THE VOCABULARY OF SECOND GRADE

ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOKS

Mary Thuraa

Submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Science
in Education

BOWLING GREEN STATE UNIVERSITY

BOWLING GREEN, OHIO
August, 1953
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express her gratitude to

Dr. Martha Gesling for guidance, help and encouragement
in the planning and in the writing of this thesis.
Appreciation is also given to Dr. Josephine MacLatchy
of Ohio State University who gave generously of her time,
materials, and suggestions.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION. ................. 1
The problem ................................... 1
Statement of the problem.,...................... 1
Importance of the study .......... 2
Related literature. . ........................... ..... 3
Smith and Eaton . ............................... 4
Kramer............................... 4
Pressy and Elam .............. 5
O’Rourke and Mead ............. 6
Summary . ........................... .......... 7
Sources of data.............................................................. 7
Delimitation. ..... .................................... . . 8-
Organization of the study .................. ..... 9
II. PROCEDURES.......................................... 10
Definition of terms . ............................... 10
Definition of a word............................................. . 10
Words specific to arithmetic. . ....................... 11
Proper nouns.......................... 12
Nouns with picture clues........................................ 12
General vocabulary....................................... 12
MacLatchy List.......................................................... . 12
Index of use. ..................................................... 13
 tv
CHAPTER PAGE
Index of difficulty.......................... 14
Selection of textbooks to be investigated . . 15
Classification of vocabulary. ........ 16
Treatment of general vocabulary words ... 18
Treatment of vocabulary specific to
arithmetic............................... 18
Treatment of proper nouns and nouns
illustrated by picture clues........................... 19
Treatment of total vocabulary ........................... 20
III. ANALYSIS OF DATA.................................................................. 22
General vocabulary.......................................................... 22
Number and per cent of words included
on the MacLatchy List.............................. 22
Average index of use........................... ..... 24
Index of difficulty............................................ . 26
Vocabulary specific to arithmetic ....................... 28
Number of words specific to arithmetic. . . 28
The fifty most frequently used words
which are specific to arithmetic. .... 30
Proper nouns and picture clues. ....... 32
Number of proper nouns in each book .... 32
Nouns illustrated by picture clues. .... 34
Total vocabulary.......................... 34
Analysis of the total vocabulary. ..... 34
 V

CHAPTER PAGE
Summary ........ ........................... .... 38
IV. SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..... 3$
Summary ..... ........................... ....... 39
Findings. « ........................... .......... 40
Recommendations ............... 41
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY............................... 43
Primary sources ............................... ........ 44
Secondary sources ..... ........................... ... 45
APPENDICES ..................................................... 4?
Appendix A. Tables. • •*......♦««• 48
Appendix B. Statistical data. ........ 58
Appendix C.Word lists................................. 61
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
I. Rank of Books According to the Number and
Per Cent of General Vocabulary Words
Appearing on the MacLatchy List...................... . 23
II. Rank of Books According to the Average Index
of Use of General Vocabulary Words Appear­
ing on the MacLatchy List.......................... 25
III. Books Ranked According to the Index of
Difficulty of the General Vocabulary Words
Appearing on the MacLatchy List ....... 27
IV. Rank of Books According to the Number of
Words Specific to Arithmetic. ........ 29
V. The Fifty Most Frequently Used Words
Specific to Arithmetic in the Six Selected
Arithmetic Textbooks. ................................. ... 31
VI.Books Ranked According to the Number of
Proper Nouns. ..... ........................... .... 33
VII. Books Ranked According to the Number of
Nouns Illustrated by Picture Clues. ..... 35
VIII. Total Vocabulary of Each Book with the
Number and Par Cent of Words in Each of
the Four Areas Investigated 37
TABLE
IX, 210 Words Specific to Arithmetic and
Frequency of Occurence in Each Book ...... 49
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Many of the major problems of teaching arithmetic

have been brought to the attention of teachers by the publi­
cation of the Fiftieth Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education.1 Since 1950 many of the leading

authors have revised their textbooks in the light of tne

findings reported in the Fiftieth Yearbook. A study of the
vocabulary of these new books seems appropriate at this time.

I. THE PROBLEM

Statement of the problem. The purpose of this study

was to investigate the vocabulary load of second grade arith­
metic textbooks. Any vocabulary investigation at this level
must recognize at least three different kinds of vocabulary:
(1) general vocabulary, (2) vocabulary specific to arithmetic,
(3) proper names and nouns with picture clues. Because the
various kinds of vocabulary present different teaching prob­
lems, each kind was treated separately in the investigation.
Consequently, the following sub-problems were considered:
1. An Investigation of the general vocabulary load of

•^National Society for the Study of Education, The

Fiftieth Yearbook. Part II: The Teaching of Arithmetic
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951). 3°2 pp.
 2
second grade arithmetic textbooks.
2. An investigation of the specific vocabulary load
of second grade arithmetic textbooks.
3. An investigation of the number of proper nouns and
of names of objects illustrated by picture clues.

Importance of the study. Textbooks are usually selec­

ted by a committee of teachers. In order to make a wise se­
lection, teachers need to use objective data in choosing text
books. Certainly, many criteria need to be considered and an
Important one is vocabulary. In order to show differences in
arithmetic textbooks that are not obvious on casual inspec­
tion, a vocabulary study is needed.
Children differ and books differ. We have long recog­
nized the need for studying and understanding children. If
we are to guide children in choosing appropriate books,
teachers need to know a great deal about the vocabulary of
available books.
Dr. Martha Gesling points out that "getting children
to read story problems with sufficient understanding to be
able to solve them seems to be the ’demon
* of arithmetic."2
She give five probable causal factors for difficulty in

^Martha Gesling, "The Reading of Word Problems"

(Unpublished monograph in typescript).
 3
reading word problems. Among them is ". . . lack of skill
in word recognition.”3 Dr. dealing says:
The difficulties in word recognition will be greatly
lessened if the general vocabulary used in word problems
is simpler than that developed in the reading instruction
period. Word problems might well be written using a
vocabulary at least one grade level below tne grade
placement of the arithmetic symbols and the ideas being
developed.1*'
Since vocabulary is a possible cause for disability
in solving verbal problems in arithmetic, a vocabulary study
seemed appropriate.
Attitudes toward arithmetic and word problems are
formed as the ehild experiences success or failure in dealing
with that skill. Since good attitudes formed early in a
child’s school career are important for later academic success,
a study of the vocabulary of arithmetic textbooks at the
second grade level seemed particularly appropriate.

II. RELATED LITERATURE

The works of Thordike, Gates, Dolch and Horn in the

area of vocabulary, have made valuable contributions to the
field of reading. However, vocabulary studies in the area
of arithmetic are limited. Only four studies were found
that reported research in the area.*
**

^Martha Gesling, loc. cit.

**Tbid.
 Smith and Eaton.5 Smith and Eaton analyzed represent­
ative arithmetic textbooks for each thirty year period from
1790 to 1940. The final study, completed in 1943, analyzed
ten series of arithmetic textbooks published between 1911
and 1940, Much of the analysis deals with the number of
pages devoted to tne different processes and phases of arith­
metic. The vocabulary was analyzed by determining the number
of six-letter words on a 400 word page. Obsolete words were
noted in each book. It was tne opinion of Smith and Eaton
that during this period an emphasis was made on keeping the
vocabulary of the arithmetic textbooks on the grade level of
the child and within his experiences.

