
z Few other features like metabolism, self-replicating ability or the ability to self-organise, interact
and emergence can also be added to this list.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING BEINGS
Cellular
Growth Reproduction organisation Consciousness Metabolism
Growth Twin characteristics

z Growth in multicellular organisms of growth
is achieved by cell division.
z In plants, this growth by cell Increase in
Increase in mass
division occurs continuously number
throughout their life span.
However, cell division occurs

1 In animals, this growth is seen
only upto a certain age. 2 in certain tissues to replace
the lost cells.
z Unicellular organisms grow by cell division. One can easily observe this in vitro cultures by simply
counting the number of cells under the microscope.
z In majority of higher animals and plants, growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive events.
One must remember that increase in body mass is considered as growth.
z Non-living objects also grow if we take increase in body mass as a criterion for growth. Mountains,
boulders and sand mounds do grow. However, this kind of growth exhibited by non-living objects
is by accumulation of material on the surface. In living organisms, growth is from inside.
z Growth is not the defining feature of living organisms since non-living things can also grow by the
accumulation of substances or by human intervention.
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Biology | Class XI
Reproduction Types of reproduction

z The process of producing progeny possessing features more or
less similar to those of parents is termed as reproduction.
z Invariably and implicitly we refer to sexual reproduction.
z Organisms reproduce by asexual means also. Fungi multiply and Sexual Asexual
spread easily due to the millions of asexual spores they produce.
z In lower organisms like yeast and Hydra, we observe budding. Number of parents involved
In Planaria (flat worms), we observe true regeneration, i.e., a
fragmented organism regenerates the lost part of its body and
becomes, a new organism.
z The fungi, the filamentous algae, the protonema of mosses, all
easily multiply by fragmentation. Two One
z When it comes to unicellular organisms like bacteria, unicellular algae or Amoeba, reproduction is
synonymous with growth.
z Some living organisms like a mule, sterile worker bees or infertile human couples do not possess
the ability to reproduce.
z Hence, reproduction also cannot be an all-inclusive defining characteristic of living organisms.
No non living object is capable of reproducing or replicating by itself.
Metabolism
z The organisms are composed of chemical compounds of varying sizes, classes and functions, which
are constantly being formed and changed into some other biomolecule by chemical reactions
called metabolic reactions.
z Thousands of metabolic reactions occur simultaneously inside all living organisms (unicellular or
multicellular). All plants, animals, fungi and microbes exhibit metabolism.
Metabolism involves
Catabolism Anabolism
Breakdown of polymers
Formation of polymers
to monomers
z Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions that take place in our bodies. There is no
metabolism in non-living things.
z The metabolic reactions can occur in laboratories (in vitro), in cell-free systems while, cellular
metabolism requires the same reactions to occur within a cell.
z An isolated metabolic reaction(s) outside the body of an organism, performed in a test tube in
neither living nor non living.
z Hence, while metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception, isolated
metabolic reactions in vitro are not living things but surely living reactions.
Consciousness
z The most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organisms is this ability to sense
their surroundings or environment and respond to these environmental stimuli which could be
physical, chemical or biological.
z We sense our environment through our sense organs. Plants respond to external factors like light,
water, temperature, other organisms, pollutants, etc. All organisms, from the prokaryotes to the most
complex eukaryotes can sense and respond to environmental cues.
z Photoperiod affects reproduction in seasonal breeders, both plants and animals. All organisms
handle chemicals entering their bodies. All organisms therefore, are ‘aware’ of their surroundings.
z Human being is the only organism who is aware of himself, i.e., has self-consciousness.

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The Living World
z Consciousness therefore, becomes the defining property of living organisms.
Cellular Organisation
z All living beings, whether unicellular or multicellular, are composed of cells.
z The defining feature of living forms is the cellular organisation of the body. Cells are made of
protoplasm (NEET 2017).
Macromolecules Cells
Organelles
Small
molecules
Tissue
Atoms
Epithelial
tissue
Layers of
smooth
Organ muscle
(stomach)
Human being
Organ system
(digestive system)
Fig. Different levels of organisation
z All the living phenomena are due to underlying interactions. Properties of tissues are not
present in the constituent cells but arise as a result of interactions among the constituent cells.
z Similarly, properties of cellular organelles are not present in the molecular constituents of the
organelle but arise as a result of interactions among the molecular components comprising the
organelle.
z These interactions result in emergent properties at a higher level of organisation.
z Therefore, it is said that living organisms are self-replicating, evolving and self-regulating
interactive systems capable of responding to external stimuli.
z Biology is the story of evolution of living organisms on earth. All living organisms - present, past and
future, are linked to one another by the sharing of the common genetic material, but to varying
degrees.
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
What is Living? (i) Increase in body mass
(ii) Increase in number of individuals
1. Which of the following is/are a defining
(iii) Cellular organisation
characteristic of living organisms?
(iv) Cellular differentiation
(a) Consciousness (b) Cellular organisation
(a) (i) and (ii)
(c) Reproduction (d) Both (a) and (b)
(b) (i) and (iii)
2. Which two of the below given points are known as (c) (ii) and (iii)
the twin characteristics of growth? (d) (iii) and (iv)

Biology | Class XI
3. Select the incorrect statement. 10. Which of the following statement is not correct?
(a) Living organisms are self-replicating, evolving (a) Growth cannot be taken as a defining property
and self-regulating interactive systems of living organisms.
capable of responding to external stimuli. (b) Cellular organisation of the body is the
(b) Mountains, boulders and sand mounds do defining feature of life forms.
grow if we take increase in body mass as (c) Unicellular organisms grow in number by cell
criterion for growth. division. Here growth and reproduction mean
(c) Many organism like mules, sterile worker bees the same.
and infertile human couples do not reproduce (d) None of these
at all. 11. Assertion (A): Biological concept of species is
(d) Isolated metabolic reactions in vitro are living based on reproductive isolation.
things. Reason (R): Most accepted species concept was
4. Which one of the following aspects is an exclusive given by Linnaeus.
characteristics of living beings? (a) If both A and R are true and R is the correct
(a) Metabolism explanation of A
(b) If both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(b) Consciousness
explanation of A
(c) Cellular organisation
(c) If A is true, but R is false
(d) All of these
(d) If both A and R are false
5. Amoeba multiplies by mitotic cell division. This
12. Assertion (A): No non-living object exhibits
phenomenon is considered as metabolism.
(a) growth (b) reproduction
Reason (R): Cellular organization is absent in
(c) consciousness (d) both (a) and (b).
non-living organisms.
6. Which of the following organisms do not (a) If both A and R are true and R is the correct
reproduce? explanation of A
(a) Mules (b) If both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(b) Worker bees explanation of A
(c) Infertile human couples (c) If A is true, but R is false
(d) All of these (d) If both A and R are false
7. Which of the following statements regarding the 13. Assertion (A): Metabolic reactions can be
response of living organisms to external stimuli is demonstrated outside the body in cell-free
systems.
correct?
(a) The external environmental stimuli can be Reason (R): An isolated metabolic reaction
physical, chemical or biological. performed in a test tube is neither living nor non-
(b) All organisms, from the prokaryotes to the living.
most complex eukaryotes can sense and (a) If both A and R are true and R is the correct
explanation of A
respond to environmental stimuli.
(b) If both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(c) Consciousness and response to external
explanation of A
stimuli is the defining property of living
(c) If A is true, but R is false
organisms.
(d) If both A and R are false
(d) All of these
14. Assertion (A): Growth is not taken as a defining
8. The statement ‘nothing lives forever, yet life
property of a living organism.
continues’ illustrates the role of
(a) embryogenesis (b) morphogenesis Reason (R): Nonliving organisms can also grow
by the accumulation of material on their surface.
(c) replication (d) reproduction.
(a) If both A and R are true and R is the correct
9. Human is the only organism having explanation of A
(a) consciousness (b) If both A and R are true, but R is not the correct
(b) Metabolism explanation of A
(c) cellular organization (c) If A is true, but R is false
(d) self-consciousness (d) If both A and R are false
ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (a)

The Living World
SOLUTIONS
1. (d) Both cellular organisation and consciousness 9. (d) Human is the only organism having self-
are defining features of living organisms. consciousness.
2. (a) Increase in body mass (by cell division) 10. (d) None of the given statement is incorrect.
and increase in number of individuals
•
Growth cannot be taken as a defining
(by reproduction) are considered as twin
property of living organisms.
characteristics of growth.
•
Cellular organisation of the body is the
3. (d) Isolated metabolic reactions in vitro are not
defining feature of life forms.
living things but surely living reactions.
• Unicellular organisms grow in number by
4. (d) The exclusive characteristics of living beings
cell division. Here growth and reproduction
are metabolism, consciousness and cellular
organisation. mean the same.
5. (d) Amoeba multiplies by mitotic cell division. 11. (c) The concept of a species in biology is based
This phenomenon is considered as both on reproductive isolation. Ernst Mayr’s
growth and reproduction. species theory, is the most widely accepted.
6. (d) A mule is a hybrid of male donkey and It is called the biological concept of species.
female horse. It inherited size and intelligence 12. (b) The sum total of all the chemical reactions
from the horse and firm footedness, great occurring in our body is metabolism. No
tolerance and ability to live on rough food non-living object exhibits metabolism.
from the donkey. However, with all its hybrid Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated
vigour the mule is sexually sterile (i.e., unable outside the body in cell-free systems. An
to reproduce) and a new one have to be isolated metabolic reaction(s) outside the
produced every time. body of an organism, performed in a test
Honey bees are colonial, social and tube is neither living nor non-living. Hence,
polymorphic insects. Three types of while metabolism is a defining feature of all
individuals (castes) are found in the colony of living organisms without exception, isolated
honey bees: (i) Queen which is fertile female. metabolic reactions in vitro are not living
(ii) Drones which are males. (iii) Workers are things but surely living reactions. Hence,
sterile females and perform various duties of the cellular organization of the body is the
the colony. defining feature of life forms.
A large number of couples are infertile. It
13. (b) Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated
means they are unable to produce children
outside the body in cell-free systems. An
inspite of unprotected sexual activities. Thus,
isolated metabolic reaction(s) outside the
inability to conceive or produce children
body of an organism, performed in a test
even after unprotected sexual cohabitation
tube is neither living nor non-living. Hence,
is called as infertility.
while metabolism is a defining feature of all
7. (d) Most complicated feature of all living
living organisms without exception, isolated
organism is the ability to sense their
metabolic reactions in vitro are not living
surroundings or environment and respond
things but surely living reactions.
to external stimuli which could be physical
or biological. All organisms, from the 14. (a) Non-living objects also grow if we take an
prokaryotes to the most complex eukaryotes increase in body mass as a criterion for
can sense and respond to environmental growth. Mountains, boulders, and sand
stimuli. So, the correct option is “All of these”. mounds do grow. However, this kind of
8. (d) Reproduction is the formation of new growth exhibited by non- living objects is by
individuals of the similar kind - Life arises the accumulation of material on the surface.
from pre-existing life. Reproduction is not In living organisms, growth is from the inside.
essential for survival of the individuals. It is Growth, therefore, cannot be taken as a
required for perpetuation of a population. defining property of living organisms.

CHAPTER 03
PLANT KINGDOM
PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

z Plant cells divide by mitosis to grow and produce different plant bodies, like haploid and diploid.
Haploid plant bodies are called gametophytes and diploid plant bodies are called sporophytes.
z Sexually reproducing plants exhibit alternation of generations between gamete producing
gametophyte (n) and spore producing sporophyte (2n) in a complete life cycle.
Gametophyte (n) Divides by mitosis Gametes (n) Fertilisation
Sporophyte (2n) Divides by mitosis Zygote (2n)
Divide by mitosis
Divides by meiosis Spores (n) New gametophyte (n)
again
Flow chart of Alternation of generations
Haplontic Life Cycle

z Gametophyte generation is dominant, photosynthetic, and free-living.
z In sporophytic generation, there is only one-celled zygote, which is not free-living and undergoes
meiosis to form spores that divide mitotically to produce new gametophytes.
Examples: Volvox and Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.
Zygote
Sy (2n) Meiosis
ng
am
y Spores
A (n)
Gametogenesis
B
Haplontic
Gametophyte
(n)
Fig. Haplontic Life cycle pattern

Biology | Class XI
Diplontic Life Cycle Sporophyte

(2n)
z Sporophytic generation is dominant, photosynthetic,
and independent.
z Gametophytic generation is microscopic and
Diplontic
represented by single to few-celled haploid
gametophyte.
Examples : All seed-bearing plants (gymnosperms A
Zygote(2n) y
and angiosperms) follow this pattern, where the m Meiosis
gametophytic phase is few to multicelled (AIPMT 2011). nga B
Sy
Fucus is alga which shows diplontic life cycle.
(n)
Gametogenesis
Haplo-diplontic Life Cycle Gametophyte
Fig. Diplontic Life cycle pattern

z Both gametophytic and sporophytic stages are
multi-cellular and free-living.
Sporophyte
z It is an intermediate condition between (2n)
Zygote
haplontic and diplontic life cycles.
(2n)
z In bryophytes, haploid gametophyte is Syn
ga A
dominant, independent, photosynthetic, my
and alternates with short-lived multicellular Meiosis
sporophyte (NEET 2022). Gametogenesis
Haplo-diplontic
z In pteridophytes, diploid sporophyte is B Spores
(n)
dominant, independent, photosynthetic, and
alternates with short-lived multicellular haploid
gametophyte (NEET 2022). Gametophyte
Examples: Bryophytes and pteridophytes, alga (n)
Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, and Kelps. Fig. Haplo-diplontic life cycle pattern
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Plant Life Cycles and Alternation of 3. In the alternation of generations, the sporophytic
generations is …A… and the gametophytic
Generations generation is …B…. Here A and B refer to
1. Which of the following statement is correct about
(a) A - 2n; B - n (b) A - n; B - 2n
the gametophytic stage in the alteration of
generation with in the life cycle? (c) A - n; B - n (d) A - 2n; B - 2n
(a) Generation that produces the gametes 4. Which of the following statement is true about the
(b) Generation that produces the spores sporophytic stage in plant life cycle?
(c) Generation that produces vascular tissue (a) The haploid generation
(d) The diploid generation (b) Generation that produces the gametes
2. In haplontic life cycle, the dominant generation is (c) Generation that produces the spores
(a) Sporophyte (d) Generation that produces vascular
(b) Gametophyte 5. Which structure in plants produces haploid
(c) Both (a) and (b) spores that eventually develop into
gametophytes?
(d) None of the above

Plant Kingdom
(a) Stamen (b) Pistil (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

(c) Sporangium (d) Root (c) Fertilization (d) Germination
6. In the alternation of generations, which 8. The moss plant is
generation produces spores through meiosis? (a) Sometimes gametophyte and sometimes
(a) Sporophyte (b) Gametophyte sporophyte
(c) Zygote (d) Embryo (b) Predominantly gametophyte with sporophyte
7. What is the name of the process by which two attached to it
haploid gametes combine to form a diploid (c) Gametophyte
zygote in plants? (d) Sporophyte
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b)
SOLUTIONS
1. (a) Gametophyte is gamete bearing, haploid of a plant life cycle, that produces spores by
multi-celled stage of many plants, beginning meiosis and alternate with the gametophyte
with haploid spores and ending at fertilisation. stage is called sporophytic stage.
2. (b) In haplontic life cycle gametophyte is 5. (c) Sporangium in plants produces haploid
dominant and sporophyte is single celled spores that eventually develop into
zygote. Haplonts are: gametophytes.
(i) Most fungi 6. (a) Sporophyte generation produces spores

through meiosis.
(ii) Some green algae, e.g., Chlamydomonas
7. (c) Fertilization is the name of the process by
(iii) Many Protozoa, e.g., Plasmodium
which two haploid gametes combine to form
3. (a) In the alternation of generations, the a diploid zygote in plants.
sporophytic generation is 2n and the 8. (b) The haploid gametophyte is dominant,
gametophytic generation is n. long lived, green and independent whereas
4. (c) The plant life cycle has both a sporophyte the diploid sporophyte is short lived and
and a gametophyte generation. The stage dependent upon the gametophyte.

