Dr. V. N.

Ghate
11:41
• An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy
to alternating current electrical energy.

• It is works electromagnetic induction principle.

• Whenever the current flowing through a conductor , the magnetic field is

produced around the conductor.

• It requires :
 Field system
 System of conductors
 Relative motion between the two
For relative motion
 Keep the field system stationary and allowing the system of
conductors to rotate
 Keep the system of conductors stationary and allowing the
11:41 field system to rotate
• Alternators and generators are two devices which generate electricity.
• Although both these devices serve the same function, they are quite different in
every other aspect.
• Very first difference is that In a DC generator, the armature winding is placed on the
rotor and field winding is stationary but in alternator Armature is stationary and
field winding is rotating due to following advantages,
 It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages for which the
alternators are usually designed. It is because they are not subjected to
centrifugal forces and also extra space is available due to the stationary
arrangement of the armature.
 The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load without
going through large, unreliable slip rings and brushes.

11:41
  Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field winding on the
rotor. Since the exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear
required are of light construction.
 Due to the simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of
rotating DC field is possible. This increases the output obtainable from a
machine of given dimensions.

11:41
 Difference between Alternator and Generator
S.N Differentiating Property
1 Definition
2 Armature Movement
3 Magnetic Field
4 Energy Efficiency
5 Output (Size)
6 Polarization After Polarization is not required Generators need to be
Installation
11:41
Alternator Generator
An alternator is a device A generator is a
that converts mechanical mechanical device which
energy into AC electrical converts mechanical
energy. energy to either AC or DC
electrical energy.
The armature of an The armature of a
alternator is stationary. generator is rotating.
The magnetic field is In case of a generator, the
rotating inside the stator of magnetic field is stationary
an alternator. or fixed where the
armature winding spins.
Alternators are very Generators are considered
efficient. less efficient.
Alternators have higher Generators have a lower
output than generators. output when compared
with an alternator.
in case of alternators. polarized after installation.
 Difference between Alternator and Generator
S.N Differentiating Property Alternator Generator
7 Input Supply The alternator takes input The generator takes input
supply from the stator. supply from the rotor.
8 RPM (Rotation Per Minute) Alternators have a wide Generators have a low
Range range of RPM. range of RPM.
9 Voltage Generation Alternators produce voltage Generators produce voltage
only when needed. at all times.
10 Size Alternators are generally Generators are larger and
smaller in size. require more space to fit in.
11 Brush Efficiency The brushes of alternators The brushes of generators
last longer. last lesser when compared
to an alternator.
12 Charging of a Dead Battery Alternators will never A generator can be used for
charge a dead battery charging a dead battery.
13 Uses Alternators are mainly used Generators are widely used
in the automobile industry to produce large-scale
as a charging system for the electricity.
11:41
battery.
11:41
• There are mainly two types of rotors used in construction of alternator:
• Salient pole type.
• Cylindrical rotor type.
SALIENT POLE TYPE
• The term salient means projecting.
• The poles, in this case, are made of thick laminated steel sections riveted
together and attached to a rotor with the help of joint.

11:41
 SALIENT POLE TYPE
The salient feature of pole field structure has the following special feature-
• They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial
length.
• The pole shoes covers only about 2/3rd of pole pitch.
• Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
• The salient pole type is generally used for low-speed operations of
around 100 to 400 rpm, and they are used in power stations with
hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.
• Salient pole alternators driven by water turbines are called hydro-
alternators or hydro generators.

11:41
 CYLINDRICAL ROTOR TYPE

• The cylindrical rotor type machine has a uniform length in all directions, giving
a cylindrical shape to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting in all
directions.
• The rotor, in this case, consists of a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number
of slots along its outer periphery for hosting the field coils.
• The cylindrical rotor synchronous generator does not have any projections
coming out from the surface of the rotor.
• Rather, the central polar area is provided with slots for housing the field
windings
• The field coils are so arranged around these poles that flux density is maximum
on the polar central line and gradually falls away as we move out towards the
periphery.
11:41
 CYLINDRICAL ROTOR TYPE
• The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very high speed operation and
employed in steam turbine driven alternators like turbo-generators.
• The cylindrical rotor type machine gives better balance and quieter-operation
along with lesser windage losses.
• The cylindrical rotor alternators are generally designed for 2-pole type giving
very high speed
Steel
retaining
ring

Shaft
Shaft

Wedges
DCcurrent
DC current
terminals
terminals
11:41
 Comparison of Salient pole rotor and
Cylindrical rotor
S.N. Salient pole rotor Cylindrical rotor
1 Large diameter Smaller diameter
2 Shorter axial length Longer axial length
No projection . Smooth
3 Poles are projected
cylindrical one
4 Need damper winding No need
It is suitable for low speed Suitable for high speed turbo
5
hydro Generator generator
6 Windage loss is higher lesser

11:41
 DAMPER WINDING
• The damper windings are basically copper bars short-circuited at both ends are
placed in the holes made in the pole axis.
• When the alternator is driven at a steady speed, the relative velocity of the
damping winding with respect to the main field will be zero.
• But as soon as it departs from the synchronous speed there will be relative
motion between the damper winding and the main field which is always
rotating at synchronous speed.
• This relative difference will induce the current in them which will exert a torque
on the field poles in such a way as to bring the alternator back to synchronous
speed operation.
• The damping winding also tends to maintain balanced three phase voltage
under unbalanced load condition.
11:41
 DAMPER WINDING
• An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for generation of very
high electrical power.
• To enable that, the mechanical input given to the machine in terms of rotating
torque must also be very high.
• This high torque value results in oscillation or hunting effect of the alternator or
synchronous generator.
• To prevent these oscillations from going beyond bounds the damper winding is
provided in the pole faces as shown in the figure.