Kramer.In 1933
* Kramer reported a study done in
Baltimore with one hundred 6B children. She set out to de­
termine the effect of certain factors on the success children
experienced in solving verbal problems in arithmetic. The
factors she considered were: (1) interest, (2) sentence
form, (3) style details and, (4) vocabulary. She found that
children’s success was 6.5 per cent higher when the word

^Henry Lester Smith and Merrill Thomas Eaton, An

Analysis of Arithmetic Textbooks. (Fifth Period - 1911 to
19'46)," "(‘Blooming t on, Indi ana: Indiana University, 1943), 41 pp.
^Grace A. Kramer, The Effect of Certain Factors in the
Verbal Arithmetic Problem Upon Children*s Success in tne Solu­
tion (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press? 1933) •
 5
problems were constructed using familiar vocabulary. The
Thorndike Word Book, Gates Primary Reading List and the
studies by Horn and Pressy were consulted in determining
vocabulary difficulty. Miss Kramer pointed out the need for
studying both tne general and tne specific vocabularies of
arithmetic. Although tnls study was not an analysis of
arithmetic textbooks, it points out the need for vocabulary
control in the area of arithmetic.

Pressy and Elam.7 Tne purpose of the study by Pressy

and Elam was to determine the essential “core of arithmetic
words. The result of tne investigation wan a list of 117
technical terms. These terms were selected on the following
basis:
1. The frequency tilth which the words occurred in the
three textbooks examined.
2. The importance of the words in the Judgment of 100
elementary teachers.
3. Social usefulness of tne words.
This study made a distinct contribution by identifying
and calling attention to the vocabulary which is specific to
arithmetic. Its greatest value would be in the upper elemen-

^L. C. Pressy and M. K. Elam, “The Fundamental Voca­

bulary of Elementary School Arithmetic,“ Elementary School
Journal. 33:46-50, September, 1932.
tary grades since most of the terms are used at that level.

O’Rourke and Mead.8 In 1941, O’Rourke and Mead made

a study of five textbooks in third-grade arithmetic. The
books used were published between 1934 and 1938, Inclusive.
The procedures used for this study were as follows:
1. Every word in each book was counted and tabulated.
2. Every tenth page was sampled to check the count.
3. The total number of running words and the total
number of different words were determined for each book.
4. The average repetition of words was computed.
5. Each word was checked with the Gates List and the
first 380° words of the Thorndike List to determine the dif­
ficulty.
6. Proper nouns were segregated and counted.
7. The arithmetical and technical terms were tabulated
to show the number of times such terms appeared and the
number of pages on which each term appeared.
The findings revealed that the five arithmetic text­
books compared favorably with the reading textbooks in average
repetition of words. O’Rourke and Mead stated the belief
that average repetition was not a good criterion for deter-

^Everett V. O’Rourke and Cyrus D. Mead, “Vocabulary

Difficulties of Five Textbooks in Third Grade Arithmetic,“
The Elementary School Journal, 41:683-91, May, 1941.
 7
mining the difficulty of a book. When vocabulary was com­
pared with the Gates List, it was found that there were dif­
ferences among the books. It was noted that some authors
are conscious of vocabulary control in writing arithmetic
textbooks. The opinion was stated that a large number of
proper nouns cannot be justified in the content of an
arithmetic textbook. A table of 296 words with arithmetical
connotation and the frequency of appearance of each word was
included in the study. Here again, differences existed
among the books. The authors of the study recommended that
words which are not commonly used, be replaced by more
frequently used words. This study points out the need for
additional research and more care in selecting the vocabulary
of arithmetic textbooks.

Summary. The review of the literature shows that

little research has been done in vocabulary studies of arith­
metic textbooks. The research shows a need for more studies
of this kind, and for more objective methods of evaluating
vocabulary.

III. SOURCES OF DATA

The following books were examined;

1. Carpenter, Dale and Esther J. Swenson, Arithmetic
2 The World of Numbers. New York: The Macmillan Company,
 8
1952. 252 pp.
2. Clark, John R.» Charlotte W. Junge, and Caroline
Hatton Clark, Growth in Arithmetic 2. Yonkers-on-Hudson,
New York: World Book Company, 1952. 128 pp.
3. Cole, Ruth L., and Harry Karstens, Numbers for You,
Book B. Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan, 1952. 128 pp.
4. Hartung, Maurice L., Henry VanEngen, and Catherine
Mahoney, Numbers in Action. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1951
* 140 pp,
5. Morton, Robert Lee and Merle Gray, Making Sure of
Arithmetic, Book Two. New York: Silver Burdette Company,
1952. 144 pp.
6. Wheat, Harry Grove, Geraldine Kauffman and Harl R.
Douglass, Row-Peterson Arithmetic Book Two. Evanston,
Illinois: Row, Peterson and Company, 1952. 240 pp.

The MacLatchy List. Dr. Josephine MacLatchy compiled

a list of 1459 words that appear in 111 first grade text­
books in reading. The list includes words found in books
published up to 1952.

IV. DELIMITATION

Upon the completion of any study, the investigator

probably things, “Now, if I were to do this again—The
present investigation was difficult to get started. There
 9
was no suitable list of words specific to arithmetic with
which to check each book. In many instances there was no
clear line of demarcation between general vocabulary and
words specific to arithmetic. It became necessary to decide
many times, flIs this word general, or is it specific to arith­
metic? " There may be inconsistencies in the treatment of
these borderline words. In each case, the word was consider­
ed in context, and the decision was made according to the
Investigator’s best judgment of that specific case.
However, the general vocabulary was treated objective­
ly. Many words in specific vocabulary belong there unques­
tionably. The frequency of occurrence of these words is
accurate. The proper nouns and nouns with picture clues
were easy to recognize and to treat accurately.

V. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

Chapter II includes a discussion of procedures.

Chapter III reports the findings of the Investigation and
gives an analysis of the data. Chapter IV contains a sum­
mary, conclusions and recommendations.
 CHAPTER II

PROCEDURES

In this chapter definitions of significant terms used

in the study and procedures used in collecting, treating and
organizing the data were described,

I. DEFINITION OF TERMS

Many misunderstandings arise because of difficulty in

communication; consequently, a section dealing with defini­
tion of terms as they were used in this study was included.

Definition of a word. The MacLatchy List was used in

the treatment of general vocabulary words. For that reason,
the rules established by Dr. MacLatchy for determining what
constitutes a word were adopted for this study. These rules
are as follows:1
1. Common inflections which are added to the root word
without changing the form of the root are indicated in par­
enthesis after the word, but are not considered separate
words. Example: work(s)(ed)(ing).
2. Inflections in which the root form is changed are
each listed as separate words. Example: city, cities, big,

Material obtained during a personal interview with

Josephine MacLatchy, from her notes on procedures used in the
Education Research Bureau, Ohio State University.
 11
bigger, biggest; rob, robbed, robbing.
3. Inflections which change the meaning more subtly
than regular forms, for example, unusual forms of the plural
of nouns, past tense or past participles of verbs, comparison
of adjectives, and adverbs formed from adjectives, will all
be listed as separate words although the form of the root
word is not changed.
(a) Adding es to the root word. Example: axes.
(b) Adding en to the root word. Example: golden.
(c) Adding er to the root word. Example: longer.
(d) Plurals formed by internal change. Example: man,
men.
4. The possessive form of nouns will not be listed as
separate words.
5. Contractions of verbs will be listed as separate
words. Example: let’s, don’t.
6. A compound word with or without a hyphen is listed
as a reading word,
7. Words with several meanings will be considered as
separate words in the following cases:
(a) Nouns derived from verbs. Example: building.
(b) Words pronounced the same with different meaning.
Example: can, leaves, left, right.