CHAPTER 05
MORPHOLOGY OF
FLOWERING PLANT
MODIFICATION OF ROOT
z Roots in some plants change their shape and structure to perform functions other than absorbing
water and minerals. They are modified to store food and provide support and respiration.
z Tap roots like carrot, turnip, and adventitious roots of sweet potato (NEET 2018), get swollen, and
store food.
Sweet potato
01 Prop roots: Hanging roots of banyan tree to provide support

to heavy branches.
Example: Banayan tree
02 Stilt roots: Supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes of

the stem.
Example: Maize, sugarcane
03 Pneumatophores: Roots come out of the ground and grow

vertically upwards. These roots help to get oxygen.
Example: Mangrove (grow in swampy areas), Rhizophora
(NEET 2022)
04 Nodulated root: Roots form nodules with nitrogen fixing

bacteria
Example: Pea plant

Biology | Class XI
Tap root modifications
Tuberous Root Napiform Root Fusiform Root Conical Root

Swollen at any Thick at base, tapers Thick in middle tapers Swollen at base
portion except base towards apex at both the ends narrow at apex
(Mirabilis) (Turnip) (Radish) (Carrot)
MODIFICATION OF STEM
z Stems are modified to perform functions like storage, protection, and support.
Stem is modified as: Underground, subaerial and aerial.
Modification of underground stem
Bulb: Reduced stem disc shaped, Rhizome: Horizontally running,

bears adventitious root on the
bears nodes, internodes, buds
lower side and scaly leaves on
the upper side. Example: Onion and scaly leaves. Example: Ginger
and garlic and turmeric
Corm: Condensed structure, Tuber: Swells tip of underground

grows vertically, bears scaly branch, bears eyes (AIPMT 2011)
leaves Example: Colocasia Example: Potato (AIPMT 2014)
z Underground stem such as grass and strawberry, etc. spread to new niches and when older part
die out new plants are formed.
Modification of aerial stem
Stem tendril: Axillary bud is Stem thorn: Axillary buds are

modified into tendril for climbing. modified into thorn, protects plant
Examples: Cucumber, pumpkins, from browsing animals.
(NEET 2022) watermelon, and Examples: Citrus and Bougainvillea
grapevines (NEET 2022, 2017)
Pumpkin Lemon
Phylloclade Phylloclade: Stems are modified into

fleshy and flattened structure contain Cladode: Consisting of one
chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis. internode only, modified into leaf
Examples: Opuntia (flattened) and like structure
Euphorbia (cylindrical) Example: Asparagus
Euphorbia
(NEET2022, I-2016, AIPMT 2010)
Asparagus

Morphology of Flowering Plant
Sub-aerial
z In plants like mint and jasmine a slender lateral branch arises from the base of the main axis and,
after growing aerially for some time, arch is downwards to touch the ground.
Runner: Weak stems grow Stolon: They produce side branch

horizontally above the soil surface from main stem base which grow
and develops adventitious root at upwards and then arch down to
each node. Example: Grasses develop new daughter plants.
Grass (NEET 2022) Example: Jasmine
Jasmine
Offset: Horizontal branch, leaves Sucker: Stem grows under the soil horizontally
on the upper portion and roots initially and later grows obliquely upwards
on the lower portion. giving rise to leafy shoot.
Example: Pistia and Eicchornia Example: Banana, Pineapple, and

Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum
Eicchornia
z A lateral branch with short internodes and each node bearing a rosette of leaves and a tuft of
roots is found in aquatic plants like Pistia and Eichhornia.
MODIFICATION OF LEAVES
z Leaves are often modified to perform functions other than photosynthesis.
Table : Modification of leaves
MODIFICATION FORM/FUNCTION EXAMPLE

Leaf tendril Green, thread like, thigmotropic, unbranched Pisum sativum, lathyrus
and climbing/support to the weak stem odoratus
Leaf spine Leaf or parts of leaves are modified into spines Opuntia, Yucca (AIPMT 2015
to prevent excessive transpiration and Cancelled) Asparagus
protection.
Insectivorous Catch insects and absorb nitrogen Venus fly trap and Nepenthes
(NEET-I 2016)
Phyllode Petioles in these plants expand, become Australian Acacia (AIPMT 2012)
green and synthesise food.
Fleshy leaves Store food Onion and garlic
Cactus (Spines) Venus fly trap Acacia (Phyllode) Onion (Fleshy leaves) Succulent
Fig. Modification of leaves

Biology | Class XI
DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

Fabaceae
z Earlier, Fabaceae was also called Papilionoideae (subfamily of family Leguminosae). It is distributed
all over the world.
Vegetative characters of fabaceae

Trees, shrubs, herbs, Stem is erect and Leaves are alternate, pinnately compound or simple;
root with root nodules. climber. leaf base, pulvinate; stipulate; reticulate venation.
Fig. Pisum sativum (Pea) plant Fig. Flower of the pea plant
Inflorescence Racemose
Flower Bisexual
Zygomorphic
Calyx Sepals five; gamosepalous
Valvate/Imbricate aestivation
Corolla ive petals, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a posterior

F
standard, two lateral wings, two anterior ones forming a keel (enclosing
stamens and pistil)
Vexillary aestivation (NEET-I 2016)
Androecium Ten, diadelphous; anther dithecous (NEET 2023)
Gynoecium Ovary superior, monocarpellary, unilocular with many ovules, style single
Fruit Legume, seed- one to many and non-endospermic
Floral formula
%HK(5)C1+2+(2)A(9)+1G1
(NEET 2021, AIPMT 2010)
Fig. Floral diagram of Pisum sativum (pea) plant

Fodder Edible oil (Soyabean and

(Sesbania and Trifolium) groundnut)
Economic
Importance of
Plants -
Medicine (muliathi) Fabaceae Dye (Indigofera)
Pulses (gram, arhar, sem,

Ornamentals moong and soyabean) Fibres (Sunhemp)
(Lupin and sweet pea) (AIPMT 2010)
Family Malvaceae
z Habit and Habitat: An ornamental shrub, cultivated in tropics; perennial.
z Root: Tap, branched and deep.
z Stem: Erect, branched, cylindrical, solid, woody, glabrous.
z Leaf: Alternate, simple, petiolate, stipulate, ovate, serrate margin, acute apex, glabrous, unicostate
reticulate venation.
Inflorescence Solitary axillary.

Flower Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous, large, red colour.
Epicalyx Five to seven, green, linear.
Calyx Sepals 5, gamosepalous, ovate, valvate aestivation.
Corolla Petals 5, polypetalous, twisted aestivation, red, united at the base and adnate to
the staminal tube.
Androecium Stamens numerous, forming a tube, monadelphous, epipetalous, anthers
monothecous, yellow, reniform, transversely attached to the filament, pollen
grains multiporate.
Gynoecium Pentacarpellary, syncarpous, superior, pentalocular, axile placentation, many
ovules in each loculus; style passing through the staminal tube; stigma 5
capitate, covered with velvety growth.
Fruit Capsule.
Floral formula ⊕H Epi3→8K(5)C(5)A∞G(2-∞)
Fabric: Cotton, jute
Food Plants: Durian, Okra.
Economic
Vegetable oils: cottonseed oil,
kenaf oil.
Importance of
Malvaceae
Timber: Balsa.
Medicinal Plants: Marsh-

Fig. Floral diagram of
mallow, Althaea officinalis
Malvaceae

Biology | Class XI
Family - Gramineae (= Poaceae)

z It is commonly called cereal/grass family (Monocots).
z It is most evolved family due to reduction and modification in floral parts.
Vegetative characters of Poaceae family
z They are annual to woody perennial herbs.
z Stems: Generally round, hollow; nodes swollen, solid.
z Leaf: Alternate, parallel-veined; sheath generally open; ligule membranous or hairy, at blade base.
Inflorescence Compound (spike of spikelet/panicle of spikelet) in which unit of inflorescence is not

a single flower but a group of usually 3-5 sessile small flowers (florets) called spikelet.
Flowers Bracteate and bracteolate, sessile, incomplete, Small, trimerous, generally bisexual
Androecium Usually 3 stamens
Gynoecium Superior ovary with single ovule
Fruit Caryopsis (grain), one-seeded fruit
Seed Enclosed within the fruit (caryopsis)
Floral formula % V P0 or 2 (Lodicules)A3 or 6 G1
Food Crops: Triticum aestivum,

Oryza sativa.
Fodder Plants: Cynodon

dactylon.
Economic
Sugar Production: Saccharum Importance of
officinarum (Sugarcane). Gramineae
(= Poaceae)
Building Materials: Bambusa
species.
Medicinal Plants: Various Fig. Floral diagram of Gramineae

grass and bamboo species. (= Poaceae)
Family – Compositae
z The family Compositae, also known as Asteraceae, is one of the largest plant families.
z It is also known as sunflower family.
Vegetative characteristics
They are usually herbaceous annuals or shrubs. Outer surface of plants is covered with hairs.
z Root: The roots constitute a branched, tap-root system
z Stem: Herbaceous or woody and erect.
z Leaves: Usually alternate, simple, petiolate and exstipulate.

Inflorescence Typically, a composite flower head (capitulum) composed of numerous small

flowers arranged in disc florets (central) and ray florets (outer)
Flower Small, usually radially symmetrical
Calyx Absent or reduced to a pappus of bristles or scales
Corolla Tubular in disc florets, ligulate (strap-shaped) in ray florets
Androecium Stamens fused into a tube (syngenesious) surrounding the style; anthers
often united into a tube
Gynoecium Bicarpellate, syncarpous ovary, inferior ovary position
Fruit Achenes (single-seeded dry fruits) often with a pappus (modified calyx) for
wind dispersal
Seed Usually small and equipped with the pappus for wind dispersal
Floral formula Disc floret: Br ⊕ f, K2–3 Sclaes/pappus, C(5), A(5), G(2)
Food: Helianthus tuberosus

and Lactuca sativa.
Oil: Sunflower and safflower.

Economic
Importance of
Medicinal Values: Artemisia. Compositae
Ornamental Purposes: Fig. Floral diagram of

Alyssum and Hesperis. Compositae
Brassicaceae (Crucifaceae family)

It is also known as mustard family or crucifer family.
Vegetative characteristics of Brassicaceae family
z These are herbaceous plants.
z Leaves often forming a basal rosette, simple, alternate and pinnately compound.
Inflorescence Racemes or corymbs, often with distinctive terminal flowers

Flower Small, typically with four petals in a cross-shaped arrangement
Calyx Sepals usually four, free or fused at the base
Corolla Petals usually four, forming a cross shape
Androecium Usually six stamens (four long and two short)
Gynoecium Superior ovary, typically with two carpels, forming a simple or bilocular ovary
Fruit Siliques (long, slender fruits) or silicles (shorter, wider fruits)
Seed Numerous, small seeds arranged in a single row within the fruit, often with a
distinctive mucilaginous seed coat
Floral formula Ebr. ⊕ H K2+2 C4 A2+4 G(2)

Biology | Class XI
Vegetable Crops: Brassica

oleracea (Cauliflower).
Oil Production: B. campestris

seeds yield mustard oil.
Economic
Importance of
Medicinal Uses: Lepidium Brassicaceae
sativum treats liver issues.
Ornamental Plants: Fig. Floral diagram of

Cheiranthus cheiri, Iberis amara. Brassicaceae
Solanaceae
z It is a large family called as the ‘Potato family’.
z It is widely distributed in tropics, subtropics, and even temperate zones.
Vegetative Characters of Solanaceae
Leaves: Alternate simple,

Plants mostly herbs,
rarely pinnately
shrubs and rarely
compound, exstipulate,
small trees
venation reticulate. (b) (c)
Stem: Herbaceous rarely woody, aerial; erect,

cylindrical, branched, solid or hollow, hairy or (a) (d) (e)
glabrous, underground stem in potato
Fig. Solanum nigrum (makoi) plant : (a)
(Solanum tuberosum)
Flowering twig (b) Flower (c) L.S. of flower
(d) Stamens (e) Carpel
Inflorescence Solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum

Flower Bisexual
Actinomorphic
Calyx Sepals five; united and persistent
Valvate aestivation
Corolla Five petals and united
Valvate aestivation
Androecium Stamens five and epipetalous
Gynoecium Bicarpellary, obligately placed, syncarpous; ovary superior,

bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules, axile placentation.
Fruit Berry or capsule
Seeds Many and endospermous
Floral formula (NEET 2021, AIPMT ⊕ HK(5)C(5)A5G(2)
2009)