11:41
 SPEED AND FREQUENCY
• In an alternator, there exists a definite
relationship between the rotational
speed (N) of the rotor, the frequency (f)
of the generated e.m.f. and the number
of poles P.
• Consider the armature conductor
marked X in Fig. situated at the centre
of a N-pole rotating in clockwise
direction.

• The conductor being situated at the place of maximum flux density will have
maximum e.m.f. induced in it.
• When the conductor is in the interpolar gap, as at A in Fig, it has minimum e.m.f.
induced
11:41 in it, because flux density is minimum there.
 SPEED AND FREQUENCY
• Again, when it is at the centre of a S-pole, it has maximum e.m.f. induced in it,
because flux density at B is maximum. But the direction of the e.m.f. when
conductor is over a N-pole is opposite to that when it is over a S-pole.
• Obviously, one cycle of e.m.f. is induced in a conductor when one pair of poles
passes over it. In other words, the e.m.f. in an armature conductor goes through
one cycle in angular distance equal to twice the pole-pitch, as shown in Fig.
• Let P is number of poles , N is rotational speed in rpm , F is frequency in Hz.
Number of cycles per revolution = P/2 and
Number of revolutions per second =N/60
Number of Cycle Revolution P N PN
x  x 
Revolution Seconds 2 60 120

Number of Cycle PN
F 
11:41
Seconds 120
 ARMATURE WINDING
• Armature winding in an alternators are different than the used in d.c machines.
The d.c machines have closed circuit winding but alternator windings are open ,
in the sense that there is no closed path for the armature currents in the
winding itself. One end of the windings are joined together to form the neutral
point.
• There are some common properties of armature winding.
• First and most important property of an armature winding is, two sides of
any coil should be under two adjacent poles.
That means, coil span = pole pitch.
• The winding can either be single layer or double layer.
• Winding is so arranged in different armature slots, that it must produce
sinusoidal emf.
11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
Types of Armature Winding of Alternator
The windings can be classified as
• Single phase and poly phase armature winding.
• Concentrated winding and distributed winding.
• Half coiled and whole coiled winding.
• Single layer and double layer winding.
• Lap, wave and concentric or spiral winding and
• Full pitched coil winding and fractional pitched coil winding.

11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
Short pitch Winding : Pitch Factor
• In armature winding if coil span is equal to pole pitch then it is called full
pitched winding. i.e coil span is equal to 1800 electrical
• Let pole pitch equal to 7 slots

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1800e
Less than1800e
• This is called full pitch winding
• This is called short pitched winding

11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
• Short-pitched coils are deliberately used because
1. They save copper of end connections.
2. Reduction in resistance and inductance of the winding due to the lesser length of
the coil ends
3. They improve the wave-form of the generated e.m.f. i.e. the generated e.m.f.
can be made to approximate to a sine wave more easily and the distorting
harmonics can be reduced or totally eliminated.
4. Due to elimination of high frequency harmonics, eddy current and
hysteresis losses are reduced thereby increasing the efficiency.
• But the disadvantage of using short-pitched coils is that the total voltage
around the coils is somewhat reduced. Because the voltages induced in the two
sides of the short-pitched coil are slightly out of phase, their resultant vectorial
sum
11:41 is less than their arithmetical sum.
 ARMATURE WINDING
• To take the effect of short pitched winding in to account , Pitch Factor or Coil
Span Factor kp or kc is defined as

V e c to r S u m o f In d u c e d e m f p e r c o il
kp or kc 
A rith m a tic S u m o f In d u c e d e m f p er c o il

• Let Es be the induced emf in each coilside

• Coil side is short pitched by 300 electrical
• Arithmetic Sum :

2Es
• Vector Sum :

E  2 E s co s( / 2)

11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
V e c to r S u m o f In d u c e d e m f p e r c o il
kp or kc 
A rith m a tic S u m o f In d u c e d e m f p er c o il
2 E s c o s ( / 2 )
kp or kc 
2Es
k p o r k c  co s ( / 2 )

11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
Distributed Winding : Distribution Factor
• It will be seen that in each phase, coils are not concentrated in one slot, but are
distributed in a number of slots to form polar groups under each pole.
• These coils/phase are displaced from each other by a certain angle.
• The result is that the e.m.fs. induced in coil sides constituting a polar group are
not in phase with each other but differ by an angle equal to angular
displacement of the slots.
• Although distributed armature winding in alternator reduces emf, still it is very
much usable due to following reason.
 It also reduces harmonic emf and so waveform is improved.
 It also diminishes armature reaction.
 Even distribution of conductors, helps for better cooling.
 The core is fully utilized as the conductors are distributed over the slots
11:41 on the armature periphery.
 ARMATURE WINDING
DISTRIBUTION FACTOR

β D
C β
β
E
β
B F
Es β

A G

11:41
 ARMATURE WINDING
• To take the effect of distributed winding in to account , Distribution Factor kd
is defined as k d = In d u c e d e m f w ith d is trib u te d w in d in g
In d u c e d e m f w ith c o n c e n tra te d w in d in g

• Consider fig. with additional construction β D

C β
E
• Where m is no of slots per pole per phase β
β
B F
• AB = Es = 2r sinβ/2
• Arithmetic Sum = mEs=m 2r sin(β/2) Es
β

A G
• Vector Sum = AG = 2r sin(mβ/2)
• Distribution Factor
r
In d u c e d e m f w ith d is trib u te d w in d in g
kd =
In d u c e d e m f w ith c o n c e n tra te d w in d in g O

