Aquifer properties (and other

groundwater terms)

Presented by

Dr Gomo M

(January 2017)

Institute for Groundwater Studies

University of the Free State

Properties that governs groundwater storage and

movement and therefore its availability for

pumping/abstraction

 Porosity (n)  Hydraulic conductivity (K)

 Transmissivity (T) or (KD)

 Hydraulic head (h)
 Storativity (S)
 Hydraulic gradient (i)
 Specific yield (SY)

 Utilisation, protection and sustainable management of the groundwater resources

requires a good understanding of these properties
 Porosity

 Porosity is a measure of the storage capacity of a geologic formation.

 It is defined as the ratio of pore volume to the total (bulk) volume, and it may be
expressed as either a percent or a fraction.
 Types of porosity

Examples????

Primary porosity Secondary porosity

 Primary porosity

 It can be defined as the inherent characteristic that is developed during the

formation of the rock or

 The initial empty space between or within particles of the rock at the

formation, eg. In alluvial aquifers

 Secondary porosity

 Developed due to subsequent processes such as weathering fracturing,

jointing, and solution activities that occurs after formation, e.g..

 Fracturing in hard rocks (a); dissolution is limestone rocks (b) and etc ….

(a) (b)
 Factors influencing porosity

Task 1 – Read and understand how these factors influence

porosity

Grain packing and sorting

Depth of deposition

Grain size
 Calculation of porosity

𝑃𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑣 )

𝑛 (%) = *100
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒(𝑉𝑇 )

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑇 −𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉𝑠)

𝑛(%) = *100
𝑉𝑇

VT = 30 cm3

Vs = 5 cm3
(1 grain particle)  Calculate Vv and n **
Typical porosity values

(Freeze and Cherry 1979)

 Measurement of Porosity

Several methods can be used to measure porosity

Our focus is on a direct laboratory method:

 Determine the bulk (Total) volume of the porous sample
 Determining the volume of the solid grain particles with no pores
 Calculating the volume of voids
 Calculate the porosity

 There will be a Laboratory Practical/demonstration

TASK:
 READ ON OTHER METHODS [KNOW AT LEAST TWO MORE]
 Permeability
 The ease with which water can flow through a geologic formation.

 It is an intrinsic property that depends upon the porous medium properties and is
independent of the properties of the fluid (doesn’t change because of fluid type)

 This term is rarely used in groundwater but is very popular in the petroleum and
natural gas industries.

 Unit is [L/T]

 A rock is permeable if fluids pass through it, and impermeable if it does not
allow fluid flow to occur through it.
 Permeability
 Water moves through the available pore spaces following a tortuous path as the flow
twists and turns through the tiny voids.

 Tortuosity is a measure of how much a pathway deviates from a straight line.

 Path that fluid takes through a granular material is governed by how individual pore
spaces are connected.
 Hydraulic head (h)

 Hydraulic head is the height to which water will rise in a borehole above the datum

plane such as sea level.

 It can also be defined as the column of water that can be supported by the hydraulic

pressure at a given point in a groundwater system.

 Hydraulic head (h)

Borehole casing
Measured water level [mbgl]

Elevation of measuring point

Unsaturated zone

P
h
Unconfined aquifer

z
Meters above mean sea level [mamsl]
Datum plane

h = z+P Where: z = elevation head and P = pressure head

 Hydraulic gradient (i)
 The change in total hydraulic head divided by the distance over which the change occurs.

 Groundwater flow rates increases with gradient.

 Groundwater level against hydraulic head

In this illustration, i is calculated using water levels measured in 2

boreholes, but in practice 3 points are required
 Groundwater flow direction
 Both the direction of ground-water movement and the hydraulic gradient can be
determined if the following data is available for three wells/boreholes located in any
triangular arrangement. Data requirements:
1 . The relative geographic position (GPS) of the boreholes (coordinates in meters).
2 . The distance between the wells (Can be calculated from coordinates). BH1 [21.26 m]
3 . The hydraulic head in each well (water level and surface elevation)

 (See Freeze and Cherry 1979).