⊕
Spices (chilli)
(AIPMT 2011)
Medicine (Belladonna,
ashwagandha)
Economic
Source of food (Tomato, Importance of
brinjal and potato)
Plants -
Solanaceae.
Fumigatory (Tobacco)
(AIPMT 2009)
Ornamentals (Petunia) Fig. Floral diagram of Solanum

nigrum (makoi) plant
Liliaceae
z It is called the ‘Lily family’.
z It is representative of monocotyledonous plants.
z It is distributed worldwide.
Vegetative characters of liliaceae

Perennial herbs with underground
bulbs/corms/ rhizomes.
(a) (b)
Leaves mostly basal, alternate, linear,
exstipulate with parallel venation. Fig. Allium cepa (onion) plant :
(a) Plant (b) Inflorescence
Inflorescence Solitary/cymose; often umbellate clusters
Flower Bisexual
Actinomorphic
Perianth Tepal six (3+3), often united into tube
Valvate aestivation
Androecium Stamen six, 3+3 and epitepalous
Gynoecium Tricarpellary, syncarpous ovary superior, trilocular with many ovules

(NEET-I 2016).
Axile placentation
Fruit Capsule, rarely berry
Endospermous
Floral formula
Br ⊕ H P(3+3)A3+3G(3)
(NEET 2021, AIPMT 2010)

Biology | Class XI
Source of medicine (Aloe)
Colchicine (Colchicum
autumnale) Economic
Importance of
Many good ornamentals Plants -
(Tulip and Gloriosa) Liliaceae
Vegetables (Asparagus) Fig. Floral diagram of Allium

cepa (onion)
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Modification of Root 9. Which one of the following is an example for sub-
aerial modification of stem?
1. The edible part of the sweet potato is a modified
(a) Agave (b) Oxalis
(a) Stem (b) Root
(c) Asparagus (d) Tridax
(c) Leaf (d) Flower
10. A horizontal underground stem is a
2. Radish and carrot are modification of .............. (a) Corm (b) Phylloclade
(a) Root (c) Rhizome (d) Rhizoid
(b) Stem
Modification of Leaves
(c) root and stem respectively
11. The bladder of Utricularia and pitchers of
(d) stem and root respectively Nepenthes are modification of
3. Offset is a type of stem present in (a) Stems (b) Leaves
(a) Pistia (b) Colocasia (c) Roots (d) Flowers
(c) Oxalis (d) Potato 12. Modification of petiole into leaf-like structure is
4. Pneumatophores are usually present in called
(a) Murraya (b) Eichhornia (a) Cladode (b) Phylloclade

(c) Phyllode (d) Pistillode
(c) Avicennea (d) None of these
13. The leaf parts gets modified into spines in order
Modification of Stem to
5. Ginger is an example of underground modified (a) Reduce transpiration
stem called (b) Reduce surface area
(a) Rhizome (b) Corm (c) Protect the plant from grazing animals
(c) Tuber (d) Bulb (d) All of the above
6. Which of the following stem modifications is Description of some important
commonly found in onions and garlic?
families
(a) Stolon (b) Tuber
14. In compositae family the flower is
(c) Bulb (d) Rhizome
(a) hypogynous (b) epigynous
7. Modified shoots wherein the shoot apical
(c) perigynous (d) both (a) and (b)
meristem changes to floral meristem is called
15. Tobacco and Petunia belong to the family
(a) Flower (b) Inflorescence
(a) Poaceae (b) Fabaceae
(c) Shoot buds (d) Both (a) and (c)
(c) Solanaceae (d) Brassicaceae
8. Expanded green stem of Opuntia is called
16. Which of the following is onion family?
(a) Phylloclade (b) Tendril (a) Apocynaceae (b) Papaveraceae
(c) Bulbs (d) Cladode (c) Solanaceae (d) Liliaceae

17. Which of the following are member of fabaceae? (a) Egg plant (b) Ashwagandha
(a) Pea (b) potato (c) Petunia (d) None of these
(c) Aloe (d) Tulips 26. Bicarpellary, syncarpous ovary with axile
placentation is seen in
18. Which of the following members of family-
Solanaceae is rich in source of vitamin-C? (a) Solanaceae (b) Caesalpinaceae
(a) Tomato (b) Guava (c) Asteraceae (d) Malvaceae
(c) Gooseberry (d) Strawberry 27. Ornamental plant of solanaceae is
19. The plant having diadelphous stamen and (a) Petunia (b) potato
dithecous anther is
(c) tomato (d) Atropa
(a) Lemon (b) Pea 28. Which of following is correct about liliaceae?
(c) Tomato (d) China rose (a) Is commonly called lily family
20. Seed of liliaceae family are:
(b) Is a representative of monocotyledonous
(a) Endospermous (b) Monocotyledonous plants
(c) Both a and b (d) Non-endospermic (c) Is a representative of dicotyledonous plants
21. Nightshade family is another name for
(d) Both (a) and (b)
(a) Apocynaceae (b) Papaveraceae 29. The fruit of Solanaceae is
(c) Solanaceae (d) Liliaceae (a) Berry of capsule (b) Pome
22. Legumes belongs to which family?
(c) Legume of pod (d) Drupe
(a) Apocynaceae (b) Fabaceae 30. Which of the following represents the floral
(c) Solanaceae (d) Liliaceae characters of Liliaceae?
23. Connate carpel is characteristic feature of which (a) Six tepals, zygomorphic, six stamens, bilocular
family? ovary, axile placentation
(a) Asteraceae (b) Malvaceae (b) Tetramerous, actinomorphic, polyphyllous,
(c) Papilionatae (d) Solanaceae unilocular ovary, axile placentation
24. Replum is found in the ovary of (c) Trimerous, actinomorphic, polyandrous,
(a) Brassicaceae (b) solanaceae superior ovary, axile placentation
(c) Fabaceae (d) both (b) and (c) (d) Bisexual, zygomorphic, gomophyllous, inferior
25. Which of the following is medicinal plants? ovary, axile placentation
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (c)
SOLUTIONS
Modification of Root prostate or sub-aerial weak stem, i.e., aerial
stems that cannot stand upright without
1. (b) The edible part of the sweet potato is a
any support. Stem, here is soft and can bend
modified root.
without any difficulty. The stem has only one
2. (a) Both radish and carrot are root modifications internode and spreads simply over ground
that serve as food storage organs. surface. It is generally found in free floating
3. (a) Offset type of stem is found in Pistia. An offset hydrophytes like Eichhornia, Pistia etc. Leaves
is stout, runner like horizontal stem. It is a arise here in clusters in nodes. This type of

Biology | Class XI
stem also helps in vegetative reproduction. petiole gets modified into sickle shaped leafy
Oxalis is an example of runner. Runners are structure, which performs photosynthesis.
semi-aerial weak stems which also spread Such a modified petiole is called phyllode
over ground. Thus, the correct answer is (phyllodia).
option A. 13. (d) The leaf parts gets modified into spines in
4. (c) Pneumatophores are specialized negatively order to reduce transpiration and protect the
geotropic roots produced by halophytic plant from grazing animals by reducing leaf
mangrove plants, e.g., Avicennea. surface area.
Modification of Stem Description of Some Important Families

5. (a) Ginger is a modified stem growing 14. (b) The Compositae family is known as
underground forming the structure called Asteraceae. Compositae family possess a
rhizome. It has nodes and internodes since it capitulum or head type of inflorescence in
is a modified form of stem. It also has scaly flowers. In the Compositae family, the flower
leaves. is Epigynous because it possess the inferior
6. (c) An onion or garlic plant has a modified ovary.
system of the stem that grows beneath or 15. (c) Tobacco plant (Nicotiana tabacum)
below the ground. It does not prepare food, yields tobacco, while Petunia violacea is an
but rather stores it, which is why its bulb has ornamental plant. Both the plants are the
fleshy leaves attached to the bottom part of member of family-Solanaceae.
its stem. It takes the form of a compacted 16. (d) Liliaceae is the family of onion
bulb.
17. (a) The family Fabaceae includes a number
7. (a) Flower is a modified shoot, which performs the of plants that are common in agriculture,
function of reproduction. The arrangement including Pisum sativum (pea), Cicer
and distribution of flower over a plant is arietinum (chickpeas), Vicia faba (broad
called inflorescence. Inflorescence is the bean).
name of modified shoot that is specialised to
18. (a) Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) belongs
bear flower. The axis of inflorescence is called
to family-Solanaceae. The tomato fruit have
peduncle. A flattened peduncle is called
large quantities of vitamin-C; compared with
receptacle.
oranges, tomatoes contain over two-thirds of
8. (a) Phylloclade is a modified stem or branch of vitamin-C.
unlimited growth. It consists several nodes
19. (b) The plant having diadelphous stamen and
and internodes and may be flat or circular,
dithecous anther is pea.
fleshy, photosynthetic like green leaf, e.g.,
Opuntia. 20. (c) Seed of Liliaceae family are endospermous
and monocotyledonous.
9. (b) Oxalis (wood sorrel) is an example of
runners, which are the sub-aerial weak stem 21. (c) The Solanaceae, also known as the potato
modification. Runners are those creepers or deadly nightshade family is one of
that grow horizontal or prostrate in all humankind's most utilized and important
directions above the ground, possess long plant families. It contains some of the world's
internodes and nodes bearing scale leaves most important food plants, such as the
and adventitious roots on the lower side. potato, tomato, all peppers, ground cherries
(tomatillo), and eggplant.
10. (c) Rhizome is perennial, fleshy dorsiventral
and horizontal underground stem growing 22. (b) A legume is a plant that belongs to the
beneath the surface of soil. These may be Leguminosae or Fabaceae family, or its seed
root stock rhizome, e.g., banana or straggling or fruit. This seed can also be considered as a
rhizome, e.g., lotus, ginger, etc. pulse when used as a dry grain.
23. (b) Connate Corpel is characteristic feature of
Modification of Leaves malvaceae family
11. (b) In insectivorous plant Nepenthes, the lamina 24. (a) Replum is a thin false septum present in the
forms the pitcher, the lid represents the apex, ovary of flower of mustard. Mustard fruit is
and the petiole is tendrilar, whereas leaf base caleld siliqua. It develops from a bicarpellary,
is flattened. In Utricularia, which is submerged syncarpous, superior ovary which is unilocular
floating hydrophyte, the leaves are dissected but becomes bilocular due to a false septum
and some of the leaf segments get modified called replum.
into tiny bladders.
25. (b) Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera, fam.
12. (c) The lamina in compound leaf of some plants Solanaceae) is commonly known as “Indian
(e.g., Acacia sp, Parkinsonia) falls off soon and

Winter cherry” or “Indian Ginseng”. It is one of known as the 'lily family'. It is widely distributed
the most important herb of Ayurveda. all over the world
26. (a) The gynoecium in the Solanaceae family is 29. (a) The fruits of members of the Solanaceae
bicarpellary, syncarpous, with an ovary which family are capsule or berry in character.
is superior and bilocular, and the placenta is The most prevalent fruit kind is the capsule.
swollen with many ovules. The placentation is Capsules are dried fruits that crack apart to
of axile type. release their seeds.
27. (a) Some other important members of 30. (c) In general, the flowers of the Liliaceae family
Solanaceae include a number of ornamental are bracteate, actinomorphic, bisexual,
plants such as Petunia, Browallia, and trimerous and hypogynous. The perianth is
Lycianthes, and sources of psychoactive with six tepals, gamophyllous and biseriate.
alkaloids, Datura, Mandragora (mandrake). Androecium contains six polyandrous
28. (d) Liliaceae is a family of angiosperms. It is a stamens, which are epiphyllous and present
family of monocotyledonous plants. It is also in two whorls.

CHAPTER 06
ANATOMY OF
FLOWERING PLANTS
z Anatomy is the study of the internal structure of organisms. Study of plant’s anatomy helps us in
understanding the internal structure and functional organisation of plants.
THE TISSUE
z A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and function.
z A plant is made up of different kinds of tissues. Tissues are classified into two main groups as given
below:
Meristematic
Tissue PLANT TISSUE Permanent Tissue
Apical
Complex
Meristem Simple Tissue
1 Tissue
Intercalary
Meristem Xylem
2 Parenchyma Sclerenchyma
1 3
Lateral
Collenchyma Phloem
Meristem
3 2
Meristematic Tissue
z Growth in plants is largely restricted to specialised regions of active cell division called meristems
(Gk. meristos: divided) (NEET 2021).
z Plants have different kinds of meristems. The meristems which occur at the tips of roots and shoots
and produce primary tissues are called apical meristems.
z These are the tissues where active cell division and growth occur.

Biology | Class XI
Shoot
Meristematic Apical
Meristem
Node
Intercalary
Tissue Meristem
Lateral
Meristem
Root
1 2 3 Apical
Meristem
Stem
Apical Intercalary Lateral

meristem meristem meristem
Fig. Labelled diagram of
meristematic tissue
1. Apical Meristem
z It is the type of meristems that occur at the tips of roots and shoots and are responsible for
producing primary tissues.
z The root apical meristem is located at the tip of the root, while the shoot apical meristem occupies
the distant most region of the stem axis.
Central cylinder
Cortex
Leaf primordium
Protoderm Shoot apical
Initials of central Meristematic zone
cylinder
and cortex
Root apical Axillary bud
Initials of meristem
rootcap Differentiating
vascular tissue
Root cap
(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Root apical meristem (b) Shoot apical meristem
z When leaves are formed and the stem elongates, some cells from the shoot apical meristem are
left behind and they form the axillary bud. These buds are found in the axils of leaves and have the
potential to grow into a branch or a flower.
z Main function of apical meristem is to produce growth in a lengthwise manner.
2. Intercalary Meristem
z It is the region of meristem tissue that are derived from the apical meristems but are separated
from them by permanent tissues. It is the meristem which occurs between mature tissues.
z They are commonly located at the base of leaves, either above or below nodes and aid in the
elongation of organs.
z The intercalary meristem present at the base of Pinus leaves, known as the basal meristem, remains
active throughout the life of the leaf. These meristems are typically used up in the formation of
permanent tissues, unlike other meristems.
z It also occurs in grasses and regenerated parts removed by the grazing herbivores
(Odisha NEET 2019).
Apical meristems and intercalary meristems are both considered as primary

meristems since they appear early in the plant’s life and play a role in forming the
primary plant body.