2 r s in ( m  / 2 ) s in ( m  / 2 )
kd = 
m 2 r s in (  / 2 ) m s in (  / 2 )
11:41
 EMF EQUATION
Consider the following
• Φ = flux per pole in wb P = Number of poles
• Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
• Z = conductors per phase connected in series
• T = Number of turns per phase = Z/2
• Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot
• In one revolution of rotor the flux cut by the conductor =dΦ = ΦP
• Time required for one revolution for conductor in sec = dt = 60/N
• Average induced emf per conductor
d P  PN
e avg =  
dt 60 / N 60
• But F= PN/120 or N= 120F/P
 P 120 F
e avg = x  2F 
60 P
11:41
 EMF EQUATION
• If there are Z conductors ( 2T) in series per phase then
e a v g p er p h a s e = 2 F  Z  4 F  T
• RMS value of induced emf per phase
e rm s p e r p h a s e = 1 .1 1 x 4 F  T  4 .4 4 F  T
• This would have been the actual value of induced emf per phase if
 Winding is full pitched
 Winding is concentrated
• But generally winding is short pitched and distributed hence the effect kc and
kd should be included.
• Actually available Voltage per phase
E per phase  4 .4 4 k c k d F  T

If winding is full pitched the kc =1 and winding is concentrated then kd=1

11:41
 EFFECT OF HARMONICS ON kc AND kd
• Sinusoidal components, whose frequencies are integral multiples of fundamental
wave called harmonics
• If fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then
second harmonics will 100 Hz , third harmonics 150 Hz etc
• In a given time period, ‘n’ th harmonics will complete ‘n’ cycles , hence Short
pitch angle α (which is for fundamental frequency ) will also be multiplied by ‘n’
• for 3rd harmonics = 3 α , 5th harmonics =5 α , 7th harmonics =7 α and so on
• Hence pitch factor k p o r kc  co s ( n  / 2 )

• Similarly slot angle β will also get multiplied by ‘n’

• for 3rd harmonics = 3 β , 5th harmonics =5 β , 7th harmonics =7 β and so on
• Hence distribution factor
s in ( m n  / 2 )
kd = 
m s in ( n  / 2 )

11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-1
Find the no-load phase and line voltage of a star-connected 3-phase, 6-pole alternator
which runs at 1200 rpm, having flux per pole of 0.1 Wb sinusoidally distributed. Its
stator has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil is
chorded by 1 slot.
Solution:
Total slots =54
Slots per pole =54/6=9
Angle per slot β =180/9=200
• Since winding is chorded by one slot, it is short-pitched by α= 200
• Pitch Factor kc = cos 20/ 2 = 0.98
• Frequency = f = PN/120 = 6 · 1200/120 = 60 Hz
• No slots per pole per phase m = 54/6*3 =3
• Distribution factor kd = sin 3 · (20/2)/3 sin (20/2) = 0.96
• Total
11:41
no. of conductors per phase Z = (54/3)*8 =144
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-1
• Total no. of Turns per phase T = 144/2 =72
• From emf equation of Alternator

E p er p h a s e  4 .4 4 k c k d F  T
 4 .4 4 * 0 .9 8 * 0 .9 6 * 6 0 * 0 .1 * 7 2
 1805 V
• Line voltage = √3 *1805 = 3125 V

11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-2
Calculate the R.M.S. value of the induced e.m.f. per phase and line value of a 10-pole,
3-phase, 50-Hz alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase and 4 conductors per slot in
two layers. The coil span is 150. The flux per pole has a fundamental component of
0.12 Wb and a 20% third component.
Solution :
• Since machine has two components of flux , two induced emfs will be there
• 1. Induced emf due to fundamental component of flux
• 2. Induced emf due to third component of flux
• 1. Induced emf due to fundamental component of flux
• Since the coil span is 1500 the short pitched angle = α = 180-150 =300
• Fundamental Pitch factor kc1= cos α/2 = cos30/2= 0.966
• No. of slots per pole per phase m = 2
• No of slots per pole = 2 *3 = 6
• Angle
11:41 per slot = β = 180/6 =300
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-2
• Fundamental Distribution factor kd1 = sin 3 · (30/2)/3 sin (30/2) = 0.966
• Total no. of conductors per phase Z = m * No. of Poles * no. of conductors per slot
• = 2*10*4
• =40
• Total no. of Turns per phase T = Z/2 =80/2 =40

F u n d a m e n ta l e m f p e r p h a s e E 1  4 .4 4 k c k d F  T
 4 .4 4 * 0 .9 6 6 * 0 .9 6 6 * 5 0 * 0 .1 2 * 4 0
 995 V
• 2. Induced emf due to third component of flux
• Third component Pitch factor kc3= cos 3α/2 = cos3*30/2= 0.707
• Third component Distribution factor kd3 = sin 3 · (3*30/2)/3 sin (3*30/2) = 0.707
• Third component frequency = f3 =3*50 = 150
• Third component flux φ3 = (1/3)*20% of fundamental flux = (1/3)*0.02*0.12 = 0.008 Wb
11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-2
• Third component induced emf :

F u n d a m e n ta l e m f p e r p h a s e E 3  4 .4 4 k c 3 k d 3 F3  3 T
 4 .4 4 * 0 .7 0 7 * 0 .7 0 7 * 1 5 0 * 0 .0 0 8 * 4 0
 106 V
• Induced emf per phase is resultant of fundamental emf and emf induced due to third
component
E m f in d u c e d p er p h a s e  E 12  E 32
 9952  1052
 1000 V
• Since phase e.m.fs. induced by the 3rd, 9th and 15th harmonics etc. are eliminated
from the line voltages, the line voltage for a Y-connection is = √3* 995=1723.39 V