BH3 [21.20m]
Method requirements

 Boreholes must be in similar aquifer conditions*

 And properly constructed
 Graph has to be according to scale
BH2 [21.07 m]
 Steps to determine the groundwater flow direction using 3
hydraulic heads

1. Identify the well that has the intermediate hydraulic head.

BH1 [21.26 m]

BH3 [21.20m]

BH2 [21.07 m]
 Steps to determine the groundwater flow direction using 3
hydraulic heads

2. Calculate the position between the well having the highest head and the well having the
lowest head at which the head is the same as that in the intermediate well .

BH1 [21.26 m]
Based on simple proportion:
[21.20m]
x

BH3 [21.20m]
Calculation of x

BH2 [21.07 m]

= 67.9 m
 Steps to determine the groundwater flow direction using 3
hydraulic heads

3. Draw a straight line between the intermediate well and the point identified in step 2 (the
point between the well having the highest head and that having the lowest head). The line
represents a segment of the hydraulic head contour along which the total head is the same
as that in the intermediate well.
BH1 [21.26 m]

x = 67.8 m
[21.20m]
BH3 [21.20m]

hydraulic head contour /

BH2 [21.07 m]
Equipotential lines
 Steps to determine the groundwater flow direction using 3
hydraulic heads

4. Draw a line perpendicular to the hydraulic head contour and through well with the
lowest head. This line is parallel to the direction of groundwater movement flowing
towards well of lowest head.

BH1 [21.26 m]

x = 67.8 m
[21.20m]
BH3 [21.20m]

BH2 [21.07 m]
 Steps to determine the hydraulic gradient using 3 hydraulic
heads
5. To get the hydraulic gradient (i) of the aquifer system, divide the difference between the head
of the intermediate well and that of the lowest head by the distance between the well (lowest
head) and the contour.

 If drawn to scale, the distance between the well where the drawn principal groundwater
flow direction passes can be simply measured and calculations be made.
BH1 [21.26 m]

x = 67.8 m
[21.20m]
BH3 [21.20m]

= 0.00098

BH2 [21.07 m] Available is an excel spread sheet

 Relevance of groundwater flow direction
 Determining groundwater flow direction is one of the most basic
aspect in geohydrology/hydrogeology investigations
Understanding of groundwater flow direction is important for
(and other uses):
 Planning for the placement of waste facilities in relation to
borehole locations

 Pollution monitoring around facilities/industries

 Groundwater – surface water interaction

Conceptual illustrations
 Water table and piezometric head
 The surface in the aquifer where the water pressure equals the atmospheric pressure is
called phreatic level or water table – for an unconfined aquifer (Diagram A).
 In water table aquifers, groundwater flow often follows ground surface topography (NOT
ALWAYS – EVIDENCE SHOULD BE PRESENTED) – can be generally verified using scatter
correlation plot of water level against surface elevation
 The hydraulic head in confined aquifers (Diagram B) is called piezometric level or
piezometric head; the surface of connected piezometric heads is a potentiometric
surface
A B
 Simplified Darcy’s Law
𝑑ℎ
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐾𝐴𝑖

Q = Discharge rate [m3/day] K – hydraulic conductivity [m/day]

A – cross-sectional of flow [m2] dh/dl – hydraulic gradient (i)
dh = h1-h2 L – length of flow [m]
W = aquifer width [m] b – aquifer thickness [m]
L

dh

h1 W
h2
Q

1 Dimensional flow (1D)

Darcy’s Law – Other common
illustrations
Darcy’s Law – Other common
illustrations
 Darcy’s Law – Class Experiment Set Up
 Determine K
 Darcy’s Law – Field conceptual representation
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴𝑖, if T = Kb, then Q = Twi 𝐾 = 𝑄/𝐴𝑖

h1 w
b
A
h2
L
Datum
Q (Discharge)
 Applicability of Darcy’s Law

 Darcy’s law is applied only in the laminar flow region.