Anatomy of Flowering Plants
3. Lateral Meristem
z Secondary or lateral meristem is a type of meristem that appears later than primary meristem
and is found in the mature regions of roots and shoots of many plants, particularly those that
produce a woody axis.
1 2 3
Lateral meristem is They are typically Apical and intercalary meristems
responsible for the cylindrical meristems and are primary meristems because
secondary growth of include examples such as they appear early in plant life and
the plant body, the fascicular vascular contribute to the formation of
dividing and forming cambium, interfascicular primary plant body.
secondary tissue. cambium, and cork During that, specific regions of the
cambium. apical meristem produce dermal
tissues, ground tissues, and vascular
tissues.
Permanent (Mature) Tissues

z The cells that are newly formed undergo specialization both structurally and functionally, and
eventually lose their capacity to divide. These cells are known as mature or permanent cells and
they constitute the permanent tissues.
z As they mature, these cells acquire a fixed shape, size, and function, and lose their ability to divide.
Therefore, the cells of the permanent tissues usually do not divide any further.
z Permanent tissue is classified into two types: simple tissues, which consist of cells that are alike in
both structure and function, and complex tissues, which contain multiple types of cells (NEET 2021).
Simple Complex
(Made up of only PERMANENT TISSUES (Made up of more
one cell type) than one cell types)
Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma Xylem Phloem
Thickened corners
Protoplasm Lumen Pits
Vacuole Thick
cell wall
Cell wall
Intercelluar Lumen
space
Thick
cell wall
A sclereid
A fibre
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. (a) Parenchyma, (b) Collenchyma, (c) Sclerenchyma
One-way Two-way flow

flow
Water and Food and
minerals minerals
No end walls
between cells End walls with
Stiffened with perforations
lignin
Fig. Xylem phloem

Biology | Class XI
Simple tissues
A. Parenchyma
z It is a significant constituent of organs, consisting of cells that are
typically isodiametric in shape.
z These cells can also be spherical, oval, round, polygonal, or
elongated in appearance. Intercelluar
z The walls of parenchymal cells are thin and composed of cellulose space
and may be tightly packed or possess small intercellular spaces.
z Parenchyma has diverse functions, including photosynthesis,
storage, secretion, etc. Fig. Parenchyma
z Chlorenchyma, modified parenchyma with chloroplast, has been observed to develop in the
spore capsule of moss (AIPMT 2003).
B. Collenchyma
z The collenchyma, a tissue that provides support, is located in Thickened corners
layers beneath the epidermis in dicotyledonous plants. It is Protoplasm
present either as homogeneous layer or as patches. vacuole
z The cells have thickened corners due to the deposition of Cell wall
cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin.
z They can have various shapes such as oval, spherical, or
polygonal and may contain chloroplasts, which help in food
assimilation.
z Intercellular spaces are absent, and the tissue provides
mechanical support to growing parts of the plant, such as the
young stem and petiole of a leaf. Fig. Collenchyma
C. Sclerenchyma
z Sclerenchyma cells (long and narrow) provide mechanical support to plant organs due to their
thickened cell wall, which is heavily deposited with lignin. These cells have few or numerous pits
in their cell walls and are typically dead without protoplasts.
z Sclerenchyma is classified into two types based on variation in form, structure, origin, and
development: fibres and sclereids.
Fibres Sclereids
Sclerenchyma fibres are thick walled, elongated These are spherical, oval, or cylindrical
cells with pointed ends, making them one of the shaped, dead, sclerenchyma cells with
longest cells in the plant body. Fibers generally occur highly thickened cell walls with heavy
in groups. The cell walls of fibres contain numerous lignin deposition. These cells have a very
pits (simple and bordered) with a lumen. narrow or obliterated lumen (NEET 2021).
Pits
Lumen
Thick Lumen
cell wall
Thick
cell wall
Fibre Sclereid
z Sclerenchyma is commonly found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like guava, pear and
sapota, endocarp of drupe fruit, epidermal covering of legume seeds, and leaves of tea. Jute,
flax fibers are example of sclerenchyma fibre.

Complex permanent tissues

z These are made of more than one type of cells and they work together as a unit.
Xylem PERMANENT TISSUES Phloem
Conducting tissue for water and minerals from roots Transports food materials from
to the stem and leaves. It also provides mechanical leaves to other parts
strength to the plant parts.
A. Xylem
z It is composed of four different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and
xylem parenchyma.
1. Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem. Tracheids are elongated or tube like cells with thick
and lignified walls and tapering ends. These are dead and are without protoplasm. The inner
layers of the cell walls have thickenings which vary in form. In flowering plants, tracheids and
vessels are the main water transporting elements.
2. Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells called vessel members,
each with lignified walls and a large central cavity. The vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm.
Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their common walls. The presence of
vessels is a characteristic feature of angiosperms.
3. Xylem fibres have highly thickened walls and obliterated central lumens. These may either be
septate or aseptate.
4. Xylem parenchyma cells are living and thin-walled, and their cell walls are made up of cellulose.
They store food materials in the form of starch or fat, and other substances like tannins. The radial
conduction of water takes place by the ray parenchymatous cells.
Functions of Xylem
z Their main function is to transport water.
z Tracheid or vessel carries water and minerals absorbed by roots to leaves and other green parts
of the plant body.
z Tracheid of xylem tissues give rigidity to plants and carries water and minerals from the roots to
stem and leaf.
z Xylem fibre gives rigidity to plant organs.
z The water-conduction function of the xylem is one of the major distinguishing features of vascular plants.
Primary xylem are of two types:
Protoxylem PRIMARY XYLEM Metaxylem
It is the first formed xylem, made up of It is the later formed of xylem, made up of
smaller elements broader and larger elements

Biology | Class XI
z On the basis of the position of protoxylem with respect to metaxylem, primary xylem is of two types:
Protoxylem
Metaxylem
Cortex
Pith
(a) (b)
Fig. (a) Endarch and (b) Exarch
Endarch XYLEM Exarch
z In stem, protoxylem lies towards the z In root, protoxylem lies towards the
centre and the metaxylem lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies towards
the periphery. the centre.
Sieve pore
B. Phloem
Sieve tube element
z It transports food materials from leaves to other parts of
Phloem parenchyma
plants.
z Gymnosperms have albuminous cells and sieve cells. Companion cell
z They lack sieve tubes and companion cells (NEET 2019).
Fig. Phloem tissue
Sieve tube elements

z These are long, tube-like structures arranged longitudinally and are associated with
companion cells. Their end walls are perforated to form the sieve plates.
z A mature sieve element has peripheral cytoplasm and a large vacuole but lacks nucleus.
z The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion cells.
z Function: Conduction of food materials from leaves
Companion cells
z Specialised parenchymatous cells are closely associated with sieve tube elements.
(AIPMT 2012)
z Sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected by pit fields present between their
common longitudinal walls.
z Function: Maintaining the pressure gradient in sieve tubes

Phloem parenchyma
z It is made up of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells which have dense cytoplasm and
nucleus.
z The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits through which plasmodesmatal
connections exist between the cells.
z Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the monocots.
z Function: It stores food material and other substances like resins, latex, and mucilage
Phloem fibres (bast fibres)

z These are made up of sclerenchymatous cells.
z These are much elongated, unbranched and have pointed, needle-like apices.
z Cell wall is quite thick. At maturity, these fibres lose their protoplasm and become dead.
z Generally absent in the primary phloem but are found in the secondary phloem.
z Function: Mechanical support and protection of soft tissues.
z Phloem fibres of jute, flax, and hemp are used commercially.
Protophloem is the first formed phloem having narrow sieve tubes and metaphloem is the
later formed phloem having wider sieve tubes.
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
The Tissue (a) Intrafascicular cambium
(b) Interfascicular cambium
1. The chief water conducting elements of xylem in
gymnosperms are (c) Phellogen
(a) Vessels (d) Intercalary meristem
(b) Fibres 5. Plant cells that are photosynthetically active are
(c) Transfusion tissue found in the …A… layer of leaves and are …B… .
(d) Tracheids Choose the correct combination of A and B from
the below given options
2. Which of the following is\are features of
Sclerenchyma fibres? (a) A-mesophyll, B-parenchymatous
(a) Thick-walled (b) Elongated (b) A-mesophyll, B-collenchymatous

(c) Pointed cells (d) All of these (c) A-mesophyll, B-sclerenchymatous
(d) A-mesophyll, B-meristematic
3. Collenchyma is
(a) Living and contains protoplasm 6. Axillary bud and terminal bud are derived from
(b) Dead and hollow the activity of
(c) Dead and filled with reserve food (a) Lateral meristem
(d) Living and contains no reserve food (b) Intercalary meristem
4. Which one of the following is not a lateral (c) Apical meristem

meristem? (d) Parenchyma

Biology | Class XI
7. Length of petiole increases due to division of (c) A-laterally; B-root

(a) Apical meristem (d) A-tip; B-meristematic
(b) Lateral meristem 10. In flowering plants, the main water transporting
(c) Intercalary meristem elements are
(d) All of these (a) Tracheids (b) Vessels
8. On the basis of variation in form, structure, origin (c) Fibres (d) Both (a) and (b)
and development, sclerenchyma may be 11. Meristematic tissue are
(a) Fibres (a) Premature having ability of division
(b) Sclereids (b) Mature does not have ability of division
(c) Either (a) or (b) (c) Premature not having ability of division
(d) Both (a) and (b) (d) Complex differentiating in xylem, phloem and
9. Roots apical meristem occupies the …A… of roots, cambium
while shoot apical meristem occupies the distant 12. Intercalary meristem is a derivative of
most region of the …B… axis
(a) Lateral meristem
Complete the above sentence with the correct
combination of A and B (b) Promeristem
(c) Primary meristem
(a) A-tip; B-stem
(d) Secondary meristem
(b) A-side; B-stem
ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (c)
SOLUTIONS
1. (d) The tracheids are elongated, angular dead with protoplasm and characteristically
cells with hard lignified wide lumen and possessing unevenly distributed thickenings
narrow end walls. The walls of tracheids of cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose on their
possess different types of thickenings and
wall.
the unthickened areas of its wall allow the
rapid movement of water from one tracheid 4. (d) Intercalary meristems are the portions of
to another. Tracheids are the characteristic apical meristems, which are separated
cell types of xylem tissues in gymnosperms from the apex during the growth of axis and
and pteridophytes, where they are chief formation of permanent tissues.
elements of water conduction.
5. (a) The photosynthetic cells are found in
2. (d) Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells
mesophyll and are parenchymatous in
with thick and lignified cell walls having
a few or numerous pits. They are usually nature.
dead and without protoplasts. On the basis 6. (c) It is the shoot apical meristem, which gives
of variation in form, structure, origin and rise to lateral buds. The lateral buds, however,
development, sclerenchyma may be either
remain suppressed due to apical dominance.
fibres or sclereids. The fibres are thick-walled,
elongated and pointed cells, generally 7. (c) The intercalary meristems are responsible
occurring in groups, in various parts of the for localised growth. Perhaps they have been
plant. detached from the mother meristem, e.g.,
3. (a) Collenchyma is a specialised supporting meristem present at the base of leaves in
simple permanent tissue of living cells filled many monocots, in the internode of grasses.

8. (c) On the basis of variation in form, structure continuous divisions and redivisions.
origin development sclerenchyma may be They may be promeristem, primary
fibre, i.e., thick the elongated and pointed cells meristem, secondary meristem, apical
or sclereids, i.e., spherical oval or cylindrical. meristem, intercalary meristem and
9. (a) The root apical meristem occupies the tip of lateral meristem.
root, while shoot apical meristem occupies (ii) P
ermanent tissues These are made
region of stem apex. up of mature cells, which have lost the
capacity to divide and have attained
10. (d) Both (a) and (b) (tracheid and vessels).
a permanent shape, size and function,
11. (a) Tissue is a group of cells performing a e.g., simple (parenchyma, collenchyma,
particular function. Tissue are mainly of two sclerenchym (a), complex (xylem,
types: phloem) and secretory tissue.
Meristematic
(i) tissues These tissues 12. (c) The meristem, which lies between the regions
of permanent tissues is called intercalary
contain immature and young cells that
meristem. Intercalary meristem is a primary
are much active and capable of showing
meristem.

CHAPTER 07 STRUCTURAL
ORGANISATION IN
ANIMALS
ANIMAL TISSUE
z The structure of cells vary according to their function.
z Hence, tissues are different and broadly classified into 4 types.
Animal Tissues
Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Neural tissue
Epithelial tissue (pl.: epithelia)

z This tissue has a free surface that is exposed to either a body fluid or the outside environment and
thus provides a covering or a lining for some part of the body.
z The cells are compactly arranged with little intercellular matrix.
z Epithelia is sheet like tissue.
z On the basis of structural modification of the cells, they are divided as follows:
Types of epithelial tissues
Simple (made of single

Glandular Compound (multilayered)
layer of cells)
• Squamous • Cuboidal • Columnar • Squamous • Columnar

• Ciliated • Pseudostratified • Cuboidal
z Simple epithelium functions as a lining for body cavities, ducts and tubes, whereas compound
epithelium has more of a protective function as it does in our skin.
Table : Types of simple epithelial tissues
Name Shape Position of nucleus Location Function
Simple squamous Single thin layer of Middle Alveoli of lungs, Gaseous exchange
epithelium flattened cells with lining of blood and (form a diffusion
irregular lymph vessels boundary), and
boundaries (AIPMT 2010). filtration
Simple cuboidal Single-layer of Middle Tubules of nephrons Absorption,
epithelium cube-like cells, free and ducts of glands secretion and
surface may have (NEET 2023, excretion
microvilli AIPMT 2014)

Biology | Class XI
Simple columnar Tall and slender At the base Lines the Secretion and
epithelium cells, the free gastrointestinal absorption
surface may have tract (stomach and
microvilli (small intestine)
intestine)
Ciliated epithelium Cuboidal and Middle and at the Inner surface of Move mucous and
columnar cells base (columnar) hollow organs like particles (like egg)
bear cilia at their bronchioles and in specific direction
free surface fallopian tube over the epithelium
(NEET 2023, 2022; (NEET 2019).
AIPMT 2011, 2009 ).
Pseudostratified Single-layer of cells Not defined, nuclei Salivary glands, Shorter cells secrete
epithelium arranged become displaced male urethra and mucus, longer cells
irregularly that give trachea (ciliated) propel
the appearance of mucus and other
multiple layers particles.
Simple squamous Simple cuboidal Simple columnar Ciliated columnar
Pseudo-stratified
(columnar)
Glandular epithelium Glandular epithelium Compound epithelium
(Unicellular gland) (Multicelluar gland)
Fig. Types of Epithelial Tissue
z Additionally, cuboidal epithelium bears microvilli on their free ends in absorptive regions, giving
them a brush-border appearance. Hence, named as brush-bordered epithelium (NEET 2020).
This type of epithelium is commonly found in the proximal convoluted tubules (PCT) of the kidney.
Table : Types of glandular epithelial tissues
GLANDULAR BASED ON THEIR CELL NUMBER BASED ON THE MODE OF POURING OF

EPITHELIAL TISSUE THEIR SECRETION
(Some of the columnar
and cuboidal cells are Unicellular Multicellular Exocrine Endocrine
specialised for
secretion)
Properties Consist of isolated Consist of cluster Products are released Do not have ducts.
glandular cells. of cells. through ducts or Products are secreted
tubes. directly into fluid
bathing the gland.
Function Secretion of Secretion of Secrete mucus, saliva, Secrete hormones in
mucus (goblet saliva in the earwax, oil, milk, the blood
cells) mouth (salivary digestive enzymes and
gland) other cell products
through ducts
Examples Goblet cells of Salivary glands, Sweat and sebaceous Pituitary, thymus,
alimentary canal etc. glands, etc. pancreas, adrenal,
(NEET 2022, 2020, testes and ovary, etc.
AIPMT 2012)

Structural Organisation in Animals
Table : Types of compound epithelial tissues
Name Shape Location Function
Stratified Squamous Flattened cells arranged Epidermis (dry surface) of Protection against
in many layers. skin, hair and moist surface abrasion.
of buccal cavity, pharynx.
Stratified Cuboidal Cuboidal cells arranged Sweat glands, female Protection against
in many layers urethra, inner lining of ducts mechanical and chemical
of glands like salivary and stresses
pancreatic glands.
Stratified Columnar Columnar cells arranged Epiglottis and mammary Protection and secretion
in many layers glands
z Transitional epithelium (Urothelium) is present in the wall of the urinary bladder which allows
expansion and has the capability to modify the shape.
z The neurosensory epithelium is present in the lining of the retina, tongue, and ear, which receives
stimuli.
Cell junctions
z All the cells in epithelium are held together with little intercellular material (AIPMT 2009).
Cell Junctions
Adhering
Tight junctions Gap junctions
junctions
z These specialised junctions provide structural and functional links between epithelial cells in nearly
all animal tissues (AIPMT 2009).
z The cells are held together with three types of junctions.
z Tight junctions check the flow of materials
between the cells, restricting any substance from
leaking across a tissue. Example-brain (NEET 2021,
Odisha NEET 2019). Tight junction
z Adhering junctions perform cementing by Adhering junction
keeping neighbouring cells together (Odisha
NEET 2019).
Gap junction
z Gap junctions facilitate the communication
between the cells by connecting the cytoplasm
of adjoining cells for rapid transfer of ions,
small molecules, and sometimes big molecules
Fig. Types of Junctions
(NEET 2021, Odisha NEET 2019, AIPMT 2015).
Connective Tissue
z These are the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body of animals.
z They are involved in linking and supporting other tissues/organs of the body and hence named
connective tissue.
z The cells of all connective tissues except blood secrete fibres of structural proteins called collagen
or elastin. The fibres provide strength, elasticity, and flexibility to the tissue. Cells also secrete
modified polysaccharides, which act as a matrix (ground substance) by accumulating between
cells and fibres.

Biology | Class XI
Types of connective tissue (NEET 2021)
Loose connective Dense connective Specialised connective tissue-

tissue– Cells and fibres are tissue– Fibres and Two types : Skeletal connective
loosely arranged in a semi- fibroblasts are compactly tissue (Bone and cartilage) and
fluid ground substance packed with little matrix Fluid connective tissue (Blood
and lymph) (NEET 2023)
Table : Types of loose connective tissues
Loose connective tissues Feature Location Function
Areolar tissues Contains fibroblasts (cells that Present beneath the Serves as a support
(AIPMT 2014) produce and secrete fibres) skin framework for epithelium
mast cells (NEET 2023) and
macrophages
Adipose tissues White/Yellow fat (large size fat Occurs mainly Specialised to store fats
droplets surrounded by a small beneath the skin, and reduces heat loss
amount of cytoplasm) and around the heart, from the body
brown fat (small size fat droplets blood vessels and [Excess nutrients that is
are surrounded by a large kidney (NEET 2017) not used immediately,
amount of cytoplasm) are the converted into fat and
two types of adipose tissues stored in this tissue]
Macrophage
Fat Storage
Fibroblast
Area
Collagen Nucleus
Fibres
Plasma
Membrane
(a) Mast Cell (b)

Fig. (a) Areolar tissue (AIPMT 2012) (b) Adipose tissue
Table : Types of dense connective tissue
Dense connective tissue Feature Function

Dense regular (collagen fibres Tendon and ligament are 2 types of Tendons connect bone to muscle;
are present in rows between dense regular connective tissue Ligaments connect bone to bone
many parallel bundles of (NEET 2023, 2022)
fibres)
Dense irregular (fibroblasts and Present in the skin Provide strength
many fibres, mostly collagen
are oriented differently)
Dense regular Dense Irregular
Collagen fibres
Fig. Dense connective tissues: Dense regular and dense irregular

Table : Types of skeletal connective tissues
Skeletal Feature Location Function

connective
tissues
Cartilage Cells of cartilage are Present at the tip Provide flexibility at the
Dense regular
called chondrocytes of the nose, outer joints.
which are enclosed ear joints (AIPMT Most of cartilage in Cartilage
in small cavities 2012), between vertebrate embryos are
within the matrix adjacent bones replaced by bones in Collagen fibre
secreted by them of the vertebral adults.
(NEET 2014). column (NEET Cartilage cell
Their intercellular 2022), legs and (chondrocyte)
material or matix is hands in adults
Blood cells
solid and pliable and
resist compression. Collagen fibres
Bones Cells of bones are Present in the Provides structural Bone

called osteocytes limbs, neck, ears frame to the body, Red blood cells Plate
that are present in and vertebral supports and protects
small spaces called column softer tissues and
lacunae. Their organs.
ground substance is Limb bones, such as the
hard, non pliable long bones of the legs, White blood cell
Dense Irregular Haversian
and rich in calcuim serve weight bearing canal
salts and collagen functions.
fibres Dense
which regular
give Fig. Skeletal connective
They also interact with tissues
bone its strength.
skeletal muscles
attached to them to
Cartilage
bring about movements.
The bone marrow in fibre
Collagen
some bones is the site of
production of blood
cells. Cartilage cell
(chondrocyte)
Table : Types of fluid connective tissues
Blood cells
Skeletal Collagen fibres Location
Feature Function
connective
tissues
Blood It is a fluid connective Main circulating Transport gases

Bone
tissue containing fluid that flows and nutrients Red blood cells Platelets
plasma, WBCs, RBCs inside blood
and platelets vessels
Lymph It is a fluid connective Present in Remove excess

tissue having plasma lymphatic vessels fluid and absorb
and WBCs fats by lacteals White blood cells
Dense Irregular Haversian
canal Fig. Fluid connective tissues:
Blood cells
Muscle Tissue
z Muscles have a significant role in the movement of the body and maintaining the positions of
various parts of the body.
z Muscular tissues originate from the mesoderm of the embryo, but the iris muscles of the eye
develop from the ectoderm.
z Each muscle is made of many long cylindrical fibers arranged in parallel arrays composed of fine
fibrils, called myofibrils.
z Muscle fibers contract (shorten) in response to stimulation, then relax (lengthen) and return to
their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion, which allows body to move so that it can adjust
to the changes in the environment.

Biology | Class XI
Table : Types of muscular tissue
Types of muscular Shape Branching Nucleus Striations Location Movement Fatigue

tissue
Skeletal/striated Long and Unbranched Multi- Present Closely Voluntary Easily

cylindrical nucleated associated to
skeletal bones
Smooth/ unstriated Spindle-shaped Unbranched Uni- Absent In the wall of all Involuntary Not
with tapering nucleated (NEET-II visceral organs (NEET-II easily
ends (fusiform) 2016) (NEET 2021, 2016)
(NEET 2021, NEET-I 2016)
NEET-II 2016)
Cardiac Long and Branched Uni- Present Heart Involuntary Never

cylindrical (AIPMT 2011) nucleated
z Intercalated discs are the communication junctions at some fusion points of cardiac tissue
(NEET 2021) that allow the cells to contract as a unit (neighbouring cells also contract when one
cell receives a signal to contract).
z In a typical skeletal muscle, striated (skeletal) muscle fibres are bundled together in a parallel
fashion.
z A sheath of tough connective tissue encloses several bundles of muscle fibres.
z Cell junctions hold various smooth muscles fibres together.
Smooth Striations
Striations muscle
fibres
Nucleus
Intercalated discs
Nucleus (Junction between
adjacent cells)
Skeletal/striated Smooth Cardiac

(Karnataka NEET 2013)
Fig. Types of muscle tissue
Neural Tissue Dendrite

z Neural tissue exerts the
greatest control over the body’s
Neuroglia
responsiveness to changing cell
conditions.
z They are composed of nerve cells Cell body
with nucleus
or neurons which are excitable cells
(unit of nervous system).
z The neuroglial cell which constitute
the rest of the neural system
(AIPMT 2009) protect and support
Axon
neurons (NEET 2022).
z Neuroglia makes up more than one
Neuroglia cell
half the volume of nervous tissue in
the body. Fig. Neuron with neuroglia cell
z When a neuron is suitably stimulated, an electrical disturbance is generated which swiftly travels
along its plasma membrane.
z Arrival of the disturbance at the neuron’s endings, or output zone, triggers events that may cause
stimulation or inhibition of adjacent neurons and other cells.

COCKROACH
z Cockroaches are classified under the phylum Arthropoda,
class Insecta, and order Dictyoptera.
z In India, two common type of cockroaches are found,
namely Periplaneta americana and Blatta orientalis.
z Cockroaches range in size from ¼ inch to 3 inches
(0.6-7.6 cm) and have long antennae, legs, and a flat
extension of the upper body wall that conceals the head.
z They are nocturnal, omnivorous, and cursorial insects.
z Cockroaches are often found in warm, dark, and damp places, such as kitchens, restaurants,
storehouses, godowns, railway wagons, ships, and numerous underground drains.
Morphology
z The cockroach’s body is covered externally by hard brown chitinous plates called sclerites,
which are connected to each other by thin, flexible, and soft articular or arthrodial membrane
(AIPMT 2015 cancelled).
z The dorsal plates are tergites and the ventral plates are called sternites.
z The exoskeleton of the cockroach is made up of chitin and covers its entire body (NEET-I 2016).
z Adult Periplaneta americana (brown and black bodied), the common species of cockroach,
measure about 34-53 mm long, and the males have wings that extend beyond the tip of their
abdomen.
z Bright yellow, red and green colored cockroach have also been reported in tropical region.
z The cockroach has metamerically segmented body parts and a schizocoelom type of body
cavity (NEET-I 2016).
z The body of the cockroach is segmented and divisible into three distinct regions:
Body of Cockroach
Head Thorax Abdomen
Number of 1
Segments in (6 fused) 3 10
Adult Cockroach
Total = 14
Filiform
antennae
Compound Eye Head
Pronotum
Tegmina
Mesothorax
Hind Wing
Prothoracic Leg
Metathorax
Mesothoracic Leg
Abdomen
Metathoracic Leg Anal Cerci
Fig. External parts of cockroach

Biology | Class XI
1. Head
z The head of the insect is triangular in shape lies anteriorly at right angle to the longitudinal body
axis and is formed by the fusion of six segments, allowing for great mobility due to its flexible neck.
z The head capsule contains a pair of compound eyes and a pair of antennae (thread like), which
serve as sensory receptors, help in monitoring the environment.
z Antennae arise from membranous sockets lying in front of eyes.
z The mouthparts or appendages in anterior end of head of the insect are of the biting and chewing
type and include the labrum (upper lip), labium (lower lip), a pair each of maxillae and mandibles,
and a hypopharynx (which acts as tongue) (NEET 2021).
Ocellus
Compound eye
Labrum
Grinding
region
Incising
Mandible region
Mandible
Hypopharynx
Maxilla
Mandible
Labrum
Maxilla Maxilla
Labium
Labium
(a) (b)
Fig. Head region of cockroach: (a) Parts of head region, (b) Mouth parts
2. Thorax
z The thorax of the insect is divided into three parts: the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax,
with each thoracic segment bearing a pair of walking legs.
z The head is connected with thorax by a short extension of prothorax known as the neck.
Mesothoracic wings, also known as fore-

wings or tegmina or elytra, are thick, large, Metathoracic wings, also known as hind
leathery, dark-coloured, and opaque in wings, are very delicate, transparent, thin,
structure (NEET 2022). They are narrow at the and membranous, with a broad terminal end.
distal end and do not participate in flight, but They are used for flight, but in the resting
instead cover and protect the metathoracic position, they lie folded below the tegmina.
wings when at rest (AIPMT 2015 Cancelled).
3. Abdomen
z The abdomen in both males and females is made up of 10 segments.
z In males, the genital chamber is located at

z In females, the 7th sternum is boat- the hind end of the abdomen and is bounded
shaped and forms a genital pouch dorsally by the 9th and 10th terga and ventrally
or brood (NEET 2021), along with the by the 9th sternum.
8th and 9th sterna (NEET 2018). z It has a dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore,
z The anterior part of this pouch and gonapophysis.
contains the female gonopore, z The male cockroach possesses a pair of short
spermathecal pores, and collateral thread-like structures called anal styles, which
glands. are absent in females (AIPMT 2012, Karnataka
NEET 2013, 2023).