11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-3
A 3-phase alternator has generated e.m.f. per phase of 230 V with 10 per cent third
harmonic and 6 per cent fifth harmonic content. Calculate the r.m.s. line voltage for (a)
star connection (b) delta-connection. Find also the circulating current in delta
connection if the reactance per phase of the machine at 50-Hz is 10 Ω.
Solution :
It should be noted that in both star and delta-connections, the third harmonic
components of the three phases cancel out at the line terminals because they are co-
phased. Hence, the line e.m.f. is composed of the fundamental and the fifth harmonic
only.
Star Connection :
• E1= 230 V ; E5 = 0.06 · 230 = 13.8 V

em f per phase = E 12  E 52  2 3 0 2  1 3 .8 2  2 3 0 .2 V
• RMS Value of line emf = √3 * 230.2 = 398.71 V
11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-3
Delta-connection
• Since for delta-connection, line e.m.f. is the same as the phase e.m.f. R.M.S. value
of line e.m.f. = 230.2 V
• In delta-connection, third harmonic components are additive round the mesh, hence
a circulating current is set up whose magnitude depends on the reactance per phase
at the third harmonic frequency
• R.M.S. value of third harmonic e.m.f. per phase = 0.1 * 230.2 =23 V
• Reactance at triple frequency = 10 * 3 = 30 Ω
• Circulating current = 23/30 = 0.77 A

11:41
 PROBLEMS
PROBLEM-4
An alternator on open-circuit generates 360 V at 60 Hz when the field current is 3.6 A.
Neglecting saturation, determine the open-circuit e.m.f. when the frequency is 40 Hz
and the field current is 2.4 A.
Solution:
• Solution. As seen from the e.m.f. equation of an alternator, E φf
• Hence E1 φ1f1 and E2 φ2f2
E1  1 f1

E2  2 f2
• Since saturation is neglected, F If where If is the field current

E1 I f 1 f1 360 3 .6 * 6 0
  
E2 I f 2 f2 E2 2 .4 * 4 0
• E2 = 160 V

11:41
 COOLING AND VENTILATION
 The losses produced in the core and conductors of electrical machines are
converted into heat . It raises the temperature of several parts of the machine .
Hence cooling media is necessary to reduce the heat .
 Different methods of cooling
 Axial cooling ,
 Radial cooling ,
 Radial Axial cooling ,
 multiple inlet system of cooling

11:41
 COOLING AND VENTILATION
Air or Hydrogen ?
 In case of slow speed alternators diameter is large and fan arrangements are
provided with rotating member of the machine .
 In case of high speed alternator, the natural cooling area available is very less ,
because the size of the alternator is small .
 If air is used for cooling purpose in large size turbo alternators, a large quantity
of air is required . For this , a large size fan is required to circulate the required
air .
 To reduce the size of the fan and also to improve the efficiency of the cooling
system , hydrogen is used as cooling medium .

11:41
 COOLING AND VENTILATION
Conditions and advantages of hydrogen
Conditions:
 Hydrogen should be pure.
 Proper sealing should be provided.
 Hydrogen should be maintained at certain pressure slightly above
the atmosphere pressure
Advantages :
 Reduction in windage loss due to low density of gas
 The efficiency of machine is increased
 Heat transfer capacity of Hydrogen is 1.3 times of air .
 Noiseless operation is possible
 No fire accident since hydrogen is inflammable
 Life of the insulation is increased
11:41
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
 As the load on an alternator is varied, its terminal voltage is also found to vary
as in d.c. generators. This variation in terminal voltage V is due to the following
reasons:
1. Voltage drop due to armature resistance Ra
2. Voltage drop due to armature leakage reactance XL
3. Voltage drop due to armature reaction
Armature Resistance
• The armature resistance/phase Ra causes a voltage drop/phase of IRa which is
in phase with the armature current I.
• However, this voltage drop is practically negligible.
• While considering the value of resistance Skin Effect should be consider
• Rac = 1.6 Rdc.
IRa I
11:41
 Skin Effect
• Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become
distributed within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the
surface of the conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor.
• The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the
outer surface and a level called the skin depth.
• The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at
higher frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective
cross-section of the conductor.

F1=0 F2>F1 F3>F2

11:41
 Skin Effect
• Let us initially consider the solid conductor to be split up into
some annular filaments spaced infinitely small distance apart,
such that each filament carries an infinitely small fraction of
the total current, if the total current = I
• Let us consider the conductor to be split up into n filament
carrying current ‘i’ such that I = n i.
• Now during the flow of an alternating current, the current
carrying filaments lying on the core has a flux linkage with the
entire conductor cross-section including the filaments of the
surface as well as those in the core.
• Whereas the flux set up by the outer filaments is restricted
only to the surface itself and is unable to link with the inner
filaments.
11:41
 Skin Effect
• Thus the flux linkage of the conductor increases as we move closer towards the
core and at the same rate increases the inductance as it has a direct
proportionality relationship with flux linkage.

• As a result, a larger inductive reactance gets induced into the core as compared
to the outer sections of the conductor.

• The high value of reactance in the inner section results in the current gets
distributed in an un-uniform manner and forcing the bulk of the current to flow
through the outer surface or skin giving rise to the phenomena called skin
effect.
• The skin effect in an AC system depends on some factors like:-
 Shape of conductor.
 Type of material.
 Diameter of the conductors.
 Operational frequency.
11:41
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Leakage Reactance
• When current flows through the armature conductors, fluxes are set up which
do not cross the air-gap, but take different paths. Such fluxes are known
as leakage fluxes.