Words specific to arithmetic. In this study, a word

 12
was considered specific to arithmetic if it were described
by the following definition: "Arithmetic words are number
names and other words expressing quantity, size, terminology
of arithmetical processes, or names of common measures."^

Proper nouns. Specific persons or places and special

days were considered proper nouns.

Nouns with picture clues. Illustrations are consider­

ed non-verbal context. They stimulate interest, add to-the
attractiveness of the book, and give meaning and significance
to certain words. Nouns wnich were illustrated on the some
page on which they appeared were listed as nouns illustrated
by picture clues. If the same noun appeared later in the
context and no illustration of the noun were visible, it was
classified as a general vocabulary word.

General vocabulary. All words listed in Webster’s

Dictionary and not belonging in the previously mentioned
categories were considered general vocabulary.

MacLatchy List. The MacLatchy List is a compilation

of all the different words in 111 first grade reading text­
books. Fifty-four preprimers, twenty-eight primers and
twenty-nine first readers of twenty-five basic reading

^Dale Carpenter and Esther J. Swenson, The World of

Numbers (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1952), p. 249.
 13
series were examined in making the list.

Index of use. The index of use is a numerical figure

used to indicate the sum of the ratios between the number of
books at each level in which each word appeared and the
number of books examined at each level.
The index of use for a word is computed as follows:
1. The number of preprimers in which the word appeared
is divided by the total number of preprimers examined in the
MacLatchy study.
2. The number of primers in which the word appeared
is divided by the number of primers examined.
3. The number of first readers in which the word
appeared is divided by the number of first readers examined.
4. The sum of these three quotients is the index of
use for the word.
For example, the word and appeared in fifty-three of
the fifty-four preprimers. This ratio is represented by the
figure .98148. And appeared in twenty-eight of the twenty­
eight primers examined. This ratio is represented by the
figure 1.0. And also appeared in all of the twenty-nine
first readers examined. This ratio is expressed as 1.0.
The sum of the three ratios is:
 14
.98148
1.00000
1.00000
2.98148
The index of use for the word and is 2.98148. If and
had appeared in all of the preprimers, the Index number would
have been 3.00000, the highest possible index of use.
In contrast, the word mulberry appeared in none of the
fifty-four preprimers. Mulberry appeared in none of the
twenty-eight primers. Mulberry did appear in one of the
twenty-nine first readers, or in a ratio represented by the
figure .03448
* Consequently, the index of use for the word
mulberry is represented by the sum of the following figures:
0.00000
0.00000
0.03448
.03448
This number, .03448, is the index of use for 262 of
the 1459 words on the MacLatchy List. This illustrates the
fact that there are many words appearing in a given book
which do not appear in any other book, even one of the same
series.

Index of difficulty. The index of difficulty is an

objective method of appraising the vocabulary of a book.
 15
Two factors are considered, in determining the index of dif­
ficulty. (1) the index of use of the words in the book, and
(2) the number of different words in ths book. To derive the
index of difficulty, the sum of the indexes of use of all the
different words in the book is divided by the square of the
number of different words appearing in the book.
For purposes of illustration the difficulty index of
the book published by the Macmillan Company is computed:
1. The sum of the Indexes of use for the general vo­
cabulary words in the Macmillan Series appearing on the Mac­
Latchy List was found. This sum was 189.04212.
2. There were 133 general vocabulary words which
appeared on ths MacLatchy List. The square of 133 Is 17,689.
3. The sum of the indexes of use, 189.04212, was
divided by the number of words squared, 17,689. The quotient,
.OIO686987, serves as an index of difficulty for the general
vocabulary of the Macmillan Book.

II. SELECTION OF TEXTBOOKS TO BE INVESTIGATED

The six second grade arithmetic textbooks were select­

ed on the following basis:
1. Only those arithmetic textbooks were considered
that were written or revised in 1951 or 1952
*
2. The status of authors as authorities In the field
of arithmetic was considered in further delimiting the
 16
available books.
3. Only those books were considered which were a part
of a complete series of books for grades one through six.
This criterion eliminated those series of books which were
written for grades one and two only.

XII. CLASSIFICATION OF VOCABULARY

A word count was made of the six selected arithmetic

textbooks for the second grade. As each word was read, it
was classified into one of the three categories: (1) general
vocabulary, (2) vocabulary specific to arithmetic, or
(3) proper nouns or names of objects illustrated by picture
clues.
Is, and, and are were considered general vocabulary
words throughout the investigation. These words are common­
ly used in the first grade reading program and their mean­
ing does not change when they appear in an arithmetic situa­
tion. Examples of the use of these words follow:
Four and one are _____ .
7 take away 6 is_____ .
From was treated as a word specific to arithmetic
when it was used in a subtraction situation. A common error
in subtraction comes from using from and minus interchange­
ably. An example of this is:
6 minus 4 is _____ .
 17
6 4 is .
For this reason, from requires the special attention
given words specific to arithmetic.
Names of days of the week and months of the year were
treated as words specific to arithmetic rather than proper
nouns since they are involved in the measurement of time.
Throughout the study, words were considered in context.
For example, in the sentence, "How many cows in this group?"
how was treated as a word specific to arithmetic. But in the
sentence, "How can Susan have as many as Carl?" how was con­
sidered a general vocabulary word.
In this study, words with picture clues were limited
to nouns. Nouns with picture clues contribute readily to
word recognition and lend themselves to illustrating quanti­
tative experiences. For example, in one of the books evalu­
ated there was a picture of Carl and Susan.3 In the picture,
Carl had three blocks and Susan had four. The following
questions were asked:
"How many blocks does Carl have?
How many does Susan have?
Who has fewer? Who has more?"
The picture gives the clue to the word blocks.

^Carpenter and Swenson, The World of Numbers. p. 102.

 18
Treatment of general vocabulary words. Each word in
the general vocabulary was treated in the following manner:
1. A list of all the general vocabulary words in each
book was made.
2. The number representing the index of use was enter­
ed beside every word appearing on the MacLatchy List.
3. The average index of use was computed for each book
by dividing the sum of the indexes of use by the number of
words appearing on the MacLatchy List.
4. The index of difficulty of each book was determined
by dividing the sum of the indexes of use by the square of
the number of general vocabulary words appearing on the Mac­
Latchy List.
5. The words not appearing on the MacLatchy List were
counted.
6. The per cent of words on the MacLatchy List of the
total general vocabulary was computed.
The books were then ranked as follows:
1. According to the number and per cent of general
vocabulary words appearing on the MacLatchy List.
2. According to the average index of use of the
general vocabulary words appearing on tne MacLatchy List.
3. According to the index of difficulty of the general
vocabulary words appearing on the MacLatchy List.

Treatment of vocabulary specific to arithmetic. The

 19
vocabulary specific to arithmetic was treated in the follow­
ing manner:
1. Each word was entered alphabetically on an index
card,
2. A tally was made of each word as it recurred in
the book.
3. The total number of times each word appeared in
each book was recorded.
4. The total number of words specific to arithmetic
was determined for each book.
5. An alphabetical list of all the words specific to
arithmetic appearing in the six books and the total number
of times each word appeared was compiled.
6. The words in this list were rearranged in the order
of the frequency with which each word appeared.
These data were utilized as follows: (1) Books were
ranked according to the number of specific arithmetic words
in each book. (2) A list of the fifty most frequently used
words which were specific to arithmetic was compiled. (3) A
list of the 210 words specific to arithmetic which appeared
in the six textbooks Investigated, and the frequency of
occurrence in each book was compiled.