z Both males and females have a pair of jointed filamentous anal cerci on the 10th segment
(NEET 2020, 2021).
Anatomy
Digestive system of the cockroach
z The alimentary canal is divided into three distinct regions, namely the foregut, midgut, and
hindgut.
1. Foregut
z It encompasses the pre-oral cavity, mouth, pharynx (short tubular), oesophagus (narrow tubular
passage), crop (sac like structure for storing food), and gizzard (NEET 2020).
z The gizzard (also known as proventriculus) Pharynx
Salivary gland
possesses robust circular muscles (outer layer)
and thick inner cuticles forming six chitinous plates
called teeth (serves for grinding food) (AIPMT 2011, Salivary
reservoir
NEET 2020).
Oesophagus
z The entire foregut is lined by cuticle.
2. Midgut Crop
z The main digestion and absorption of food occurs

in this region. Gizzard
z The junction of the midgut and foregut gives rise to Hepatic caeca
6 to 8 finger-like structures (blind tubules), called
the hepatic or gastric caecae (NEET 2020, 2021), Mesenteron
which secrete digestive juice. or midgut
z The junction of the midgut and hindgut is indicated Malpighian
by the presence of 100-150 Malpighian tubules, tubules
yellow, thin, thread-like excretory structures that Rectum
Ileum
aid in removing waste products from haemolymph.
Colon
3. Hindgut
Fig. Alimentary canal of cockroach
z The hindgut is broader than the midgut.
z It consists of the ileum, colon, rectum, and anus (NEET 2019).
Foregut and hindgut are ectodermal and lined by cuticle whereas, midgut is endodermal
and lacks cuticle.
Circulatory system of the cockroach Anterior

z The blood vascular system in the cockroach is of an open type, where aorta
blood vessels are poorly developed and open into the haemocoel.
Alary
z The haemocoel is a body cavity that contains the visceral organs, muscles
which are bathed in blood (haemolymph).
z The haemolymph consists of colourless plasma and haemocytes.
z However, haemolymph does not contain a respiratory pigment and
hence does not assist in respiration, but it aids in the transfer of food
material and metabolic wastes.
Chambers
z The heart of the cockroach is an elongated muscular tube lying along of heart
mid dorsal line of thorax and abdomen that is differentiated into
funnel-shaped chambers with ostia on either side.
z The heart is 13 chambered and have 12 pairs of alary muscles.
z Blood from sinuses enters the heart through ostia and is pumped Fig. Open circulatory
anteriorly back into the sinuses again. system of cockroach

Biology | Class XI
Respiratory system of cockroach

z The respiratory system of insects is comprised of a network of tracheae that open through ten
pairs of holes or spiracles located on the lateral side of the body, which are guarded by bristles or
hair to keep out dirt. Spiracles are regulated by sphincter (NEET 2020).
z The thin branching tubes called tracheal tubes carry oxygen from the air to all parts of the insect’s
body.
z These tubes are further subdivided into tracheoles, where the exchange of gases takes place by
diffusion (Karnataka NEET 2013).
Excretory System of Cockroach

z The excretory system of insects is primarily performed by Malpighian tubules, which are lined by
glandular and ciliated cells. They absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric
acid, that’s why insects are called uricotelic. The uric aid is excreted out through the hind gut.
z Cockroaches excrete their nitrogenous waste in the form of potassium urate (AIPMT 2015).
z The fat body, nephrocytes, and uricose glands also play a role in excretion (NEET 2023).
Nervous System of the Cockroach

z This system comprises supraoesophageal ganglion (brain) which supplies nerves to antenna
and compound eyes. In addition, there are three thoracic ganglia: Prothoracic, mesothoracic,
and metathoracic ganglia present in respective thoracic segments, and six abdominal ganglia.
These series of fused segmentally arranged ganglia are joined by paired longitudinal connective
on ventral side.
The nervous system of a cockroach is distributed throughout its body, with less proportion in the
head region, while the ventral (belly-side) part of its body having the rest of it. Therefore, even if the
head is removed, the cockroach can survive for up to a week (AIPMT 2012, NEET 2020).
Sense organs
z Cockroaches have the antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci as sensory organs.
z The compound eyes, located dorsally, are made up of 2000 hexagonal ommatidia, (Sing.
ommatidium) which allow for mosaic vision (several images) in the cockroach. This type of vision
is more sensitive and have less resolution, making it suitable for nocturnal vision (NEET 2019).
Reproductive System of the Cockroach

z Cockroaches are unisexual animals, also known as dioecious. They display sexual dimorphism,
which means that male and female individuals can be distinguished externally.
Male Reproductive System
1 Male cockroaches possess a pair of testes lying on each lateral side in the 4th -6th
abdominal segments.
A thin vas deferens originates from the testes and enters the ejaculatory duct via
the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory duct then opens into the male gonopore
situated ventral to anus. 2

3 Sperm is stored in the seminal vesicles in the form of bundles known as

spermatophores (NEET-I 2016), which are discharged during copulation.
Characteristically, a mushroom-shaped (accessory gland) is located in the 6th - 7th

abdominal segments, and male external genitalia are represented by gonapophyses
or phallomeres (chitinous asymmetrical structure surrounding the male gonopore). 4
Testis
Phallic gland
Small tubules
Long tubules
Seminal vesicle
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Right phallomere
Ventral phallomere
Anal cercus
Caudal style
Left Pseudopenis
phallomere
Titillator
Fig. Male reproductive system-cockroach
Female Reproductive System
The female cockroach has two large ovaries located laterally in the 2nd-6th
1 abdominal segments. Each ovary consist of eight ovarian tubules (ovarioles)

containing a chain of developing ova.
The oviducts from each ovary unite to form a single median oviduct (vagina), which
opens into the genital chamber. Additionally, a pair of spermatheca located in the
6th segment also opens into the genital chamber. 2
3 Behind the ovaries lie paired collateral glands that secrete an egg-case or ootheca.
Fertilized eggs are encased in dark reddish to blackish brown capsules 3/8” (8 mm)
long known as oothecae, which are dropped or glued to a humid surface, near a food
source. On average, females produce 9-10 oothecae, each containing 14-16 eggs. 4
Biology | Class XI
Ovary
Oviduct
Common oviduct
or vagina
Spermatheca
Collaterial glands
Genital
Genital
chamber
pouch
Gonapophyses Vestibulum
Fig. Female reproductive system-cockroach
Fertilisation and Development

z Fertilisation in internal in Cockroach.
z The nymph undergoes about 13 molts to reach its adult form.
z The development of Periplaneta americana is paurometabolous, which means that it undergoes
gradual metamorphosis from egg (zygote) to nymph (young) to newly formed adult (NEET-I 2016).
z The nymph and adult look majorly alike with little difference in structure.
z The next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have wings (NEET 2013).
Economic importance of cockroach

z Many species of cockroach are wild and are of no economic importance yet.
z Cockroaches are resident of human homes. They serve as serious pest and vector of several
diseases. These pests spoil food and contaminate it with their smelly excreta.
z They can transmit a variety of bacterial diseases by contaminating food material.
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Animal Tissue 4. In animals, gametes are derived from
1. A group of similar cells which along with (a) Germinal epithelial tissue
intercellular substances perform a specific (b) Nervous tissue
function in multicellular organisms are called (c) Connective tissue
(a) Organs (b) Cell system (d) Muscular tissue
(c) Tissues (d) Categories body 5. Tendons and ligaments are specialized types of
2. Haversian lamellae are the structures found in (a) Nervous tissue (b) Muscular tissue
(a) Hyaline cartilage (c) Epithelial tissue (d) Connective tissue
(b) Fibrous cartilage 6. On the basis of structures and functions animal
(c) Bone marrow tissues are classified into
(d) Myelin sheath (a) 3 types (b) 2 types
3. Which of the following branch of science deals (c) 1 type (d) 4 types
with the study of externally visible features? 7. The lining of intestine and kidneys in human is
(a) Anatomy (b) Morphology (a) Keratinized (b) Brush bordered
(c) Physiology (d) Cytology (c) Ciliated (d) None of these

8. In which of the following tissues is the matrix not a 18. Which of the following part of the cockroach helps
product of synthesis of its cells? in the removal of excretory products from the
(a) Muscular tissue haemolymph?
(b) Osseous tissue (a) Rectum (b) Malpighian tubule
(c) Loose connection tissue (c) Ileum (d) Cloaca
(d) Adipose tissue 19. In female cockroach, anterior part of the genital
pouch contains
9. Which tissue is present in the lining of small
intestine? (a) Gonopore (b) Spermathecal pores
(a) Epithelial tissue (b) Connective tissue (c) Collateral glands (d) All of these
(c) Nervous tissue (d) Muscular tissue 20. The number of spiracles present in cockroaches
are
10. Ciliated epithelium is present in
(a) 9 pairs (b) 10 pairs
(a) Trachea (b) Ureter
(c) 12 pairs (d) 14 pairs
(c) intestine (d) Nasal chamber
21. The respiratory system of the cockroach consists
Cockroach of
11. On an average, female cockroach produces …..… (a) A pair of lungs
oothecae (b) A pair of bronchioles
(a) 7 – 8 (b) 9 – 10 (c) A network of trachea
(c) 8 – 9 (d) 10 – 11 (d) A network of alveoli
12. A complete set of the mouth part of cockroach 22. In male reproductive system of the cockroach,
consists of spermatheca is present in the
(a) Labrum and labium (a) 7th segment (b) 6th segment
(b) Labium, labrum and tongue (c) 5th segment (d) 4th segment
(c) Labrum, mandibles, maxillae and labium 23. Read the given statements reference to the
(d) Labrum, maxillae and labium digestive system of cockroach
13. A pair of salivary gland in cockroach is present I. Alimentary canal is divided into three regions
near the II.
Oesophagus opens into a sac like structure
(a) Crop (b) Gizzard called crop
(c) Mouth (d) Antenna III. The hind gut is broader than mid gut
14. Hypopharynx of the cockroach acts as IV. The rectum opens through the anus
(a) Mouth (b) Lips Which of the statements given above is/are
incorrect?
(c) Tongue (d) Jaws
(a) I and IV (b) II and III
15. The cells which stores the nitrogenous waste in
cockroaches are known as (c) III and IV (d) None of the above
(a) Urate cells (b) Trophocytes 24. In cockroaches, stink gland is found in
(c) Ammonate cells (d) None of these (a) 4th and 5th terga
16. The abdomen of both male and female (b) 5th and 6th terga
cockroaches consists of (c) 5th and 6th sterna
(a) 9 segments (b) 7 segments (d) 4th and 5th sterna
(c) 10 segments (d) 12 segments 25. A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th
17. Forewings of the cockroach are known as segment of the cockroach which opens into
(a) Tegmina (b) Spiracles (a) Genital chamber (b) Anus
(c) Tergia (d) Coxa (c) Rectum (d) Vagina
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (a)

Biology | Class XI
SOLUTIONS
1. (c) A group of similar cells along with intercellular (lower lip). A median flexible lobe acting
substances perform a specific function in as tongue lies with the cavity enclosed by
multicellular organisms are called as Tissues mouthparts.
2. (c) The Haversian canals are vertical canals 13. (a) The salivary glands in cockroach are fairly
present parallel to the length of bones. About large and present near the crop and open by
4-20 concentric rings of Haversian lamellae a common salivary duct into preoral cavity.
normally surround one Haversian canal. This
14. (c) The hypopharynx is a median tongue like,
complete system of lamella along with one
Haversian canal is called one osteon and is chitinous structure with two pointed lobes.
found in the bone marrow of mammals. 15. (a) Urate cell stores the nitrogenous waste in
3. (b) Morphology refers to the study of externally cockroaches.
visible features, i.e., shape, size, colour, 16. (c) The abdomen in both males and females
symmetry. cockroaches consists of 10 segments.
4. (a) In animals, gametes are derived from 17. (a) Mesothoracic wings are thick, opaque and
germinal epithelial tissue. Epithelial tissue leathery. They are not used in flight. They are
covers whole body surface or tissues, lines only protective in function and serve to cover
body cavities and form glands. the metathoracic wings when cockroach is
5. (d) Tendons and ligaments are the dense, not flying. Therefore, they are called tegmina.
fibrous connective tissues. Tendon connects 18. (b) Malpighian tubules are present at the
a skeletal muscle to a bone, while ligaments junction of midgut and hindgut and helps
connect bones together. in the removal of excretory products from
6. (d) Animal tissues are broadly classified into haemolymph.
four types; (i) Epithelial (ii) Connective (iii) 19. (d) Gonophore, Spermathecal pores and
Muscular and (iv) Neural. Collateral glands are present in the anterior
7. (b) Lining of intestine and kidney in human part of the genital pouch.
is formed by columnar epithelium, which 20. (b) The number of spiracles present in
has cells with microvilli on free surface and cockroaches are 10 pairs.
forms brush border. Brush bordered surface
increases the absorptive area of the surface. 21. (c) The respiratory system of the cockroach
comprises a network of white, shining tubes
8. (a) Matrix is not a product of synthesis of its cells
called trachea, that opens out by 10 pairs
in muscular tissue. It is the fibroblast cells
of small holes called spiracles which are
of connective tissue which form fibres and
present on the lateral sides of the body.
matrix both.
22. (b) In the male reproductive system of
9. (a) Epithelial tissue has free surfaces, which
cockroach, a pair of spermatheca is present
faces either a body fluid or the outside
in the 6th segments which opens into the
environment and thus, provides a covering or
a lining for some part of body. It is found on a genital chambers.
lining of small intestine and helps in secretion 23. (d) All of the given statements are correct. None
and absorption. of them are incorrect.
10. (a) Ciliated epithelium lines the inside of the 24. (b) The arthrodial membrane between the 5th
oviducts, ventricles of the brain, the spinal and 6th abdominal terga is depressed to
canal as well as the respiratory passages like form a stink gland. These glands produces a
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. secretion that gives a stinky smell.
11. (b) On an average, female cockroach produces 25. (a) A pair of spermatheca is present in the 6th
9-10 oothecae. segment of the cockroach which opens into
12. (c) The mouthparts are movable articulated the genital chamber. The larger spermatheca
appendages around the mouth. They stores spermatozoa received from the male
includes labrum (upper lips), a pair of during copulation. The smaller one is non-
mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a labrum functional.