• The leakage flux is practically independent of saturation, but is dependent

on I and its phase angle with terminal voltage V.
• This leakage flux sets up an e.m.f. of self-inductance which is known
as reactance e.m.f. and which is ahead of I by 90°.
11:41
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Leakage Reactance
• Hence, armature winding is assumed to possess leakage reactance XL (also
known as Potier rectance XP) such that voltage drop due to this equals IXL.
• A part of the generated e.m.f. is used up in overcoming this reactance e.m.f.
E =V+I(R+jXL)
• Vector Diagram:

ϕ V
I

11:41
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Reaction
• Thus, as soon as the load is connected with armature terminals, there is a
current flowing in the armature coil.
• As soon as current starts flowing through the armature conductor there is one
reverse effect of this current on the main field flux of the alternator (or
synchronous generator).
• This reverse effect is referred as armature reaction in alternator or
synchronous generator.
• In other words, the effect of armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the
rotor field poles is called armature reaction.
• It has two undesirable effects, either it distorts the main field, or it reduces the
main field flux or both which deteriorate the performance of the machine.
• Cross magnetizing effect
11:41
• Demagnetizing effect.
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Reaction
• The effect of armature reaction depends on the power factor i.e the phase
relationship between the terminal voltage and armature current.
• Before discussing this, it should be noted that, suppose alternator is loaded
with a resistive load of unity power factor, so that phase currents Ia, Ib and Ic are
in phase with their respective phase voltages.
• By simple mathematical calculations it is seen that,
• Armature m.m.f. remains constant with time
• It is 90 space degrees behind the main field m.m.f., so that it is only
distortional in nature.
• It rotates synchronously round the armature i.e. stator.
• Armature reaction effect can be seen at
• Unity Power Factor
11:41
• Zero Power factor Lagging and leading
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Reaction at Unity Power Factor

ϕM

N S
ϕA
• In this case the armature flux is cross-
magnetising.
• The result is that the flux at the leading tips of
the poles is reduced while it is increased at the ϕM
trailing tips. However, these two effects offset
each other and average field strength constant. ϕA
• In other words, armature reaction for unity p.f. is ϕR
11:41
distortional.
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Reaction at Zero Power Factor Lagging

ϕM

N S
ϕA
• As seen from Fig., here the armature flux
(whose wave has moved backward by 90°) is in
direct opposition to the main flux.
• Hence, the main flux is decreased. Therefore, it ϕR ϕM
is found that armature reaction, in this case, is ϕA
wholly demagnetising, with the result, that due
to weakening of the main flux, less e.m.f. is
11:41
generated.
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Armature Reaction at Zero Power Factor Leading

ϕM

N S
ϕA
• In this case, shown in Fig. armature flux wave
has moved forward by 90° so that it is in phase
with the main flux wave.
• This results in added main flux. Hence, in this ϕM
case, armature reaction is wholly magnetising, ϕA ϕR
which results in greater induced e.m.f.
• To keep the value of generated e.m.f. the same,
11:41
field excitation will have to be reduced.
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Synchronous Reactance and Total Vector Diagram
• From the above discussion, it is clear that for the same field excitation, terminal
voltage is decreased from its no-load value E0 to V (for a lagging power factor).
This is because of

• Drop due to armature resistance, IRa

• Drop due to leakage reactance, IXL

• Drop due to armature reaction.

• The drop in voltage due to armature reaction may be accounted for by

assuming the presence of a fictitious reactance Xa in the armature winding. The
value of Xa is such that IXa represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction.

• The leakage reactance XL (or XP) and the armature reactance Xa may be
combined to give synchronous reactance XS.

• Hence XS = XL + Xa 11:41
 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD
Total Vector Diagram for Lagging Load

E0
E

ϕ V

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
• It is clear that with change in load, there is a change in terminal voltage of an
alternator.
• The magnitude of this change depends not only on the load but also on the
load power factor.
• The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is defined as, the rise in
voltage at the terminals when the load is reduced from full load rated value to
zero, (keeping speed and field current constant) expressed as percentage of
rated voltage.
• Let V = Rated terminal voltage per phase
E0 = No load induced e.m.f. per phase
Voltage regulation is defined as,

E0  V
 x1 0 0
V

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR

Determination of Voltage Regulation

Direct Load Test Indirect Methods

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
• In the case of small machines, the regulation may be found by direct loading.
The procedure is as follows :
• The alternator is driven at synchronous speed and the terminal voltage is
adjusted to its rated value V.
• The load is varied until the wattmeter and ammeter (connected for the
purpose) indicate the rated values at desired p.f.
• Then the entire load is thrown off while the speed and field excitation are
kept constant. The open-circuit or no-load voltage E0 is read. Hence,
E  V
regulation can be found as  0

V
x1 0 0

• In the case of large machines, the cost of finding the regulation by direct
loading becomes prohibitive.
• The method of direct loading is suitable only for small alternators of the
power rating less than 5 kVA.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
• For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to determine the
voltage regulation
• These methods require—
1. Armature (or stator) resistance Ra
2. Open-circuit/No-load characteristic.
3. Short-circuit characteristic
4. Zero power factor lagging characteristic for Potier method.
Measurement of Armature Resistance Ra
• Armature resistance Ra per phase can be measured directly by voltmeter and
ammeter method or by using Wheatstone bridge.
• However, under working conditions, the effective value of Ra is increased due to
‘skin effect’.
• The value of Ra so obtained is increased by 60% or so to allow for this effect.
Generally, a value 1.6 times the d.c. value is taken. R ac  1.6 R d c
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
• The alternator is run at rated
synchronous speed and the load
terminals are kept open.
• That is, all the loads are disconnected.
the field current is set to zero, this
condition is called open circuit test

• condition.
The field current is gradually increase in steps, and the terminal voltage Et is
measure at each step.
• The excitation current may be increased to get 25% more than rated voltage of
the alternator.
• A graph is plotted between the open circuit test voltage Ep and field excitation
current If.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
• The characteristic curve so obtain is Air Gap Line

Open Circuit Voltage E0

called open circuit characteristic OCC
(O.C.C.).
• It take the shape of a normal
magnetization curve.
• The extension of linear portion of an
O.C.C. is called the air gap line are
Field Current If
shown in figure.