Treatment of proper nouns and nouns illustrated by

picture clues. The proper nouns and nouns illustrated by
 20
picture clues were treated, as follows:
1. The proper nouns were segregated and counted.
2. The nouns illustrated by picture clues were
counted.
Information gained from these procedures was used as
follows:
Books were ranked (1) according to the number of
proper nouns in each book; (2) according to the number of
nouns with picture clues in each book.

Treatment of total vocabulary. The total vocabulary

of each book was treated in the following manner:
1. The sum of words in the four categories — general
vocabulary, vocabulary specific to arithmetic, proper nouns,
and nouns with picture clues which are exclusive of those
found in the general vocabulary — was computed.
2. The per cent of the total vocabulary which is com­
prised of general vocabulary was found.
3. The per cent of the total vocabulary composed of
words specific to arithmetic was determined.
4. The per cent of proper nouns in the total vocabu­
lary was computed.
5. The per cent of the total vocabulary which is com­
prised of nouns with picture clues which are exclusive of
those words found in the general vocabulary was determined.
 21
These data were utilized by placing the following
information in table form:
1. The total number of different words in the vocabu­
lary of each book.
2. The number and per cent of general vocabulary words.
3. The number and per cent of words specific to arith­
metic.
4. The number and per cent of proper nouns in each
book.
5. The number and per cent of nouns illustrated by
picture clues, exclusive of general vocabulary words, includ­
ed in each book.
 CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The purpose of this study was to Investigate the

vocabulary of six second grade arithmetic textbooks. In
this chapter, the findings of the Investigation were
reported and analyzed.
The findings should be viewed in their proper per­
spective. Vocabulary is but one of five factors which might
contribute to difficulty in reading word problems.1 A text­
book should not be Judged on the basis of vocabulary alone.
Facts presented in this chapter, however, should help in a
more objective evaluation of the vocabulary of the book
examined.

I. GENERAL VOCABULARY

Number and per cent of words included on the MacLatchy

List. Table I ranks the books according to the number of
general vocabulary words included in erch book and the
number and per cent of general vocabulary words included In
the MacLatchy List. An inspection of the data in Table I
shows a variation of from 103 to 404 words found in the

Martha dealing, "The Reading of Word Problems’1

(unpublished monograph in typescript).
 TABLE I
RANK OF BO^KS ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER AND PER CENT
OF GENERAL VOCABULARY WORDS APPEARING
ON THE MAC LATCHY LIST

Book identified Total number of Number of words Per cent of words

by publisher words in general on the on the Rank
vocabulary MacLatchy List Mac Latchy List

Scott, Foresman and Company 103 101 98 1

The Macmillan Company 144 133 92 2
Silver Burdette Company 233 226 97 3
World Book Company 286 260 91 4
Lyons and Carnahan 327 304 93 5
Row, Peterson and Company 404 364 90 6
 az­
general vocabulary of the books investigated. In other words
some books contain almost four times as many general vocabu­
lary words as do other books.
Of the general vocabulary words in the six books
investigated, 90 per cent or more appeared on the MacLatchy
List. On the basis of these data, it would seem safe to
assume that the authors of the selected arithmetic textbooks
were aware of the need for keeping the general vocabulary of
second grade arithmetic textbooks at the first grade reading
level.

Average index of use. Table II shows the average

index of use for each of the six books. The two factors
used in the computation of average index of use — the sum
of the indexes of use and tne number of general vocabulary
words on the MacLatchy List — are included on the table.
Table II ranks the books according to. the differences
in average index of use. An average index of use represented
by a large number indicates that the words in that text
appeared in more of the 111 books examined in making up the
MacLatchy List than the book whose average index of use is
smaller. The assumption is that if a word appears in many
first grade reading books the chance is greater that the
word will have been learned in the first grade reading pro­
gram, and will therefore be a familiar one.
 TABLE II
RANK OF BOOKS ACCORDING TO THE AVERAGE INDEX OF USE OF GENERAL
VOCABULARY WORDS APPEARING ON THE MAC LATCHY LIST

Book identified Sum of Number of words Average Rank

by publisher indexes of use on the index of use
MacLatchy List

The Macmillan Company 189.04212 133 1.42137 1

Scott, Forssman and Company 137.25717 101 1.35932 2
Silver Burdette Company 293.68404 226 1.29949 3
Lyons and Carnahan 337.41347 304 1.10991 4
World Book Company 282.10624 260 1.08502 5
Row, Peterson and Company 362.23522 364 .99515 6

ro
kn
 26
Index of difficulty. Table III can be interpreted to
show relative differences in the general vocabulary of the
six books investigated. Ideally, the general vocabulary of
an arithmetic book should be at a level which frees the child
to reflect on arithmetical processes. If this is to be
accomplished, general vocabulary should present no problems
either in word meaning or in word recognition. But children
differ widely in reading ability at the second grade level.
The teacher, therefore, has a responsibility in understanding
these differences and adjusting the materials so that every
child experiences success.
Table III ranks the books according to their index of
difficulty. The sum of the Indexes of use and the square of
the number of general vocabulary words on the MacLatchy List
are included on this table since they are needed in the
computation of the index of difficulty.
An index of difficulty represented by a high number
indicates that the bo k is easier than a book with a low
numerical index of difficulty. In determining the index of
difficulty, both the difficulty level of the vocabulary as
measured by index of use and the vocabulary load are con­
sidered. The assumption Is that a high average index of use
and a small vocabulary load will contribute toward making
the vocabulary of a particular book easier for the child at
the second grade reading level.
 TABLE III
BOOKS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE INDEX OF DIFFICULTY OF THE
GENERAL VOCABULARY WORDS APPEARING ON THE MAC LATCHY LIST

Book identified Sum of Square of the Index of

* Rank
by publisher indexes of use number of difficulty
words on the
MacLatchy List

Scott, Foresman and Company 137.25717 10,201 .01346 1

The Macmillan Company 189.04212 17,689 .OI069 2
Silver Burdette Company 293.68404 51,076 .00575 3
World Book Company 282.10624 67,600 .00417 4
Lyons and Carnahan 337.41347 92,416 .00365 5
Row, Peterson and Company 362.23522 123,496 .00273 6

*Index of difficulty is computed by dividing the sum of the indexes of use by

the square of the number of words on the MacLatchy List.

M
 28
A comparison of Tables II and III shows that it is
the number of words which caused the change in rank in the
first and second places, and in the fourth and fifth places.
For example, the book which ranked first on Table II had
thirty-two more general vocabulary words on the MacLatchy
List than the book which ranked second. When the number of
words was squared to perform the computation for the index
of difficulty, the difference became 7,488 not thirty-two.
The resulting quotient was low enough to rank the book
second according to the index of difficulty.