CHAPTER 05
MOLECULAR BASIS
OF INHERITANCE
PROTEIN BIOSYNTHESIS
z Ribosomes synthesize proteins, which subsequently undergo post-translational modifications to
attain their mature form.
z These modifications, catalyzed mainly by enzymes that identify specific target sequences within
particular proteins, encompass a diverse array of types.
Polyribosomes
z Multiple ribosomes simultaneously translate a single mRNA, generating numerous copies of the
polypeptide chain.
z Once the initial ribosome translocates sufficiently beyond the start codon, a second ribosome
binds to the same mRNA.
z This process continues, leading to the formation of multiple ribosomes attached to a single mRNA,
a phenomenon known as polyribosomes.
z Polyribosomes are observed in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Ribosome structure
Large subunit 3’ End of mRNA
Polypeptide chain
Small subunit
Incoming Ribosome
5’ End
Newly made peptide
Fig. Polyribosomes

Biology | Class XII
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Protein Biosynthesis 4. Choose the incorrect pair.
1. Assertion: A single mRNA strand is capable of (a) Untranslated — Required for efficient
forming a number of different polypetide chains. regions translation process
Reason: The mRNA strand has terminator codon. (b) Release — Kind to stop codon for
(a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and the factor terminating translation
Reason is the correct explanation of the
Assertion. (c) Translational — Sequence of RNA with
(b) If both Assertion and Reason are true but the unit start codon only
Reason is not the correct explanation of the
(d) Elongation — Ribosome moves from
Assertion.
phase codons to codons
(c) If Assertion is true but Reason is false. along mRNA
(d) If both Assertion and Reason are false.
5. The cellular factory responsible for synthesising
2. The order and sequences of amino acids are
proteins is the ............. .
defined by the sequences of the bases in
(a) Ribosomes (b) mRNA
(a) rRNA (b) mRNA
(c) SER (d) Nucleus
(c) tRNA (d) All of these
6. Which of the following statements is correct
3. Termination of protein synthesis or translation
regarding ribosomes?
requires
(a) Most of a cell’s DNA molecule are stored there.
(a) Both stop signal and starting codon
(b) Complete polypeptide is released from there.
(b) Both starting codon and release factor
(c) mRNAs are produced there.
(c) Both release factor and stop codon
(d) DNA replication takes place there.
(d) GUG and AUG codon
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b)
SOLUTIONS
1. (a) A single mRNA strand is capable of forming 4. (c) Option (c) contains the incorrect match and
different polypetide chains because it has can be corrected as a translational unit in
different reading frame (the way through
mRNA is the sequence of RNA that is flanked
which reading of mRNA by tRNA)
by the start codon (AUG) and ends at the
2. (b) According to the sequences present on the
stop codon and codes for a polypeptide. Rest
mRNA, amino acids are produced. Thus, the
order and the sequence of the amino acids of the matches are correct.
are defined by mRNA. 5. (a) The cellular factory responsible for
3. (c) At the end of translation, a release factor synthesising proteins is the ribosome.
binds to the stop codon, terminating
translation and releasing the complete 6. (b) The correct answer is ‘Complete polypeptide
polypeptide from the ribosome. is released from there.

CHAPTER 07
HUMAN HEALTH
AND DISEASES
DENGUE
Dengue is also known as break-bone fever. It is a viral infection transmitted to humans through
mosquito bites.
Pathogen Arbovirus
Vector Mosquito Aedes Aegypti
Incubation period 4-10 days
Symptoms High fever (40°C/104°F), severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint
pains, nausea, vomiting, swollen glands, rash. Severe symptoms include persistent
vomiting, rapid breathing, bleeding gums or nose, blood in vomit or stool
Vaccine Not available
Diagnosis CBC, Antigen-Antibody test, RT-PCR, Tourniquet test
Treatment Analgesics, Antipyretics, Rest, Hydration and hospitalization
Prevention The most important measure is to control or eliminate the vectors and their
breeding places. This can be achieved by:
z Use of mosquito nets while sleeping.
z Wearing clothes that cover most of your body and using mosquito repellent
while stepping out.
z Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
z Installing wire mesh on doors and windows to prevent the entry of mosquito.
CHIKUNGUNYA
Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral disease.
Pathogen Arbovirus
Vector Mosquito Aedes Aegypti
Incubation period 4-8 days
Symptoms Sudden fever and joint pain, headache, muscle pain, joint swelling, or rash,
nausea, vomiting, swollen glands.
Vaccine Not available
Diagnosis CBC
Treatment Analgesics, Antipyretics, Rest, Hydration and hospitalization

Biology | Class XII
Prevention The most important measure is to control or eliminate the vectors and their
breeding places. This can be achieved by:
z Use of mosquito nets while sleeping.
z Wearing clothes that cover most of your body and using mosquito
repellent while stepping out.
z Introducing fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on mosquito larvae.
z Installing wire mesh on doors and windows to prevent the entry of
mosquito.
TOBACCO ABUSE
z Tobacco has been used by human beings for more than 400 years.
z It is smoked, chewed or used as a snuff. Tobacco contains a large number of chemical substances
including nicotine, an alkaloid.
z Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood circulation,
both of which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
z Smoking is associated with increased incidence of cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat,
bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
z Tobacco chewing is associated with increased risk of cancer of the oral cavity.
z Smoking increases carbon monoxide (CO) content in blood and reduces the concentration of
haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.
z When one buys packets of cigarettes one cannot miss the statutory warning that is present on the
packing which warns against smoking and says how it is injurious to health.
z Smoking is very prevalent in society, both among young and old. Knowing the dangers of smoking
and chewing tobacco, and its addictive nature, the youth and old need to avoid these habits. Any
addict requires counselling and medical help to get rid of the habit.
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Dengue 4. Which organ is primarily affected during severe
Dengue infections?
1. What is the primary vector for Dengue virus
(a) Liver (b) Kidneys
transmission?
(c) Lungs (d) Heart
(a) Anopheles mosquito
(b) Culex mosquito Chikungunya
(c) Aedes mosquito 5. What is the primary time of day when Aedes
(d) Mansonia mosquito mosquitoes, the vectors for Chikungunya, are
2. Which of the following is a common symptom of most active?
Dengue fever? (a) Morning (b) Afternoon
(a) Sneezing (b) Coughing (c) Evening (d) Night
(c) Joint pain (d) Watery eyes
6. What is the incubation period of Chikungunya
3. What is the recommended method to prevent fever?
Dengue transmission?
(a) 1-2 days (b) 5-7 days
(a) Eliminating breeding sites
(c) 10-14 days (d) 3-4 weeks
(b) Bed net usage
(c) Mosquito fogging 7. What is the long-term complication associated
with Chikungunya fever?
(d) All of these

Human Health and Diseases
(a) Respiratory failure Tobacco Abuse

(b) Chronic joint pain
9. The addictive chemical present in tobacco is
(c) Neurological disorders
(d) Kidney failure (a) caffeine (b) nicotine
8. In addition to joint pain, which of the following (c) catechol (d) carbon monoxide
symptoms is characteristic of Chikungunya 10. Tobacco consumption is known to stimulate
fever?
secretion of adrenaline and nor-adrenaline. The
(a) Severe headache component causing this could be
(b) Persistent hiccups
(a) nicotine (b) tannic acid
(c) Visual disturbances
(c) curaimin (d) catechin
(d) Unexplained weight loss
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a)
SOLUTIONS
1. (c) Dengue is primarily transmitted to humans 7. (b) Chronic joint pain, known as post-
through the bite of an infected Aedes Chikungunya chronic arthritis, can persist for
mosquito, particularly Aedes aegypti. months to years in some individuals after the
acute phase of the illness has resolved.
2. (b) Joint pain, along with high fever and rash, is a
common symptom of Dengue fever. It is often 8. (a) In addition to joint pain, individuals with
referred to as “breakbone fever” due to the Chikungunya fever often experience
symptoms such as severe headache, muscle
intense joint and muscle pain.
pain, and fatigue. These symptoms can
3. (d) The most effective way to prevent Dengue contribute to the overall discomfort during
is to eliminate or reduce mosquito breeding the acute phase of the illness.
sites, such as standing water in containers
9. (b) Nicotine is the major stimulatory component
around homes.
of tobacco products. It is highly poisonous
4. (d) Severe Dengue infections can lead to organ as well as addictive chemical. Nicotine
impairment, with the liver being commonly stimulates adrenal gland to release
affected, resulting in increased levels of liver adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into blood
enzymes. circulation increasing both blood pressure
and heart beat rate. The increased blood
5. (c) Aedes mosquitoes, which transmit
pressure leads to increased risk of heart
Chikungunya virus, are most active during
disease.
the evening and early morning hours. Taking
10. (a) Tobacco contains a large number of
precautions during these times can help
chemical substance including nicotine, an
reduce the risk of mosquito bites.
alkaloid. Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to
6. (b) The incubation period for Chikungunya fever release adrenaline and nor-adrenaline into
is typically 5-7 days after being bitten by an blood circulation, both of which raise blood
infected mosquito. pressure and increase heart rate.

CHAPTER 11
ORGANISMS AND
POPULATIONS
ORGANISM AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
z The study of interactions among organisms and between the organism and it’s physical (abiotic)
environment is called ecology. The physical environment is defined by various abiotic factors like light,
temperature, humidity, and so on.
z The various levels of biological organisation are cells, tissues, organs, organisms, population,
community, ecosystem, and biome.
The interaction with the environment starts at the organism level of biological
organisation, so ecology is concerned with the upper four levels of organisation that
are organism, population, community, and biomes.
Biome is a much larger area than an ecosystem, so ecosystem is a part of an biome.

There are different biomes distributed on the Earth.
Each biome has specific geographical area and weather conditions. Plants and
animals are adapted to that region.
Tissue
Cell
Organ
Molecules
Organism
Ecosystem
Population
Fig. Diagram representing biological Fig. Diagram representing ecological
organisation organisation

Biology | Class XII
z Ecology at the organismic level is essentially physiological ecology which tries to understand
how different organisms are adapted to their environments in terms of not only survival but also
reproduction.
z Population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same habitat and interacting
with each other.
z The association of organisms of different species living in the same habitat and playing specific
functional roles is called a biotic community (AIPMT 2015).
z Rotation of Earth around the Sun and the tilt of Earth’s axis cause annual variations the intensity
and duration of sunlight (affecting temperature), resulting in the change in seasons.
z The variations in temperature together with annual variation in precipitation (both rain and snow)
in a particular area is responsible for the formation of major biomes of the world.
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD 30

Desert
25 Grassland
Mean annual temperature (°C)

Desert (little or no rainfall and high temperature);
example: Thar desert 15 Tropical Forest
10 Temperate forest
Grassland (little rainfall and high temperature)
5
Temperate forest (moderate rainfall and varying 0
temperature) Coniferous forest
-5
Tropical forest (high rainfall and moderate tempera- -10
ture) – Home to many plant and animal species ; trees -15 Arctic and Alpine tundra
are arranged in vertical strata in these forests depend-
ing on their height; large woody vines are also common 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Mean annual precipitation (cm)
in these forests (NEET 2017, AIPMT 2011)
Fig. Picture representing biomes distribution on
Coniferous forest (moderate rainfall and low tempera-
Earth according to mean annual precipitation and
ture)
temperature
Tundra (Arctic and Alpine) having low rainfall and very
low temperature
Major biomes of India are:
(a) Tropical rain forest
(b) Deciduous forest
(c) Desert
(d) Sea coast
z Regional and local variation within each biome lead to the formation of a wide variety of habitats.
On planet earth, life not only exist in few favourable habitats but even in extreme and harsh habitats.
z Our intestine is also the host to a variety of micro-organisms.
z The abiotic (physio-chemical) components like temperature, water, light and soil and biotic
components together characterise the habitat of an organism. Biotic component includes pathogen
parasites, predators and competitors of the organism with which they interact constantly.
z Niche: Every organism has a defined range of conditions which it can tolerate,
(NEET 2018) diversity in the resources it utilises and a distinct functional role in the ecological
system, all these together comprises it’s niche.
Major Abiotic Factors

z Major abiotic or physio-chemical factors are temperature, water, light, and soil.

Organisms and Populations
Temperature
z It is the most important ecologically relevant environmental factor.
Average temperature varies seasonally It ranges from subzero levels in polar areas and high
on land; increases towards the equator altitudes to more than 50°C in tropical deserts in
and decreases towards poles; and summer; in thermal springs and hydrothermal vents,
from plains to the mountain tops. average temperature exceeds 100°C.
Mango tree cannot grow in temperate countries like

Temperature affects physiological
Canada and Germany; Snow leopard is found in the
functions of the body (enzyme kinetics,
Himalayas only, not in Kerala forests; Tuna fish are
metabolism).
rarely caught beyond tropical latitude the ocean.
On the basis of thermal tolerance, organisms are of two types- eurythermal (tolerate a wide
range of temperature) and stenothermal (tolerate a narrow range of temperature).
z A vast majority of organisms are stenothermal.

z The levels of thermal tolerance of different species determine to a large extent their geographical
distribution.
Water
z It is the second most impacting environmental factor. Life on earth originated in water and is
unsustainable without water.
Desert plants and animals have special
Productivity and distribution of plants are
adaptations to deal with waters scarcity in
also highly dependent on water.
their habitat.
For aquatic animals, the water pH, salinity, On the basis of tolerance to salinity,
and chemical composition plays an organisms are of two types- Euryhaline
important role; salinity of inland water in (tolerate a wide range of salinity) and
parts per thousand (< 5), sea (30-35), Stenohaline (tolerate a narrow range of
hypersaline lagoons (> 100). salinity).
Freshwater and marine organisms suffer from osmotic problems if they switch their habitats.
Light
z Light is an essential requirement for photosynthesis in autotrophs.
z Many species of small plants (herbs and shrubs) growing in forests are adapted to photosynthesise
optimally under very low light conditions because they are constantly overshadowed by tall,
canopied trees.
z Many plants are also dependent on sunlight to meet their photoperiodic requirement for flowering.
z For many animals too, light is important in that they use the diurnal and seasonal variations in light
intensity and duration (photoperiod) as cues for timing their foraging, reproductive and migratory
activities.
z The availability of light on land is closely linked with that of temperature since the sun is the source
for both.
z But, deep (>500 m) in the oceans, the environment is perpetually dark and its inhabitants are not
aware of the existence of a celestial source of energy called Sun.
z The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The UV component of the spectrum
is harmful to many organisms while not all the colour components of the visible spectrum are
available for marine plants living at different depth.