• Thus we observe that because of saturation in iron parts of machine, the no

load generated voltage E0 does not increase in the same proportion as the
increase in field current.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Short Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
• The armature terminals are shorted
through three ammeter.
• Care should we taken performing this
test, and the field current should first
decreased to zero before starting the
alternator.
• Each ammeter should have range
• greater than the run
The alternator full rated value.
at synchronous speed. then the field current gradually
increased in step, and the armature current is measured at each step.
• The field current may be increased to get armature current up to 150% of the
rated value. The field current If and the average of three ammeter reading at each
step is taken.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC)
• A graph is plotted between the SCC

Short Circuit Current Isc

armature current Isc and field
current If.
• The characteristic so obtained is
called short-circuit characteristic
(SCC). The characteristic is a
straight line as shown in figure.
Field Current If
• As the resultant air gap flux is only small of its rated value under normal voltage
condition, such a low value of air gap flux does not saturate the iron parts of
synchronous machine and hence the short circuit characteristics is a straight
line.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Synchronous Impedance Method
• The following steps are given below for the calculation of the synchronous
impedance.

• The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic are drawn
on the same curve.

• Determine the value of short circuit current Isc and gives the rated alternator
voltage per phase.

• The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit voltage
divided by the short circuit current at that field current which gives the rated
EMF per phase.
O p en C ircu it V o ltag e p er P h ase
• Synchronous Impedance Z s 
S h o rt C ircu it A rm atu re C u rren t

S yn c h ro n o u s R eactan ce X s  Z s2  R a2
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Synchronous Impedance Method

C
OCC
E0

Short Circuit Current Isc

Open Circuit Voltage E0
SCC

IXs B
V C
IRa
VSinϕ

ϕ I A
O A B O Field Current If
VCosϕ
A C in V o ltag e p er P h ase
E ph  (V co s   IR a ) 2  (V sin   IX s ) 2 Zs 
A B in A rm atu re C u rren t
E  V
11:41 R e g u la tio n  0
x1 0 0
V
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Assumptions in the Synchronous Impedance Method
• The synchronous Impedance is constant

 The synchronous impedance is determined from the O.C.C and S.C.C. It is

the ratio of the open circuit voltage to the short circuit current. When the
O.C.C and S.C.C are linear, the synchronous impedance ZS is constant.

• The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.

 When the armature is short circuited, the current in the armature lag the
generated voltage by almost 90 degrees, and hence the armature reaction
is almost completely demagnetizing.
• The effect of the armature reaction flux can be replaced by a voltage drop
proportional to the armature current and that the armature reaction voltage
drop is added to the armature reactance voltage drop. i.e armature reaction is
not
11:41treated separately but along with leakage reactance
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Assumptions in the Synchronous Impedance Method
• The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the
power factor.
 For a cylindrical rotor machine, this assumption is substantially true
because of the uniform air gap. Regulation obtained by using a
synchronous impedance method is higher than that obtained by actual
loading. Hence, this method is also called the Pessimistic method.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• A 100-kVA, 3000-V, 50-Hz 3-phase star-connected alternator has effective
armature resistance of 0.2 ohm. The field current of 40 A produces short-circuit
current of 200 A and an open-circuit emf of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the
full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 p.f. lagging and 0.8 p.f. leading. Draw phasor
diagrams.
Solution:
Synchronous Impedance
O p en C ircu it V o ltag e p er P h ase
Zs  ( F o r S am e E x citatio n )
S h o rt C ircu it A rm atu re C u rren t
1040/ 3
Zs  =3 
200
Synchronous Reactance
Xs  Z s2  R a2  3 2  0 .2 2  2 .9 9 
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
100000
• Full Load current I   1 9 .2 A
3 * 3000
• Resistive and Reactive Drops IR a  1 9 .2 * 0 .2  3 .8 4 V
IX S  1 9 .2 * 3 .9 9  5 7 .4V

• Voltage per phase  3000 / 3  1730 V

• Power factor co s   0 .8 and sin   0 .6

• Power Factor 0.8 Lagging

E ph  (V c o s   IR a ) 2  (V s in   IX s ) 2

E0  (1 7 3 0 * 0 .8  3 .8 4 ) 2  (1 7 3 0 * 0 .6  5 7 .4 ) 2
 1768
E  V
R e g u la tio n  0
x1 0 0
V
(1 7 6 8  1 7 3 0 )
 * 1 0 0  2 .2 %
11:41 1730
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• Power Factor 0.8 Leading

E ph  (V c o s   IR a ) 2  (V s in   IX s ) 2

E0  (1 7 3 0 * 0 .8  3 .8 4 ) 2  (1 7 3 0 * 0 .6  5 7 .4 ) 2
 1699

E  V
R e g u la tio n  0
x1 0 0
V
(1 6 9 9  1 7 3 0 )
 * 1 0 0   1 .8 %
1730

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
• MMF method is used for determining the voltage regulation of an alternator
or synchronous generator is also called Ampere turns method or Rothert's
MMF method.
• ThisMMF method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit
test on an alternator.
• For any synchronous generator or alternator, MMF is required, which is a
product of field current and turns of the field winding for two separate
purposes.
1. It must have an MMF necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on the
open circuit.
2. It must have an MMF equal and opposite to that of armature reaction MMF.