II. VOCABULARY SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC

Number of words specific to arithmetic. Table XV

ranks the books according to the number of words specific
to arithmetic in each book. These are the words which the
teacher should expect to teach in the arithmetic period. An
inspection of Table TV reveals that differences also exist
among the six books in the area of vocabulary specific to
arithmetic. The range is from fifty-two to 156 words.
Stated in another way, a particular book contains three times
as many words which are specific to arithmetic as another
book. The assumption made in ranking these books is that
the greater the number of words specific to arithmetic, the
more difficult the book.
A running vocabulary count presents objective data
 29

TABLE IV
RANK OF BOOKS ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF WORDS
SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC

Words specific
to arithmetic
Books identified by publisher
Number Rank

Scott, Foresman and. Company 52 1

Silver Burdette Company 76 2
The Macmillan Company 93 3
Lyons and Carnahan 114 4
Row, Peterson and Company 115 5
World Book Company 156 6
 30
insofar as tne number and the frequency of occurrence of
words are concerned. However, further investigation is
necessary before an intelligent interpretation of the data
in Table IV can be made. For example, questions such as the
following must be answered: (1) Have important processes
and concepts In arithmetic been sacrificed for the sake of
reducing vocabulary load? (2) Could unusual and not commonly
used terms be replaced by terms more commonly used or more
suitable for this level of achievement?

The fifty most frequently used words which are specific

to arithmetic. The total number of specific arithmetic words
included in all of the arithmetic textbooks was 210. The
frequency of the occurrence of every word specific to arith­
metic was found.An inspection of Table IX shows that one
word appeared 2463 times in the six books Investigated, while
eighteen words appeared only once.
From this list of 210 words, a list of the fifty most
frequently used words specific to arithmetic was compiled.
This list is presented in Table V. An inspection of this
table reveals that the list of words contains, (1) the
cardinal numbers to ten, (2) the ordinal numbers, first and
second, (3) terminology required for addition and subtraction,

^The frequency of the 210 words is found in the

Appendix, p. 48.
 TABLE V
THE FIFTY KOST FREQUENTLY USED WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC
IN THE SIX SELECTED ARITHMETIC TEXTBOOKS

Words with Words with Words with Words with

frequencies from frequencies from frequencies from frequencies from
300 to 2463 175 to 299 100 to 174 50 to 99

hot? dime subtract (ing) cost(s)

many four add(ed)(ing; first
more three nine bought
one(s) slXX buy half
ten(s) five seven quart(s)
two(s) pennies less subtraction
number(s) answer money addition
cent(s) from plus day(s)
group(s) long nickel little
each six equal second
left big need(s) (ed)
count(s) eight pint(s)
inches
much
away
take
 32
(4) terms used in the exchange of money, (5) terms used in
linear measure, (6) terms used in liquid measure, (7) terms
used in comparison, and (8) terms used in counting.

III. PROPER NOUNS AND PICTURE CLUES

Number of nroner nouns in each book. Table VI ranks

the books according to the number of proper nouns contained
in each book. The assumption is made that proper nouns
increase the vocabulary load, and therefore contribute to
the difficulty of the vocabulary of the book.
An inspection of Table VI reveals wide variation in
the use of proper nouns among the six books. One book uses
three proper nouns while another book uses forty, or thirteen
tines as many.
The book with the fewest number of proper nouns re­
cords the quantitative experiences of Carl, Susan, and
Mother. When it became necessary to introduce other char­
acters, they were boys» girls, and children — words within
the general vocabulary and at the first grade reading level.
In contrast, the book which contains forty proper nouns
introduces Alice, Billy, Bobby, Bob, Bill, Betty, Dick, Dan
and Ed, to mention only a few. Is this added vocabulary
justified in terms of vocabulary needed to teach arithmetic
effectively? It would seem that this is an area in which
toxtbook writers could reduce the vocabulary load without
 33

TABLE VI
BOOKS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF PROBER NOUNS

Proper Nouns
Books identified, by publisher
Number Rank

The Macmillan Company 3 1

Scott, Foresman and Company 6 2
Silver Burdette Company 11 3
Lyons and Carnahan 13 4
Row, Peterson and Company 25 5
World Book Company 40 6
seriously changing the quantitative ideas being presented.

Nouns illustrated by picture clues. The books exam­

ined have many illustrations which appeal to children and
which stimulate visual imagery necessary for the transition
from the concrete to the abstract. Table VII ranks the
books according to the number of nouns with picture clues in
each book. The assumption is that if a picture clue is
given, the child may be able to use this clue in unlocking
an otherwise familiar word. Many picture clues contribute
to the ease with which a book can be read.
An inspection of Table VII reveals that differences
exist in the number of nouns with picture clues in the books
examined. One book has twenty-nine while another book has
ninety-two. The latter book has three times as many nouns
with picture clues as the first book.
When the number of nouns with picture clues included
in each book was compared with the number of words in the
total vocabulary (Table VIII), it appeared that the book
with the most nouns with picture clues also had the largest
number of words in the total vocabulary. In other words,
reducing the vocabulary load tended to reduce the number of
nouns with picture clues.

IV. TOTAL VOCABULARY

Analysis of the total vocabulary. Table VIII presents

 35

TABLE VIX
BOOKS RANKED ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF NOUNS
ILLUSTRATED BY PICTURE CLUES

Nouns with
Picture Clues
Book identified by author
Number Rank

Row, Peterson and Company 92 1

Lyons and Carnahan 76 2
World Book Company 74 3
Silver Burdette Company 4? 4
Scott, Foresman and Company 43 5
The Macmillan Company 29 6
 36
an analysis of the total vocabulary for each book in terms
of the number and per cent of general and specific words,
proper nouns and nouns with picture clues. The vocabulary
of the six books showed the following pattern:
1. General vocabulary words comprised from 56 to 68
per cent of the total vocabulary.
2. The per cent of words specific to arithmetic
ranged from 19 to 36 per cent of the total vocabulary.
3. Proper nouns comprised from 1 to 8 per cent of the
total vocabulary of the six books examined.
4. Nouns used as picture clues which, did not appear
later in the general vocabulary ranged between 2 and 8 per
cent of the total vocabulary.
An inspection of Table VIII shows that books with a
small vocabulary load have a relatively high per cent of
(1) words which are specific to arithmetic and (2) of proper
nouns. This means that in spite of the light vocabulary
load, the teacher will have a relatively large number of words
to tench in the arithmetic period.
The total number of different words which appeared in
eaah of the six books examined is also presented on Table
VIII. The range of from 16? words in one book to 594 words
in another book is significant. In other words one book has
a vocabulary load almost four times greater than the vocabu­
lary load of another book.
 TABLE VIII
TOTAL VOCABULARY OF EACH BOOK WITH THE HUMBER AND PER CENT
OF WORDS IN EACH OF THE FOUR AREAS INVESTIGATED

General Specific Proper Nouns with

Books identified Total Vocabulary Vocabulary Nouns Picture Clues41-
by publisher Vocabulary
No. % No. X No. No. %

Lyons and Carnahan 484 327 67.5 lilt 24 13 2.7 30 6.2

Macmillan Company 257 144 56 93 36.1 3 1.1 17 6.6
Row, Peterson and Company 594 404 68 115 19 25 4.2 50 8.4
Scott, Forssman and Company 167 103 61.6 52 31
1
* 6 3
6
* 6 6
*
3
Silver Burdette Company 328 233 71 76 23.1 11 *
3 8 2.4
World Book Company 523 286 54.7 156 29.8 40 7.6 41 8
*
7

Nouns with picture clues appearing on this table are exclusive of those words
appearing on the general vocabulary list.