 Groundwater flow may be considered as laminar when the Reynolds number is

less than unity (Rose, 1949).
 Applicability of Darcy’s Law

Reynolds number (Re) - dimensionless

q = fluid discharge velocity [m/s]

ρ = fluid density [kg/m3]
μ = fluid viscosity [kg/sm]
d = is the diameter of the passageway through which the fluid moves (m)

 Darcy’s law is valid for Re values between 1 and 10

 Darcy Flux/Specific discharge (q)

 From Darcy’s law

 Specific discharge/Darcy flux (q) in a pipe through a cross sectional area (A)
perpendicular to flow can be defines as:

Q Q

 A is the total area but not the true area because flow effectively occurs
through the connected pores not through the whole cross section area.
 Seepage velocity (vs)

 True velocity is called seepage velocity (vs) - this takes into

consideration effective porosity/Kinematic porosity (ne).

Effective porosity/Kinematic porosity (ne).

 Effective porosity is that portion of the total void space of a porous

material that is capable of transmitting a fluid.
 Seepage velocity (vs)

𝒒 𝑸
= (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒒 = )
𝒏𝒆 𝑨

𝐾𝐴𝑖
 From Darcy’s law 𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴i 𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛𝑒 ∗ 𝐴
𝐾𝑖
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛𝑒
 Seepage velocity important for pollution studies.
 Seepage velocity is determined from tracer breakthrough tests [In the
Laboratory and field – To be covered in Hydrochemistry and Pollution module]
 Hydraulic conductivity (K)
 The rate of groundwater flow through a cross-section of one square meter (1m2) when
subjected to a unit hydraulic gradient at right angles to the direction of flow (m/d).
 Rearrange Darcy equation and solve for K
 Dependent on both media and fluid properties

dh
𝐾 = 𝑄/𝐴i
h1 W
h2
Q

Highlight vertical and hydraulic K**

Measurement of Hydraulic conductivity (K)
 Measurements can be made in both the laboratory and field

Laboratory
Samples are collected from the field as disturbed or intact (core drilling)
Some of the common methods include:
 Darcy’s experiment [covered]
 Falling head permeameter
 Constant head permeameter
 Read about other methods

Field (To be covered under Aquifer and pump testing)

 Conducted in-situ (undisturbed geological material)
 Slug testing
 Pump testing
 Measurement of hydraulic conductivity (K)

Constant head permeameter

 Used for non-cohesive sediments

 Boundary heads kept constant

 From Darcy’s law

Exercise 1: A constant-head permeameter has a

sample of medium-grained sand 15 cm in length and
80 cm2 in cross-sectional area. A 100 ml of water is
collected in 20 minutes as a result of a 10 cm change
in head. What is the hydraulic conductivity of the
sample in m/d?
 Measurement of hydraulic conductivity (K)

Falling head permeameter

a cross-sectional area of the standpipe

A cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
 Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in stratified aquifers

 In a stratified formation where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given

direction changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be
computed to simplify calculations.

Horizontal K hydraulic conductivity

Vertical flow
1
𝐾𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝐾𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝐾𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝐾𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝐾𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛
𝐻

Horizontal flow
Vertical K hydraulic conductivity
Equivalent vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity in stratified aquifers

Exercise 2:
 The following data is given for a 3 layered aquifer system:

 Layer thickness H1 = 1 m; H2 = 1.5 m; H3 = 2 m

 Vertical hydraulic conductivity K1 = 10-4 cm/sec; K2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec;

K3 = 4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec

 Horizontal hydraulic conductivity K1 = 10-4 cm/sec; K2 = 3.2 x 10-2 cm/sec; K3 =

4.1 x 10-5 cm/sec

 Calculate the ratio of equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity of to vertical

hydraulic conductivity, i.e.
 Transmissivity (T)

 Transmissivity is defined as the rate at which groundwater can flow through the
entire saturated thickness aquifer section of unit width under a unit hydraulic
gradient.

 Transmissivity can be determined from a pumping test using the time-drawdown

data.

𝑻=𝑲∗𝒃
 T = transmissivity of an aquifer [m2/d]
 K = hydraulic conductivity of the
b aquifer [m/d]
 b = saturated thickness of aquifer [m]
 Storage properties

Determines how much water an aquifer can take into storage or

release from storage.