Key Point: In most of the cases, as the number of turns on the field winding is not known, the MMF is
calculated and expressed in terms of the field current(If) itself.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
• The field mmf which is required for inducing the rated terminal voltage on the open circuit
can be obtained from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted
as FO.
• Drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance is very small and can be neglected.
• Thus in short circuit test, field MMF circulates the full load current balancing the armature
reaction effect.
• The value of ampere-turns required to circulate full load current can be obtained from short
circuit characteristics, this is denoted as FAR.
• Under short circuit condition the armature reaction reactance is dominating and hence the
power factor of the purely reactive circuit is zero lagging.
• Hence FAR is entirely used to overcome the armature reaction which is wholly demagnetizing
in nature.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
Zero lagging p.f :
• As long as the power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is completely
demagnetizing. Hence the resultant FR is the algebraic sum of the two
components FO and FAR.
• Field MMF is not only required to produce rated terminal voltage but also
required to overcome completely demagnetizing armature reaction effect.
Fo FAR

FR

FR  Fo  F AR
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
Zero leading p.f :
• When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is totally
magnetizing and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage.
• Hence net field required is less than that required to induce rated voltage
normally, as part of its function is done by magnetizing armature reaction
component.
• The net field mmf in this MMF method is the algebraic difference between the
two components FO and FAR. FAR
Fo

FR
FR  Fo  F AR
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
Unity p.f :
• Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction is cross magnetizing
and its effect is to distort the main flux.
• Thus FO and FAR are at right angles to each other and hence resultant MMF is the
vector sum of FO and FAR .

FR
FAR

Fo
  
11:41
FR  Fo  F AR
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
General Case: Now consider that the load power factor is cosΦ. In such case, the
resultant MMF is to be determined by vector addition of FO and FAR.

Unity

Zero Lead Zero Lag

O
Fo FAR
• For any power factor cosΦ lagging , the vector FAR will be at an angle of (90+ Φ)
• And for leading power factor FAR will be at an angle of (90- Φ)

(90- Φ)
11:41
Fo (90+ Φ)
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Ampere-Turn or MMF Method
• The two components of total field mmf which are FO and FAR are indicated in
OCC(open circuit characteristics) and SCC (short circuit characteristics) as
shown in the below figure.
Rated Terminal Voltage
OCC
• If the alternator is supplying full
load, then total field MMF is the SCC
vector sum of its two
components Fo and FAR.
• This depends on the power
factor of the load which
Full Load Short Circuit Current
alternator is supplying. The
resultant field MMF is denoted
FAR Fo
as FR.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• The open-and short-circuit test readings for a 3-f, star-connected, 1000-kVA,
2000 V, 50-Hz, synchronous generator are :
If 10 20 25 30 40 50
Voc 800 1500 1760 2000 2350 2600
Isc --- 200 250 300 --- ---

• The armature effective resistance is 0.2 Ω per phase. Draw the characteristic
curves and estimate the full-load percentage regulation at (a) 0.8 p.f. lagging (b)
0.8 p.f. leading.
• SOLUTION:
• The above readings are line to line values. To draw the OCC and SCC phase values
are converted as follows
Voc : 462 866 1016 1155 1357 1502.
11:41
• Full-load phase voltage = 2000/√3 =1155 V
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• Full-load current = 1,000,000/2000√3=288.7
• Voltage/phase at full-load at 0.8 p.f. = V + IRacos Φ = 1155 + (288.7 · 0.2 · 0.8) =
1200 V OCC
• Draw OCC and SCC 1200

• From OCC it is found that to

SCC
generate the 1200 V, 32 A field
current is required.
• And from the SCC , 29 A field
288.7 A
current is necessary to circulate
full load current i.e. 288.7 A

29 32
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• Power factor cos Φ = 0.8 lagging hence Φ = 36.86
• Draw the vector diagram as shown in Fig., OA = 32 A, AB = 29 A and is at an angle
of (90 + 3652') = 12652' with OA.
• The total field current at full-load 0.8 p.f. lagging

is OB = 54.6 A
• O.C. volt corresponding to a field current of 54.6
A is = 1555 V
• % regn. = (1555 - 1155) × 100/1155 = 34.6%
• Power factor cos Φ = 0.8 Leading
• In this case, as p.f. is leading, AB is drawn with
OA at an angle of 90 - 36 52' =538'. OB = 27.4 A.
• O.C. voltage corresponding to 27.4 A of field
11:41
excitation is 1080 V.
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
PROBLEM
• % regn. = (1155 -1080) /1155 *100 = - 6.4%
• Note here regulation for leading power factor is negative.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Triangle Method
• In the operation of an alternator, the armature resistance drop IRa and armature
leakage reactance drop IXL are actually emf quantities while the armature
reaction is basically MMF quantity.
• In the synchronous Impedance, all the quantities are treated as EMF quantities
as against this in MMF method all are treated as MMF quantities.
• This zpf method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and
armature reaction effects.
• The armature leakage reactance XL is called Potier reactance in this method,
hence ZPF method is also called Potier reactance method.
• To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction MMF
separately two tests are performed on the alternator. The two tests are
1. Open circuit test
11:41
2. Zero power factor test
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method

1. Open circuit test : This test is performed as usual and plot the OCC
2. Zero power factor test :
• To conduct zero power factor test, a purely inductive load to be connected to
an alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has a power factor of
cos 90° i.e. zero lagging hence the test is called zero power factor test.
• The machine speed is maintained constant at its synchronous value.
• The load current delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load is
maintained constant at its rated full load value by varying excitation and by
adjusting variable inductance.
• Note that, due to purely inductive load, an alternator will always operate
at zero power factor lagging.
• In this test, only two points are enough to construct a curve called zero power
factor
11:41 saturation curve.
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
• Plot open circuit characteristics
V OCC
• Plot the zero power factor curve by
marking A and P.
• A : Field current required to circulate
full load current under SC. P