V)
 38
V. SUMMARY

An analysis of the data revealed wide variation in

the number of words used by each of the books in the four
areas investigated — general vocabulary, vocabulary specific
to arithmetic, proper nouns, and nouns with picture clues.
The general vocabulary of all the six books investi­
gated was composed largely of words on the first grade read­
ing level. However, differences were apparent in the vocab­
ulary level of the books when the formulae for average index
of use and index of difficulty were applied,
A list of the fifty most commonly used words wnich
are specific to arithmetic was compiled from the total list
of 210 specific arithmetic words found in the six books
investigated.
The composition of the total vocabulary formed a
definite pattern. The majority of words in each book were
general vocabulary words. Specific arithmetic words were
second, with proper nouns and nouns illustrated by picture
clues in the minority.
 CHAPTER IV

SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

I. summary

The purpose of this study was to investigate the

vocabulary of six second grade arithmetic textbooks. The
vocabulary was divided into the following three categories:
(1) general vocabulary, (2) vocabulary specific to arith­
metic, (3) proper nouns and names of objects with picture
clues.
The six second grade arithmetic textbooks used as
sources of data were: The World of Numbers> The Macmillan
Company; Growth in Arithmetic 2, World Book Company; Numbers
for You, Book B, Lyons and Carnahan; Numbers in Action,
Scott, Foresman and Company; Making Sure of Arithmetic.
Silver Burdette Company; Row-Peterson Arithmetic Book Two,
Row, Peterson and Company.
The general vocabulary words in each book were listed
and counted. The MacLatchy List was used in an objective
evaluation of the difficulty of the general vocabulary of
each book. The frequency of the occurrence of each word in
the vocabulary specific to arithmetic was tabulated and a
list of the fifty most frequently used words specific to
arithmetic was compiled. The number of proper nouns and the
 40
number of nouns with picture clues were determined. The
total number of words in each book was found. An analysis
of the tonal vocabulary of each book was made to show the
number and per cent of words in each of the four areas
investigated.

II. FINDINGS

The findings of the investigation of the vocabulary

for the six arithmetic textbooks for the second grade are
as follows:
1. There is wide variation among the six books inves­
tigated in the number of general vocabulary words found in
each book.
2. Of the general vocabulary words of the six books
investigated, 90 per cent or more are on the first grade
reading level.
3. Differences are apparent when the general vocabu­
lary levels, as measured by average index of use, are compar­
ed.
4. The difficulty of the general vocabulary, as
measured by index of difficulty, differs from book to book.
5. Some books contain many more words which are
specific to arithmetic than do other books.
6. There is wide variation in the frequency of occur­
rence of the different words which are specific to arithmetic.
 41
7. Books differ in the number of proper nouns includ­
ed in the vocabulary of the book.
8. The books examined are well illustrated, but differ­
ences exist among the books in the number of different nouns
accompanied by picture clues.
9. Books with a light vocabulary load tend to have a
relatively high per cent of words specific to arithmetic and
of proper nouns.

III. RECOMMENDATIONS

As a result of the findings, the following recommenda­

tions are made:
1. That the level of difficulty of the general voca­
bulary words be considered in the selection of arithmetic
textbooks at the second grade level.
2. That since vocabulary specific to arithmetic is
the responsibility of the teacher during the arithmetic
period, the number of such words be considered in textbooks
selection.
3. That textbook writers consider the use of a core
of commonly used terms that are specific to arithmetic if
this can be done without sacrificing important concepts and
meaning.
4. That some textbook writers reduce the vocabulary
load by eliminating proper nouns which do not contribute to
 42
the teaching of arithmetic.
5. That textbook writers make use of illustrations
as picture clues when an unfamiliar noun must be introduced,
into the context.
6. That teachers recognize that reducing the vocabu­
lary load of an arithmetic textbook often means that a rela­
tively large number of words will need to be taught in the
arithmetic period.
7. That the findings of this investigation be viewed
in proper nerspectlve. This study was only a vocabulary
»

investigation. There was no intention of determining the

best or poorest book. Many other criteria would need to be
considered to do that. However, if this investigation leads
to a more Intelligent consideration of the vocabulary of
textbooks, it will have been worthwhile.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
 A. PRIMARY SOURCES

1. BOOKS EXAMINED

Carpenter, Dale, and Esther J. Swenson, Arithmetic 2 The

World of Numbers. New York: The Macmillan Company,
1952. 24? pp.
Clark, John R., Charlotte W. Junge, and Caroline Hatton
Clark, Growth in Arithmetic 2,. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New
*52.
York: World Book Company, 19 128 pp.
Cole, Ruth L., and Harry Karstens, Numbers for You. Book B.
*
Chicago: Lyons and Carnahan, 1952 128 pp. "*
Hartung, Maurice L., Henry VanEngen, and Catherine Mahoney,
Numbers in Action. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company,
*
1951 140 pp.
Morton, Robert Lee, and Merle Gray, Making Sure of Arithme­
tic. Book Two. New York: Silver Burdette Company,
1952> 144 pp.
Wheat, Harry Grove, Geraldine Kauffman, and Harl R. Douglass,
Row-Peterson Arithmetic Book Two. Evanston, Illinois:
Row, Peterson and Company, 1952. 240 pp.

2. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Gesling, Martha, “The Reading of Word Problems.” Unpublished

monograph in typescript.
MacLatchy, Josephine, Personal Interviews. Columbus, Ohio:
Bureau of Educational Research, Ohio State University.
April 1 and 2, 1953
*
 B. SECONDARY SOURCES

1. BOOKS

Brueckner, Leo J., and Foster E. Grossniokle, How to Make

Arithmetic Meaningful. Philadelphia: The John C.
winston Company,' "19'47. 413 PP«
Buckingham, Burdette R., Elementary Arithmetic Its Meaning
and Practice. Boston: Ginn and Company, 1947 7 744 pp.
Kramer, Grace A., The Effect of Certain Factors in the
Verbal Arithmetic Problem Upon Children1s Succesa in the
Solution. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, 1933
*
166 "pp."
Morton, Robert Lee, Teaching Arithmetic in the Elementary
School Vol. X
* # Priiaary Grades. New York: Silver
Burdette Company, 1937
* 410 pp.
Risden, Gladys, How Big? How Many? Boston: The Christopher
Publishing House, 1951
* 248 pp.
Smith, Henry Lester, and Merrill Thomas Eaton, An Analysis of
Arithmetic Textbooks (Fifth Period 1911 to 194617
Bloomington, Indiana: Bureau of Cooperative Research and
Field Service, 19^3
* 45 PP»
Spitzer, Herbert F., The Teaching of Arithmetic. Nevi York:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1948. 397 pp.
Stokes, C. Newton, Teaching the Meanings of Arithmetic. New
York: Appleton Century Crafts, Inc., 1951. 531 pp.
Wheat, Harry Grove, How to Teach Arithmetic. Evanston,
Illinois: Row, Peterson and Company, 1951. 438 pp.
Wilson, Guy M., Teaching the New Arithmetic. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951
* 483 PP
*

2. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

MacLatchy, Josephine, and Frances Wardell, “A List of Common

Words for First Grade,” Educational Research Bulletin,
30:151-159# September, 1951
*
 46
MacLatchy, Josephine, and Frances Wardell, ‘'Common Pre­
Primer Words,® Educational Research Bulletin, 27:199-206
and 226, November, 1948.
., “Computing Machines in a Study of Words,” Engineer­
ing Experiment Station News, 24:28-30, June, 1952.
•
________ , “Pre-Primers Arranged in a Serial Order," Educational
Research Bulletin, 27:227-237 and 246-247, 0ecember, 1948.
O’Rourke, Everett F., and Cyrus, 0. Mead, “Vocabulary Diffi­
culties of Five Text Books in Third Grade Arithmetic,"
The Elementary School Journal. 41:683-691, May, 1941.
Pressy, L. C., and M. K. Elam, “The Fundamental Vocabulary
of Elementary School Arithmetic," The Elementary School
Journal, 33:46-50, September, 1932.

