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Designation: D6429 − 23
D6429 − 23
Inorganic Contaminants
Landfill leachate A A A B B
3
Saltwater intrusion A A A B B
Soil salinity A A
Organic Contaminants
Light, nonaqueous phase liquids B B B B
Dissolved phaseD
Dense, nonaqueous phase
liquidsD
Manmade Buried Objects
Utilities B A B A
Drums and USTs A A A A A
UXO B B B A B A
Abandoned wells B B B A
Landfill and trench boundaries B B B A B A
Forensics B A B B A B
Archaeological features B B B B A A A B
A
“A” implies primary choice of method for a given set of site-specific conditions.
B
“B” implies secondary choice or alternate method.
C
Selection implication is applicable where mineralogic clays or conductive pore fluids are not predominant.
D
Also see natural geologic and hydrologic conditions to characterize contaminant pathways.
D6429 − 23
5.1.6 The U.S. EPA (6) provides an excellent literature a cross-section produced from the geophysical data may
review of the theory and use of geophysical methods for use at resemble a geological cross-section, although the two are not
contaminated sites. necessarily identical.
5.2 An Introduction to Geophysical Measurements: 5.4 Geophysical methods should be used in the following
5.2.1 Geophysical measurements provide a means of map- instances:
ping lateral and vertical variations of one or more physical 5.4.1 Surface geophysical methods can and should be used
properties or monitoring temporal changes in conditions, or early in a site investigation program to aid in identifying
both. In the absence of prior information about the site, background conditions, as well as anomalous conditions so that
reconnaissance-level geophysical investigations may be appro- borings, soundings, and sampling points can be located to be
priate as a precursor to refined surveys. A primary factor representative of site conditions and to investigate anomalies.
affecting the accuracy of site investigation results is the number Geophysical methods also can be used later in the site
of test locations. Insufficient spatial sampling to adequately investigation program after an initial study is completed to
characterize the conditions at a site can result if the number of confirm and improve the site investigation findings and provide
fill-in data between other measurements. General site knowl-
samples is too small. Interpolation between these sample points
edge (for example, depth to bedrock, site use history) is a
may be difficult and may lead to an inaccurate site character-
useful precursor for designing a geophysical survey.
ization.
5.4.2 The level of success of a geophysical survey is
5.2.2 Geophysical measurements generally can be made improved if the survey objectives are well defined. In some
relatively quickly, are minimally intrusive, and enable interpo- cases, the objective may be refined as the survey uncovers new
lation between known points of control. Continuous data or unknown data about the site conditions. The flexibility to
acquisition can be obtained with certain geophysical methods change or add to the technical approach should be built into the
at speeds up to several km/h (mph). In some cases, total site program to account for changes in interpretation of site
coverage is economically possible. Because of the greater conditions as a site investigation progresses.
sample density, geophysical methods can be used to define
background (ambient) conditions and detect anomalous condi- 5.5 Profiling and Sounding Measurements:
tions resulting in a more accurate site characterization than 5.5.1 Profiling by stations or by continuous measurements
using borings or soundings alone. Geophysical survey design provides a means of assessing lateral changes in subsurface
considerations vary according to the intended distribution of conditions.
measurements. Data may be collected along individual tran- 5.5.2 Soundings provide a means of assessing depth and
sects to investigate linear features (dams, levees, roadways), thickness of geologic layers or other targets. Most surface
while multiple transects or 3D survey geometries are required geophysical sounding measurements can resolve three and
to identify areal trends over larger sites and non-linear targets. possibly four layers.
These geophysical methods are especially important to pre- 5.6 Ease of Use and Interpretation of Data:
screen large sites prior to detailed planning of further site 5.6.1 The theory of applied geophysics is quantitative,
investigation such as other drilling, sampling and testing however, in application, geophysical methods often yield
methods. interpretations that are qualitative.
5.3 A contrast in material properties must be present for 5.6.2 Some geophysical methods provide data from which a
geophysical measurements to be successful. preliminary interpretation can be made in the field, for
example, ground penetrating radar (GPR), frequency domain
5.3.1 Geophysical methods measure the physical, electrical,
electromagnetic profiling, direct current (DC) resistivity
or chemical properties of soil, rock, and pore fluids. To detect profiling, magnetic profiling, and metal detector profiling. A
an anomaly, a soil to rock contact, the presence of inorganic map of GPR anomalies or a contour map of the EM
contaminants, or a buried drum, there must be a contrast in the (electromagnetic), resistivity, magnetic or metal detector data
property being measured. For example, the target to be often can be created in the field.
detected or geologic feature to be defined must have properties 5.6.3 Some methods, (for example, time domain electro-
significantly different from “background” conditions. magnetics and DC resistivity soundings, seismic refraction,
5.3.2 For example, the interface between fresh water and seismic reflection, and gravity), require that the data be
saltwater in an aquifer can be detected by the differences in processed before any quantitative interpretation can be done.