Biology | Class XII
Soil
z The nature and properties of soil vary in different places.
z Soil is dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is transported or sedimentary
and how soil development occurred.
z Various characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine
the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils.
z These characteristics of soil along with parameters such as pH, mineral composition and
topography determine to a large extent the vegetation in any area. This in turn dictates the type of
animals that can be supported.
z Similarly, in the aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics often determine the type of
benthic animals that can thrive there (Karnataka NEET 2013).
Determines vegetation and

Soil pH + Mineral composition + Topography
animals of the area
Responses to Abiotic Factors

z During the course of million of years of their existence, many species would have evolved a
relatively constant internal environment that permits all biochemical reactions and physiological
functions to proceed with maximal efficiency and thus enhance “overall fitness” of the species.
z Ideally then, the organism should try to maintain the constancy of its internal environment (a
process called homeostasis) despite varying external environmental conditions that tend to upset
its homeostasis.
z Organisms cope with the changing external environment by following processes: organisms either
regulate, conform, migrate or suspend.
Regulate
z Some organisms are able to maintain homeostasis through physiological and behavioural means.
z Homeostasis ensures thermoregulation and osmoregulation both in birds and mammals and a
very few lower vertebrates and invertebrate species.
z Biologist believe that the ‘success’ of mammals is largely due to their ability to maintain a constant
body temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or in the Sahara desert.
z The mechanism used by mammals for thermoregulation is similar to that of human. We maintain
a constant body temperature of 37°C. In summer, when outside temperature is more than our body
temperature, we sweat profusely. The resulting evaporative cooling, similar to what happens with
a desert cooler in operation, brings down the body temperature. In winter when the temperature
is much lower than 37°C, we start to shiver, a kind of exercise which produces heat and raises the
body temperature
z Plants, on the other hand, do not have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures.
Conform
z An overwhelming majority (99 per cent) of animals and nearly all plants cannot maintain a
constant internal environment. Their body temperature changes with the ambient temperature.
z ln aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of the body fluids change with that of the ambient
air, water osmotic concentration. These animals and plants are simply conformers.
z Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for many organisms. And this is the main reason for
why conformers had not evolved to become regulators despite the benefits of a constant internal
environment to the organism. This is particularly true for small animals like shrews and humming birds.

z Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area. Since small animals have a larger surface area
relative to their volume, they tend to lose body heat very fast when it is cold outside; then they have
to expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism. This is the main reason why
very small animals are rarely found in polar regions. [Bergman’s rule]
z During the course of evolution, the costs and benefits of maintaining a constant internal
environment are taken into consideration. Some species have evolved the ability to regulate, but
only over a limited range of environmental conditions, beyond which they simply conform.
z Maintenance of a constant internal environment of the body by the organism is called homeostasis
(despite the changes in the external environment).
z Graph given below shows relation between response of animals with their environments.
Conformers
Internal Level
Conformers refer to organisms who cannot

Regulators
regulate their internal environment.
Partial Regulators
Regulators refer to organisms, which can
regulate their internal environment even if
the external environment is changing
(AIPMT 2010).
External Level
Fig. Diagrammatic representation of organismic
response (AIPMT 2010)
z Metabolic rate of an organism is inversely proportional to its body weight. So, the metabolic rate of
small animals is higher than large animals and hence small animal can move uphill more easily
than larger animal (NEET-I 2016).
Migrate
z The organism can move away temporarily from the stressful habitat to a more hospitable area
and return when stressful period is over.
z In human analogy, this strategy is like a person moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of
summer.
z Many animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake long-distance migrations to more
hospitable areas.
z Siberian birds come to the famous Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan every winter
to escape the snowy weather of the north poles (AIPMT 2014).
Suspend
z Lower plants, fungi, and bacteria survive harsh environments by forming thick walled spores. They
germinate on availability of suitable environment.
z In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to
tide over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal-they germinate to form new plants under
favorable moisture and temperature condition. They do so by reducing their metabolic activities
and going into a state of dormancy.
z In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in time. The
familiar case of bears going into hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time.
z Some snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer-related problems-heat and dessication.

Biology | Class XII
z Under unfavourable conditions many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter
diapause, a stage of suspended development.
Migrate and suspend act as two alternatives for survival when stressful external conditions
remain for a short duration, or in a limited region.
Fig. Bear showing hibernation in winters and migration of Siberian birds
Adaptations
z While considering the various alternatives available to organisms for coping with extremes in their
environment, we have seen that some organisms are able to respond through certain physiological
adjustments while others do so behaviourally (migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat).
These responses are also actually, their adaptations.
z The adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological, behavioural) that
enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat.
z Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time and are genetically fixed.
Adaptations of Kangaroo Rat

in North American deserts Adaptations in desert plants Adaptations of mammals
(NEET 2021)
Oxidation of internal Many desert plants have a Mammals in colder

fat provides water thick cuticle on their leaf climates have short
(which is a by- surfaces and have their ears and limbs to
product). stomata arranged in deep pits reduce heat loss
(sunken) to minimise water loss (Allen’s rule)
through transpiration. (NEET 2021).
Produce concentrated
urine to minimise loss In the polar areas,
of water from the They also have a special aquatic mammals like
body. photosynthetic pathway (CAM) seals have blubber (thick
that enables their stomata to layer of fat) below their
remain closed during day time. skin that acts as an
insulator (NEET 2021) and
reduces loss of body heat.
Some desert plants like Opuntia,
have no leaves - they are reduced
to spines-and the photosynthetic
function is taken over by the
flattened stems.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BIOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOURAL

ADAPTATIONS ADAPTATIONS ADAPTATIONS
z People feeling z Marine invertebrates z Desert lizards move

altitude sickness, and fishes living in to the Sun and shade
(symptoms include deep oceans are according to their
nausea, fatigue and adapted to high body temperature;
heart palpitations) pressure (NEET 2021) when temperature
gets acclimatised i.e., more than 100 is low, they move to
to the low oxygen times the normal atm. the Sun but move to
conditions by They have special shade when ambient
increasing the RBC enzymes to survive in temperature is
count and breathing this high pressure.
rate (AIPMT 2012). increasing
z Archaebacteria (AIPMT 2011).
z Decreasing living in hot water
binding affinity springs, thrive in high
z Some animals live in
of haemoglobin temperature. Different burrows to escape
also helps in kinds of branched the above ground
compensating low lipids are present in heat.
oxygen availability the membranes that
(AIPMT 2012). help it to survive.
TOPICWISE QUESTIONS
Organism and Its Environment 5. Community is
I. Group of independent, interacting
1. Highest level of biological hierarchy in the given
populations of same species
options is
II. Group of independent and interacting
(a) Biome (b) Ecosystem populations of same species in specific area
(c) Individual (d) Species III. Group of independent, interacting
2. Ecology is the branch of biology which deals with populations of different species in a specific
interaction between area
(a) Organisms and their environment IV. Group of independent and interacting
populations of different species in different
(b) Organisms only area
(c) Human and other organisms Select the correct option
(d) Human and their environment (a) I, II and IV (b) I, III and IV
3. Ecological hierarchy comprises, which of the (c) I, II and III (d) Only III
following sequence 6. ............ is revered as the Father of Ecology in India.
(a) Population → Species → Community → (a) Ernst Haeckel (b) HW Bates
Ecosystem → Biosphere (c) Ramdeo Mishra (d) None of these
(b) Species → Population → Community → 7. Ecology is basically concerned with ............
Ecosystem → Biosphere biological organization.
(c) Species → Population → Biosphere → (a) 4 (b) 10
Community → Ecosystem (c) 6 (d) 5
(d) Species → Population → Biosphere → 8. Weather is the
Ecosystem → Community (a) Long term property of the atmosphere
4. Term ‘ecology’ coined by ............. (b) Short term property of the atmosphere
(a) Ernst Haeckel (b) HW Bates (c) Unchanged property of climate
(c) Mishra (d) None of these (d) Unknown property of climate

Biology | Class XII
9. The group of organisms that are referred as 15. In the oceans, the environment is perpetually
regulators are dark at
(a) Endotherms (b) Exotherms (a) More than 100 m (b) More than 500 m
(c) Ectotherms (d) Either (b) or (c) (c) Less than 100 m (d) Less than 500 m
16. Halophytes possess which of the following
10. Homeostasis is a property of organisms which
property?
refers to
(a) Fire-resistant (b) Cold-resistant
(a) Maintaining a constant internal environment
(c) Salt-resistant (d) Sand-loving
(b) Maintaining a constant external environment
17. Which kind of adaptation is altitude sickness?
(c) Both (a) and (b) (a) Genotypic adaptation
(d) Maintaining circulation of blood (b) Phenotypic adaptation
11. Nature and properties of soil in different places (c) Physiological adaptation
vary due to (d) Cold hardening
(a) Climate (b) Weathering process 18. Photosynthesis in Opuntia is done by
(c) Topography (d) All of these (a) Leaves (b) Stem
12. Which of the following is referred as the smallest (c) Roots (d) Shoot
unit of ecology is 19. How seals can survive in polar climate where the
(a) Organism (b) Species temperature prevails below 0°C?
(c) Population (d) Ecosystem (a) They have long hairs on their body surface
(b) They have thick layer of fat below their skin
13. Identify the correct statement/s from the
following? (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) They have genetic regulation for avoiding
(a) Reptiles are poikilothermal
cold climate
(b) Frog is cold-blooded animal
20. Behavioural adaptation to environment in desert
(c) Fishes are ectothermic lizards are
(d) All of the above I. Burrowing soil
II. Losing heat during high temperature
14. The niche of a population is defined as
III. Active during morning and evening
(a) Set of condition that interacts IV. Insulating body due to thick fatty dermis
(b) Place where it lives Select the correct pair
(c) Set of conditions and resources it uses (a) I and III (b) III and IV
(d) Geographical area that it covers (c) I and II (d) II and IV
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a)
SOLUTIONS
1. (a) Biome is a large regional unit delimited by 3. (b) Ecological hierarchy or ecological levels or
a specific climatic zone having a particular organisation.
major vegetation zone associated with It can be represented as:
fauna, e.g., ocean, tropical rainforest.
Species → Population → Community →
2. (a) Ecology (Gk. Oikos = home; logos = study) Ecosystem → Biosphere
is the branch of biology that deals with the
4. (a) Term ‘ecology’ coined by Ernst Haeckel.
inter-relationship among organisms and
interactions between organism and their 5. (d) Community in an assemblage of population
environments of different. Species of plants, animals,

bacteria, fungi, etc. which live in a particular fluctuate with change in environment
area and interact with one another through temperature.
competition predation, mutualism, etc. 14. (c) Niche is the specific physical space occupied
6. (c) Ramdeo Misra is revered as the Father of by an organism and the functional role
Ecology in India. of organism in the ecosystem. Thus, an
7. (a) Ecology is basically concerned with four organism’s niche is defined by the types of
levels of biological organisation – organisms, food it consumes, its predators, temperature,
populations, communities and biomes. tolerance, etc.
8. (b) Weather is short term property of atmosphere. 15. (b) Deep (>500 m) in the oceans the environment
It depends on the atmospheric conditions is perpetually dark and its inhabitants are not
of a particular place at a particular point of aware of the existence of celestial source of
time. light.
9. (a) Regulators are also called endotherms. 16. (c) A halophyte is a salt-tolerant plant that
Evolutionary biological believe that the grows in soil or waters of high salinity.
success of mammals is mainly due to 17. (c) Nausea, fatigue, heart palpitations is due to
their ability to maintain a constant body unavailability of proper oxygen in the body.
temperature (endotherms) and live At high mountain the atmospheric pressure
comfortably whether they are in Antarctica is low. So, O2 is not easily available for
or Sahara Desert. respiration.
10. (a) Homeostasis is the phenomenon of 18. (b) Opuntia’s leaves changes into spine to
maintaining a constant internal environment reduce the transpiration during course of
despite changes in external temperature. evolution and the working of leaves takes
Endothermal animal show temperature over by stem. Opuntia’s stem have green
homeostasis. color and perform photosynthesis.
11. (d) Nature and properties of soil depends on 19. (b) Animals of colder areas possess thick fur,
climate, weathering process or breaking subcutaneous fat and small extremities so
of rocks into fine powder can occur due to that they can tolerate very low temperature
atmospheric changes, mechanical forces, (below 0°C). In the polar seas aquatic
chemical changes and biological breakdown. mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat
The physical and chemical properties of soil (blubber) below their skin that acts as an
determine the type of plants that can grow in insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
particular habitat. 20. (a) Desert lizards keep their body temperature
12. (a) Organism is the smallest unit of ecological fairly constant by behavioural means.
study. Burrowing soil and active during morning
and evening when the temperature is not so
13. (d) Poikilothermic or cold-blooded or ectotherms
high are two main behavioural adaptation of
are those animals (e.g., reptiles, fish,
a desert lizard.
amphibians) in which the body temperature


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CHAPTER 01

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING BEINGS

Growth Twin characteristics

However, cell division occurs

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Reproduction Types of reproduction

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z Consciousness therefore, becomes the defining property of living organisms.

Fig. Different levels of organisation

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PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

Gametophyte (n) Divides by mitosis Gametes (n) Fertilisation

Sporophyte (2n) Divides by mitosis Zygote (2n)

Flow chart of Alternation of generations

Haplontic Life Cycle

Examples: Volvox and Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.

Fig. Haplontic Life cycle pattern

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Diplontic Life Cycle Sporophyte

Fig. Diplontic Life cycle pattern

Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, and Kelps. Fig. Haplo-diplontic life cycle pattern

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(a) Stamen (b) Pistil (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

(i) Most fungi 6. (a) Sporophyte generation produces spores

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01 Prop roots: Hanging roots of banyan tree to provide support

02 Stilt roots: Supporting roots coming out of the lower nodes of

03 Pneumatophores: Roots come out of the ground and grow

04 Nodulated root: Roots form nodules with nitrogen fixing

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Tap root modifications

Tuberous Root Napiform Root Fusiform Root Conical Root

Modification of underground stem

Bulb: Reduced stem disc shaped, Rhizome: Horizontally running,

Corm: Condensed structure, Tuber: Swells tip of underground

Modification of aerial stem

Stem tendril: Axillary bud is Stem thorn: Axillary buds are

Phylloclade Phylloclade: Stems are modified into

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Runner: Weak stems grow Stolon: They produce side branch

Example: Pistia and Eicchornia Example: Banana, Pineapple, and

Table : Modification of leaves

MODIFICATION FORM/FUNCTION EXAMPLE

Fleshy leaves Store food Onion and garlic

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DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT FAMILIES

Vegetative characters of fabaceae

Calyx Sepals five; gamosepalous

Corolla ive petals, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a posterior

Androecium Ten, diadelphous; anther dithecous (NEET 2023)

Fruit Legume, seed- one to many and non-endospermic

Fig. Floral diagram of Pisum sativum (pea) plant

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Fodder Edible oil (Soyabean and

Pulses (gram, arhar, sem,

Inflorescence Solitary axillary.

Fabric: Cotton, jute

Food Plants: Durian, Okra.

Medicinal Plants: Marsh-

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Family - Gramineae (= Poaceae)

Examples: Volvox and Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas.

Calyx Sepals five; gamosepalous

Corolla ive petals, polypetalous, papilionaceous, consisting of a posterior

Fruit Legume, seed- one to many and non-endospermic