3. monographs

Hartung, Maurice L., “Advances in the Teaching of Problem-

Solving," Arithmetic, 1948. G. T. Buswell, editor.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1948. pp. 44-
53.
Wren, F. Lynwood, “The Professional Preparation of Teachers
of Arithmetic," Arithmetic. 1948. G. T. Buswell, editor.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1948.
do. 80-90.

4. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS

National Society for the Study of Education, The Fiftieth

Yearbook, Part II, The Teaching of Arithmetic. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1951. 302 pp.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A

TABLES
 TABLE IX
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AND FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Forssman Burdette Carnahan Book

add(Ing)(ed) 7 20 36 58 7 33 163
addition 64 0 0 0 0 15 79
all 69 30 54 14 9 54 230
another 23 0 0 5 0 0 28
answer 61 0 65 59 0 23 208
away 55 19 0 5 53 52 184
backward 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
big 142 6 4 26 1 1 180
bigger 1 0 14 0 0 0 15
both 10 0 1 0 5 5 21
bought 43 0 0 1 16 29 89
buy 53 18 10 32 10 22 145
calendar 0 0 0 5 5 5 15
cent(s) 116 23 12 107 83 14o 481
change 6 0 1 3 1 33 44
charge 0 0 0 0 1 0 ■X
circle 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
clock 14 0 0 4 0 6 24
coins 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
column(e) 10 0 0 0 0 0 10
compare 0 0 4 0 0 0 4
cost 43 10 3 8 21 14 99
count(sHed) 43 0 140 38 44 48
cup( s) 2 0 14 0 0 0 16
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AND FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Foresman Burdette Carnahan Book

date 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
day(s) 0 0 41 0 22 11 74
December 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
dime 36 18 25 22 11 170 282
dollar 0 0 0 8 0 25 33
doubles 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
dozen 9 0 17 0 6 14 46
each 121 80 109 24 24 26 384
eight 139 12 16 7 11 3 188
eighteen 6 0 2 0 0 0 8
eighth 0 0 4 0 3 4 11
eighty 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
eleven 37 0 2 0 0 3 42
empty 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
end 0 0 0 0 7 0 7
enough 3 10 0 0 0 1 11
equal 3 89 4 0 0 19 115
every 0 0 28 0 0 0 28
example 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
extra 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
fact(s) 0 0 0 17 0 9 26
far 1 0 0 0 0 1 2
feet 9 6 0 0 4 12 31
fewer 14 0 15 0 0 0 29
fifteen 17 0 2 0 0 0 19
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 ’.JORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC ABD FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word *JRox Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Forssman Burdette Carnahan Book

fifth 2 0 8 2 5 5 22
fifty 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
figure 38 0 0 0 0 0 38
first 11 0 , 48 10 22 6 99
five 162 22 9 15 16 5 229
foot 12 11 0 0 11 7 41
forty 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
four 172 25 18 44 4 10 273
fourteen 36 0 2 0 0 0 38
fourth 2 0 8 5 9 3 27
fourths 0 0 0 0 0 9 9
Friday 0 0 0 0 1 8 9
from 78 22 0 51 44 13 20 8
full 1 0 0 0 1 0 2
gallon 0 0 0 0 5A 0 5
gave 15 0 0 0 U 12 27
give 1 0 0 0 0 1 2
glasses 0 0 0 8 0 0 8
group(s) 64 133 203 0 0 3 403
half 21 0 16 14 10 28 89
half-dollar 0 0 0 7 0 0 7
half-past 0 0 0 12 0 12 24
halfway 0 0 0 0 3 0 3
pl
 TABLH IX (continued)
210 V0RD5 SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AHO WQUEHCX
OF OCCUSBENGE IN EACH BOOK

Word How Scott Macmillan Sliver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Foresman •Burdette Carnahan Book

halves 9 0 4 3 4 5 25
heavier 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
heaviest 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
heavy 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
high 0 0 0 0 4 0 4
higher 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
hour 7 0 0 0 4 6 17
how 1040 228 395 539 154 107 2463
hundred 0 Q 4 0 0 15 19
inch 3 10 2 0 0 1 16
inches 18 34 7 19 53 56 187
June 0 0 0 0 3 0 3
largo 0 0 0 0 7 14 21
larger 0 0 14 0 1 4 19
largest 0 0 4 0 0 4 8
lust 4 0 4 4 1 IS
loaves 1 0 0 0 2 0 3
left 124 25 13 30 122 54 368
45 13 51 3 12 10 134
little 18 14 3 22 fy 1 62
long 39 28 0 20 66 27 180
longer 2 13 0 3 2 4 24
longest 1 0 0 0 0 1 2
lost 2 0 0 0 0 8 10
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AND FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Forssman Burdette Carnahan Book

many 996 221 398 485 134 72 2306

match 0 0 0 0 0 3 3
May 0 0 0 0 0 6 6
measure 6 0 0 0 11 4 21
middle 0 0 0 0 12 1 13
minutes 0 0 0 0 0 8 8
missing 0 0 0 0 0 13 13
Monday 0 0 0 0 1 15 16
money 15 22 0 66 10 16 129
month 0 0 10 0 1 2 . 13
more 153 85 131 118 25 92 60 4
most 0 0 0 0 1 1 2
much 51 10 14 70 12 30 187
need(s)(ed) 25 35 0 23 0 24 107
next 12 0 0 7 5 0 24
nickel 26 19 6 11 21 37 120
nine 119 10 18 6 1 5 159
nineteen 4 0 2 0 0 0 6
ninety 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
ninth 0 0 5 0 3 4 12
no 5 0 0 0 0 0 5
nothing 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Humberts) 75 10 23 27 82 73 500
o’clock 9 0 0 12 10 16 4?
 TABLE IX (conintued)
210 HORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AND FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Forssman Burdette Carnahan Book

October 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
old 0 0 0 0 0 10 10
older 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
once 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
one(s) 239 26 101 8? 29 112 594
one-fourth 0 0 0 6 0 0 6
one-half 0 0 0 7 6 0 13
one-third 0 0 0 2 0 0 2
paid 21 0 0 17 0 1 39
pair(s) 0 0 15 0 0 2 1?
part(s) 5 0 0 0 0 0 5
post 0 0 0 4 8 0 12
pay 14 0 0 15 0 1 30
plus 0 99 27 0 0 0 126
pennies 69 23 46 6 10 64 218
penny 10 0 1 1 1 16
pint’s) 8 47 13 16 16 11 105
pound(s) 0 0 0 0 1 6 7
problem(s) 0 0 0 0 0 12 12
quart(s) 3 37 12 4 15 10 81
quarter 0 10 0 14 12 13 49
rest 5 0 0 0 0 1 6
rule 0 0 0 0 6 0 6
ruler 15 0 0 0 27 9 51
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC ADD FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE ID EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Foresman Burdette Carnahan Book