electrical properties of the pore fluids. The contact between soil 5.6.4 Any preliminary interpretation of field data should be
and unweathered bedrock can be detected by the differences in treated with caution. Such preliminary analysis should be
acoustic velocity of the materials. In some cases, the differ- confirmed by correlation with other information from known
ences in measured physical properties may be too small for points of control, such as borings or outcrops. Such preliminary
anomaly detection by geophysical methods. analysis is subject to change after data processing and is
5.3.3 Because physical properties of soil and rock vary performed mostly as a means of quality control (QC).
widely, some by many orders of magnitude, one or more of 5.6.5 It is the interpretation and integration of all site data
these properties usually will correspond to a geologic discon- that results in useful information for site characterization. The
tinuity; therefore, boundaries determined by the geophysical conversion of raw data to useful information is a value-added
methods will usually coincide with geological boundaries, and process that experienced professionals achieve by careful
REFERENCES
(1) Benson, R., Glaccum, R. A., and Noel, M. R., Geophysical Techniques (10) Park, C. B., Miller, R. B., and Xia, J., “Multichannel Analysis of
for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration, Office of Research Surface Waves,” Geophysics, Vol 64, No. 3, 1999, pp. 800-808.
and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, (11) Daily, W., et al., “Electrical Resistance Tomography - Theory and
Nevada, published by National Water Well Association, Dublin, Ohio, Practice,” in Near-Surface Geophysics, Butler, D. K (ed.), Soc.
1982. Explor. Geophy., Tulsa, OK, 2005, pp. 525-550.
(2) Ward, S. H., ed., Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, (3 (12) Ward, S.H., “Resistivity and Induced Polarization Methods,” In,
volumes), Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Investigation in Ward, S.H., ed., 1990. Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics,
Geophysics, Vol 5, 1990. Vol 1, p. 147–190, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, OK,
(3) Butler, D.K., ed., Near-Surface Geophysics, Society of Exploration 1990.
Geophysicists, Investigation in Geophysics, Vol 13, 2005. (13) Zonge, K., et al., “Resistivity, Induced Polarization, and Complex
(4) US Army Corps of Engineers, Geophysical Exploration for Engineer- Resistivity,” in Near-Surface Geophysics, Butler, D. K (ed.), Soc.
ing and Environmental Investigations, CECW-EG Engineering Explor. Geophy., Tulsa, OK, 2005, pp. 265-300.
Manual EM 1110-1-1802, 1995. (14) Zohdy, A. A., Eaton, G. P., and Mabey, D. R., “Application of
(5) Olhoeft, G. R., Geophysical Advisor Expert System, U.S. Geological Surface Geophysics to Ground Water Investigations,” U.S. Geologi-
Survey Open File Report 88–399, 1988. cal Survey, Techniques of Water Resources Investigation, Book 2,
(6) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Use of Airborne, Surface and Chapter D1, 1974.
Borehole Geophysical Techniques at Contaminated Sites, a Reference (15) Corwin, R. F., “The Self-Potential Method for Environmental and
Guide, EPA/625/R-92/007, 1993. Engineering Applications,” Geotechnical and Environmental
(7) Haeni, F. P., “Application of Seismic-Refraction Techniques to Geophysics, Vol I: Review and Tutorial, S. H. Ward (ed.), Soc. of
Hydrologic Studies,” U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water Explor. Geophy., 1990.
Resources Investigations, Book 2, Chapter D2, 1988. (16) McNeill, J. D., “Use of Electromagnetic Methods for Groundwater
(8) Steeples, D. W., and Miller, R. D., “Seismic Reflection Methods Studies,” In Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol I,
Applied to Engineering, Environmental and Groundwater Problems,” Review and Tutorial, Ward, S. H. (ed.) Soc. Explor. Geophy., Tulsa,
in Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol I, Review and OK, 1990, pp. 191–218.
Tutorial, Ward, S. H. (ed.), Soc. Explor. Geophy., Tulsa, OK, 1990, (17) Fitterman, D. V., et al., “Electromagnetic Induction Methods for
pp. 1–30. Environmental Problems,” in Near-Surface Geophysics, Butler, D. K
(9) Pullan, S. E., and Hunter, J. A., “Delineation of Buried Bedrock (ed.), Soc. Explor. Geophy., Tulsa, OK, 2005, pp. 301-355.
Valleys Using the Optimum Offset Shallow Seismic Reflection (18) McNeill, J. D., Electromagnetic Terrain Conductivity Measurement
Techniques,” in Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol III, at Low Induction Numbers, Geonics Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario,
Geotechnical, Ward, S. H. (ed.), Soc. Explor. Geophy., Tulsa, OK, Technical Note TN–6, 1980a.
1990, pp. 75–87. (19) McNeill, J. D., Applications of Transient Electromagnetic
SUMMARY OF CHANGES
Committee D18 has identified the location of selected changes to this guide since the last issue, D6429-20, that
may impact the use of this guide. (February 15, 2023)
(1) Subsection 1.5—add discussion on “qualified profes- (5) Section 5 – Revised 5.2 to improve readability and clarity.
sional.” (6) Section 6—Revised 6.1.3 and 6.2.3 to add several addi-
(2) Section 3—Removed definition of the terms “site investi- tional possible seismic sources.
gation” and “site characterization” as they are now in ASTM (7) Section 6—Revised 6.3 to clarify MASW depth ranges,
D653. resolution considerations, and possible seismic sources.
(3) Section 4—Updated Table 1 to reflect comments on selec- (8) References—Corrected format of several multi-author ci-
tion applicability of MASW and UXO detection methods. tations in text where applicable.
(4) Section 5—Revised 5.1 to reflect using reconnaissance-
level geophysics to develop more refined surveys.
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