• P: Field current required for rated

voltage when the alternator is
delivering full current at zero p.f.
lagging.
• Draw the tangent to O.C.C. through
origin which is line OB as shown If
dotted in below figure. This is called O A
air gap line.
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
V OCC
• Draw the horizontal line PQ R
parallel and equal to OA.
• From point, Q draw the line S
Q P
parallel to the air line which
intersects O.C.C. at point R.
• Join RQ and PR. The triangle PQR
is called Potier triangle.
• From point R, drop a
perpendicular on PQ to meet at
If
point S. O A

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
• The perpendicular RS gives the V OCC
R
voltage drop due to the armature
leakage reactance i.e. IXL
• The length PS gives field current Q S P

necessary to overcome the

demagnetizing effect of armature
reaction at full load.
• The length SQ represents field
current required to induce an
EMF for balancing leakage If
O A
reactance drop RS.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
• Let V be terminal voltage on full V OCC
R
load E
• By adding voltage drop due to
V
leakage reactance then we get E Q S P

i.e. V+SR =E (Vector Sum)

• Field current corresponding to E
is OF
• SP represent the field current
needed to overcome the
Armature reaction. If
O A F
• Add SP into OF as per the Load
power factor
11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
V
• Let PF is cosϕ lagging. E0 OCC
R
• Add SP into OF vetorially at an
E
angle of 90+ϕ and SP=FG
V
• Get the resultant of OF and FG Q S P

• Transfer the OG vector on X axis

• Find open circuit Induced emf
corresponding to excitation OG’
i.e. E0 G
• Percentage Regulation

E  V If
 0
x1 0 0 O F
V A (90+ Φ) G’

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Complete Vector Diagram

E0

IXa
E

IXL
V
C
90 IRa

VSinϕ
ϕ I
VCosϕ A B

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) OR Potier’s Tringle Method
Assumptions Made in the Potier Method
1. ln the entire calculation procedure of Potier method, the armature resistance
is neglected. But practically armature resistance is very small and hence this
assumption does not cause significant error in the accuracy.
2. In Potier method, a zero power factor test is required to be done. But
practically when inductors are used, a perfect zero power factor cannot be
achieved.
3. Under Saturated conditions represents larger leakage flux, which in the
method assumed unchanged. Hence practically the leakage reactance
corresponding to saturated conditions is higher than that assumed in the
method. This introduces the error in the calculations.

11:41
 REGULATION OF ALTERNATOR
Procedural steps for Potier Method
1. Suppose V be terminal voltage per phase
2. Find the voltage drop due to leakage reactance i.e. IXL
3. Add Voltage drop due to leakage reactance and drop due to armature
resistance (if given) to terminal voltage to get the internal induced emf E
E ph  (V co s   IR a ) 2  (V sin   IX L ) 2
4. Find the field current i.e. excitation required for this calculated emf E from
OCC. Let it be If1
5. Let If2 be the field current necessary for balancing the armature reaction is
found from the Potier’s triangle
6. Add If2 to If1 vectorially i.e. at an angle of 90+ϕ for lagging power factor and
90-ϕ for leading power factor to get field current If.
7. Read the voltage (emf E0) corresponding to the field current If, from the OCC.
E  V
11:41
8. Hence regulation  0
x1 0 0
V
 PROBLEM
A three phase , star connected 6000 V alternator has the following OCC readings,
Field Current : 14 18 23 30 43
Terminal Voltage : 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
With armature short circuited and full load current flowing through the field
current is 17 A and when the machine is supplying the full load of 2000 kVA at zero
power factor, the field current is 42.5 A and the terminal voltage is 6000 V.
Determine the field current required and regulation when the machine is
supplying the full load at 0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution:
• Since machine is star connected the data of OCC is to be converted to per phase
values,
Field Current : 14 18 23 30 43
Terminal Voltage : 2310 2828 3465 4042 4620
• OCC is to be drawn from the given data.
• The full load zero power factor characteristic can be drawn from two points
those are
• A point : (17,0) from short circuit test data
• P point : (42.5,3465) from given data (3465 =6000/√3)

11:41
 PROBLEM
• Plot open circuit characteristics
• Also plot the air gap curve, tangential V OCC
R
to OCC
• Mark the point A : (17,0)
• Mark point P: (42.5,3465) Q P(42.5,3465)
• Draw zero power factor curve
passing through points A and P
• Draw a horizontal line PQ which has
length =OA
• From point, Q draw the line parallel
to the air gap line which intersects
O.C.C. at point R. If
• Join RQ and PR. The triangle PQR is
O A (17,0)

called Potier triangle.

11:41
 PROBLEM
• From point R, drop a perpendicular on
PQ to meet at point S.
V OCC
• The perpendicular RS gives the R
voltage drop due to the armature E
leakage reactance i.e. IXL = 450 V
Q S P(42.5,3465)
• Add this to Terminal Voltage V and
resistive drop(if given) to get E
E ph  (V cos  )2  (V sin   IX L )2
Eph = 3750 V (Ra is Neglected )
• Mark this point on OCC
• Find the corresponding field current
OF= 26.5 A
If
• The l (PS) =14.5 A gives field current O A (17,0) F
necessary to overcome the effect of
armature
11:41 reaction at full load.
 PROBLEM
• From point F, draw the vector FG
V
=14.5 A at an angle of 90+ϕ i.e.
E0 OCC
90+36.86 =126.860 R
• Get the resultant of OF and FG i.e OG E
• l(OG) = 37.2 A
Q S P(42.5,3465)
• Transfer the OG vector on X axis
• Find open circuit Induced emf
corresponding to excitation OG’ i.e. E0
• E0 =
• Full Load Regulation
G
E  V
 0
x1 0 0
V
• =
If
O A (17,0) 126.86 F G’

11:41
11:41