same 9 10 0 3 6 5 33
Saturday 0 0 0 0 3 8 11
score 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
second 4 0 32 2 7 9 54
sell 8 0 0 0 0 4 12
seven 99 13 16 7 2 4 141
seventeen 10 0 2 0 0 0 12
seventh 0 0 4 0 3 2 9
seventy 0 0 2 0 0 0 ■ 2
share 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
short 9 10 0 3 22 6 50
shorter 2 0 0 0 1 1 4
shortest 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
six 145 15 6 13 17 5 201
sixteen 10 0 2 0 0 0 12
sixth 0 0 5 0 3 4 12
sixty 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
size 4 0 0 3 5 3 15
sni^iXX 0 0 0 0 7 9 16
smaller 1 6 33 0 0 1 35
smallest 0 0 3 0 0 2 5
sold 6 0 0 2 0 14 22
spend 5 0 0 0 1 5 11
spent 11 0 0 0 0 30 41
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AMD THE FREQUENCY
OF OCCURENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Foresm an Burdette Carnahan Book

square 0 0 0 0 4 0 ■ 4
subtract(ing) 11 36 41 49 5 26 168
subtraction 71 0 0 0 0 10 81
sum 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
Sunday 0 0 0 0 1 8 9
take 27 0 12 17 77 46 179
taking 0 5 0 0 0 0 5
tall 0 1 3 0 2 13 19
taller 0 o 4 0 1 3 8
tallest 0 0 4 0 0 1 5
teen 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
ten(s) 153 10 96 68 2 203 532
tenth 0 0 3 0 3 4 10
third 5 • 0 14 2 7 6 34
third(s) 0 0 0 3 0 9 12
thirteen 29 0 2 0 0 0
thirty 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
three(s) 159 38 14 21 4 9 245
Thursday Q 0 0 0 1 6 7
time 8 0 1 3 5 4 21
today 0 0 0 0 c 11 11
together 23 0 0 0 0 13 36
tomorrow 0 0 0 0 0 4 4
took 5 3 0 0 4 0 12
 TABLE IX (continued)
210 WORDS SPECIFIC TO ARITHMETIC AND FREQUENCY
OF OCCURRENCE IN EACH BOOK

Word Row Scott Macmillan Silver Lyons & World Total

Peterson Foresman Burdette Carnahan Book

Tuesday 0 0 0 0 1 14 15
twelve 43 0 6 0 1 3 53
twenty 8 0 3 0 0 0 11
two 234 63 130 37 37 20 521
Wednesday 0 0 0 0 1 9 10
week 7 0 19 0 11 8 45
weigh 0 0 0 0 1 2 3
whole 12 0 6 0 0 3 21
wide 3 0 0 0 8 1 12
worth 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
yard 0 0 0 0 3 0 3
yardstick 0 0 0 0 8 0 8
year(s) 0 0 0 0 3 19 22
yesterday 0 0 0 0 0 7 7
younger 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
zero 1 0 3 0 0 0 4

kA
•SJ
 APPENDIX B

STATISTICAL DATA
 STATISTICAL FORMULAE

For anyone who is Interested in knowing how the

difficulty index, average usefulness of the words in a book
and the index of use for each word were computed the follow­
ing is quoted from an article by Dr. MaeLatchy.1
The formula, in which S represents a number which
might serve as an index of difficulty of a book, is:
m

+ nb t
n c.
3 m*

where for a book containing m words, w^ ... w:

na is the number of preprimers examined

* the number of primers

%
nc, the number of flret reaAere.
Also,
frt is the number of preprimers,
f, is the number of primers, and
hi
is the number of first readers in which the word
°i
w appears.

^Josephine H. MacLatchy, “Computing Machines in a

Study of Words,” Engineering Experiment Station News (Colum­
bus, Ohio: The Ohio State University) Volume XXIV (June 1952)
p. 29-
 6o

The expression
m m m
• s».. £ £
1'1 <
+ T
nb %
(n
no

say be considered a measure of the average usefulness of the

words in a book and.

may be considered an index of use of the word w.

APPENDIX C

WORD LISTS
 PREPRIMER WORDS1

a brother does grandmother leaves

after brown dog green let
airplane bunny doll ground let’s
all bus door grow letter
along ousy down guess like
am but duck had little
and buzs early happen look
animal cake eat hapyy lost
apple calf engine has made
are call(ed) engineer have( ing) make
at came fall hay man
ate can farm he market
away candle fanner heard may
babies cannot fast hello me
baby cap father nelp(ing) milk
back car( s) find her mitten
baggage cat fire here monkey
ball catch fish hide morning
balloon chair(s) five hiding most
bang chicken flew high mother
bark children flower hill must
be chirp fly him my
beach city for his name
bed climb found hose near
bee coat four honk nest
before cornels) from horse new
began conductor fruit house next
big cookie fun I nibble
bigger could funny in night
biggest country game into no
bird cow garden is not
birthday cracker get , it now
black daddy girl(s) jack-in-the-box oatmeal
block dance give jump of
blue day go(ing) kite off
boat(s) dear goat kitten oh
book(s) did gone kitty old
bow wow dining good know on
box(es) dinner good-by lake one
boy(s) dish got laugh open
breakfast do grandfather le&rn our

1Josephine MacLatohy. A word list given the author by

Mias HacLatcny for use in checking general vocabulary words.
 63

out ran sniff this was

over read snow three wash
page ready some throw water
park red something time way
parrot ride splash to we
party right squawk too went ■
penny road squeak took what
pet run stop toy where
picture said store train which
pie sang story tree whistle
pig saw sun trip white
play say supper trunk who
playhouse school surprise turtle will
please see swim twins window
policeman shall table two with
prey she take under work
pretty show talk up wrote
pull sister teacher us yard
pulliaan sit Teddy Bear visit year
puppies six thahk wagon yellow
pupoy ship that wait yes
put sky the wake you
rabbit sleep then walk your
rain slide ther« want zoo
rainbow smell they
 THE MOST COMMON PRIMER AND FIRST READER

about Christmas frog making quack

across circus gate many race
afraid clean gave men ribbon
again clock getting mew riding
airport clown glad met ring
always cluck gobble miss river
an cold goes Miss robin
another color gone moo rode
any coming grass money roll
arm cook grew more roof
around corn hair mouse room
as count hand mouth rooster
ask cowboy hard move rope
asleep cried hat Mr. round
aunt cross head Mrs. running
automobile crow hear much same
bad cry hen mud sand
bag cut himself need sat
band dig hold never seat
barn *
don t hole news seen
barnyard dress honey noine shining
basket drink hungry nose shoe
bear drum(s) hop nothing should
because each horn nut side
been ear hot once sing
beg egg how or sled
behind elephant hug other smile
best every hurry paint snap
bell everyone hurt paper so
blew everything if parade someone
blow eye ice cream pew sometimes
bread face just peanut soon
bring far keep(s) peep sound
broke fat kitchen pen spot
broken fed knock people spring
brook ‘ feed(ing) lamb pick squirrel
brought feet last picnics stand(s)
bump fell leg plant start
buy
* fine light pocket stay
by first line popcorn stlck(s)
cage flag live present still
carry fox living puddle stood
candy food long pumpkin stopped
chick friend lunch push stories

2Ibld
 65
street thing(s) tri ok wall win
summer think(s) tried warm wind
swing thought truck watch winter
taking threw try wave wish
tail through turkey wee woman
tall ticket turn week woods
tell(s) tie very well word
ten today voice were would
than told uncle wet world
their tomorrow until wheel wrong
them top(s) use when yesterday
these town wagged why you’ll
wife you’re