 Take into storage - during recharge

 Release - during pumping or natural
discharge
 Storage properties

Storativity/Storage Coefficient (S)

 Defined as the quantity of water that an aquifer will release from storage or

take into storage per unit of its surface area per unit change in head.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑚3

𝑆=
(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)(𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) 𝑚2 𝑚

 S is dependent upon whether the aquifer is unconfined or confined

 Storativity (S)

Storativity in unconfined aquifer

 During pumping the predominant source of water is from gravity drainage as the
aquifer materials are dewatered. (Thickness of saturated zone decreases during
pumping as a result of dewatering)
 The storage coefficient is approximately the same as the percentage of pore
space in the aquifer
 Unconfined aquifers can produce more water for a smaller change in head
compared to confined aquifers
 In practice the storativity of unconfined aquifers is equal to the specific yield
(Sy).
 Specific yield
 Defined as the ratio of the volume of water that drains from a
saturated rock due to the attraction of gravity to the total volume of
the saturated aquifer.

 Where, Sy is the Specific yield, Vd is the volume of water drained from

a unit volume of earth materials (m3), Vt is the unit volume of earth
material, including both voids and solids (m3)
 Storativity (S) in confined aquifer

 During pumping water that is released from storage in a confined aquifer comes
from compression of the aquifer and expansion of the water particles.

 During pumping, the pressure is reduced in a confined aquifer, but the aquifer is
not dewatered.

 Saturated thickness (b) therefore remains the same – water is released due to
aquifer compression and expansion of water mechanisms.

 In the confined aquifer S is the product of specific storage (Ss) and aquifer
thickness (b).

𝑺 = 𝑺𝒔 ∗ 𝒃
 Specific storage (Ss)
 The quantity of water that a confined aquifer will release from storage or take into storage
per unit of its surface area to due to the compaction of the aquifer and compressibility of
water per unit change in hydraulic head.

𝑺𝒔 = 𝝆𝒘 𝒈(𝜶 + 𝒏𝜷)

Where: Ss – specific storage [m-1] ρw = density of water [kg/m3], g = acceleration of gravity

[m/s2], α = compressibility of aquifer (ranges between 10-9 - 10-11 m2/N), n = porosity [%]
and β = compressibility of water [m2/N] (4.47x10-10 m2/N for water at 10 0C)

 For confined aquifers, storativity ranges between 0.005 and 0.00005, with leaky
confined aquifers falling in the high end of this range (US EPA, 1994).
Storage in confined and unconfined aquifers

(Heath, 1983, p 28)

 Storativity – confined aquifer

Exercise:
 In a confined aquifer with a storativity of 0.000563 and surface area of 20 m2 the
piezometric head drops by 5 m due to pumping. What is the volume that can be
released from the aquifer due to this change in head?

Exercise:
 A confined aquifer has a storativity (S) of 0.005, a thickness of 10 m, compressibility

(α) of 10-11 m2/N and porosity of 10 %. Determine the compressibility (β) of the fresh
water in the aquifer given that acceleration due to gravity (g) and density of
freshwater water (ρw) are 9.8 m/s2 and 1000 kg/m3.
 Aquifer boundaries

 In the real field, aquifers do not extent forever!

Dyke River

aquifer aquifer
aquifer

Aquifer boundary
Impermeable boundary Recharge boundary Aquifer of non-uniform thickness
 Homogeneity and Heterogeneity

 If a geologic unit that has the same properties at all locations, the

formation is homogeneous.

 If a geologic unit has properties that varies with location, the formation is

heterogeneous.
 Isotropy and Anisotropy in aquifers

 If a geologic formation has properties that are the same in all directions, then the
formation is isotropic.

 If a geologic formation has properties that varies with the direction then the
formation is anisotropic.
 References

 Fetter, C.W., 1994, Applied Hydrogeology, 3rd ed.

Macmillan College Publishing, Inc., New York

 Freeze, R.A., and J.A. Cherry. "Groundwater". Prentice-Hall.

1979

 Bear, J. "Hydraulics of Groundwater". McGraw-Hill. 1979

 References
• Heath, Ralph C., 1983, Basic ground-water hydrology: U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2220
(pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/2220/report.pdfk)

• Fetter CW (2001). Applied Hydrogeology (4th edition).

Prentice-Hall, New Jersey

• Freeze RA and Cherry JA (1979). Groundwater: Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall