Received: 21 December 2022 Revised: 13 April 2023 Accepted: 25 April 2023

DOI: 10.1002/fam.3163

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Effect of fibre orientation and thermal exposure on the

post-fire mechanical behaviour of carbon fibre reinforced
polymer material

Tim J. Aspinall 1 | Emmajane L. Erskine 2 | Derek C. Taylor 2 | Rory M. Hadden 1

1
Centre for Fire Safety Engineering, The
University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
2
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory,
Dstl Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
Correspondence
Tim J. Aspinall, Centre for Fire Safety
Engineering, The University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK.
Email: timothy.aspinall@ed.ac.uk
Funding information
Defence Science and Technology Laboratory
Abstract
This study investigates the influence of fibre orientation and heat flux on the post-fire
(residual) load-bearing properties of carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates.
As a result, a deep insight into the post-fire load-bearing response is gained, which is
necessary to fully understand and assess the advantages of CFRP laminates containing
different fibre orientations for use in load-bearing structures. Specimens were pro-
duced from three CFRP laminates containing different fibre orientations, exposed to
varying heat fluxes up to 40 kW=m2 and then loaded in either tension or three-point
bending at ambient room temperature. The study's results have shown that the post-
fire behaviour of CFRP specimens is sensitive to changes in fibre orientation and heat
flux. For example, specimens with an anisotropic fibre orientation in tension had the
highest tensile load-bearing capacity, whereas those with bidirectional and multi-
directional fibre orientations demonstrated lower tensile load-bearing capacities. In
bending, however, specimens containing bidirectional and multidirectional fibre ori-
entations had higher load-bearing capacities than specimens with an anisotropic fibre
orientation. Furthermore, the data also shows that exposure to a heat flux reduces
the load-bearing capacity in both the bending and tensile specimens.

KEYWORDS
carbon fibre reinforced polymer, fire testing, heat flux, mechanical testing, post-fire testing,
tension, three-point bending.

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N manufacturing costs, more durable matrix resins and increasingly robust

Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates have been used in
aircraft structures for more than half a century1 and are at present the
most common fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) material used in construct-
ing new aircraft.1 In past applications, the use of CFRP laminates in air-
craft structures has remained limited to secondary non-load-bearing
components such as interior sections, cockpit controls, and auxiliary
power units to minimise weight and maximise structural efficiency.2 In
recent years, however, due to modern developments such as lower
and stiffer carbon fibres (CF), CFRP laminates have been utilised in highly
hazardous primary structural locations, such as jet engine components
(i.e. inlet fan blades), wings and fuselage sections and close to adjoining
fuel tanks.2 Furthermore, CFRP laminates are also used extensively in
engineering sectors outside of aerospace due to the material's high spe-
cific strength and tensile rigidity, ease of installation and handling, corro-
sion resistance, and relatively good durability, which have facilitated their
use as both reinforcing material (for the rehabilitation and strengthening
of existing structures) and in stand-alone applications.3–6

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. Fire and Materials published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Fire and Materials. 2023;1–23. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/fam 1


2 ASPINALL ET AL.
As an engineered material, the manufacture of CFRP laminates
can vary. Most importantly, the ability to customise the fibre orienta-
tion of each ply layer means their mechanical properties can be opti-
mised to suit the requirements of the application or load.7 Therefore,
fibre reinforcements may take different forms. For example, when
CFRP laminates are used adjacent to hazardous locations within air-
craft structures, such as the wing rib which surrounds the fuel tank,
they often employ a near isotropic fibre orientation,8 such as a woven
quasi-isotropic [0
, 90
] or cross-plied quasi-isotropic [0
, 45
, 90
]
fibre orientation to distribute stresses. However, in other sections,
not necessarily adjacent to the fuel tank but located close to it, such
as wing sections main spar,2 unidirectional [0
] carbon fibre's orien-
tated parallel to the loading direction are often used to carry longitu-
dinal tensile or bending loads, meaning that CFRP laminates with
different fibre orientations are often used near or adjacent to aircraft
fuel tanks which poses a fire risk.
CFRP laminates are intrinsically different to metallic alloys due to
their combustible matrix resin.9 The combustibility of the matrix resin
is a well-known, long-standing problem that can result in a loss of
load-bearing capacity after exposure to heat from a fire in the event
of an in-flight or post-crash fire.10,11
Upon exposure to heat from a fire, a CFRP laminate's tempera-
ture (nearest the heated surface) will rise. As the duration of expo-
sure increases, a thermal wave will begin to penetrate the thickness.
As the temperature increases, the matrix resin will undergo glass
transition when it reaches the glass transition temperature (Tg),
resulting in a loss in matrix stiffness. Further heating above the Tg
will lead to the matrix resin's thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) at
the thermal decomposition temperature (Td). In the event of the cor-
rect conditions for combustion, the pyrolysis gases may ignite, and a
flame will form on the CFRP laminate. This flame will provide further
thermal energy to the solid, increasing the heating rate and fire size,
thus resulting in an increased hazard to adjacent materials and
mechanically resulting in a loss in strength and load-transferring
12
capacity. However, the high threshold temperature for the CF may
allow them to carry some load in the loading direction at the Td.13 As
the CFRP laminate continues to be heated to very high tempera-
tures, the char and CF will begin to thermally oxidise.9 Oxidation
damage begins at the oxidation temperature (To) of the char and
CF. The exothermic heterogeneous oxidation of the char can reduce
the char layer thickness and release additional energy, which can be
transferred into the material, promoting further thermal decomposi-
tion resulting in a loss in those mechanical properties dominated by
the CF, for example, the tensile strength. After oxidation, only inert
ash concentrations will remain.14 Further descriptions of the glass
transition, pyrolysis and oxidation processes on CFRP laminates and
9,15
their influence on mechanical properties can be found elsewhere
however, the characteristic behaviour of CFRP laminates means, for
the most part, that when a CFRP laminate has been exposed to fire
conditions, even after the fire is quickly extinguished, the mechanical
performance may be reduced and the load-bearing ability lower than
originally.16 This behaviour can be described based on four condi-
tions of exposure. These are at:
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1. Ambient (room) temperature conditions: at temperatures below
those required for glass transition of the matrix resin and no
change in mechanical performance.
2. Low exposure (LE): temperatures equal to the glass transition
temperature (Tg) of the matrix resin.
3. Medium exposure (ME): temperatures equal to the matrix thermal
decomposition (pyrolysis) temperature (Td).
4. High exposure (HE): the temperatures equal to the oxidation
temperature (To) of the char and CF.
1.1 | Existing studies
Whilst existing studies examining the post-fire mechanical behaviour
of CFRP laminates have shown that the reduction in the post-fire
mechanical properties can be attributed to thermal degradation and
damage caused by the heat from a fire, these studies were restricted
to measuring the post-fire behaviour of CFRP containing a single fibre
orientation17–20 without comparing this behaviour to other commonly
used fibre orientations, even though the mechanical properties of
CFRP laminates are heavily dependent on the type of fibre orienta-
tion.21,22 Furthermore, in studies investigating fibre orientation on
post-fire behaviour, only one study, to the author's knowledge, has
been carried out in tension,20 with no study evaluating the influence
of fibre orientation on post-fire bending behaviour. On the other
hand, in the studies that do compare fibre orientation of CFRP lami-
nates in tension and bending,23–26 the focus has been on the mechan-
ical properties or influence of fibre orientation and thermal ageing on
the performance of said materials with no focus on post-fire residual
behaviour. That said, in the studies that have examined the influence
of fibre orientation on post-fire behaviour, only a few have focussed
on the influence of fibre orientation specifically on the post-fire
behaviour of CFRP laminates, with most studies in this area focussing
on either glass, aramid or other fibres, or resin systems.27–30 In addi-
tion to these points, most of the referenced literature above charac-
terise the ‘fire conditions’ using circulating hot air with temperature
boundary conditions, limiting the conditions that can be tested and
typically requiring thermal equilibrium to be established prior to
mechanical testing to ensure a well-characterised temperature in the
material. This approach is a limitation, as many structures will not
reach thermal equilibrium during a fire. Therefore, the thermal bound-
ary conditions are better defined using heat flux31,32 to allow the
material's mechanical response to be explicitly linked to the thermal
environment. Consequently, the influence of different thermal expo-
sures on the post-fire properties of CFRP laminates containing differ-
ent fibre orientations has not been well established.
; Because of the abovementioned issues, this study will investigate
the influence of fibre orientation and thermal exposure (heat flux) on
the post-fire tensile and three-point bending behaviour in terms of
temperature distribution, failure load, stress–strain relationship, failure
mode, and failure time. The motivation for this study is due to the
paucity of existing knowledge regarding the post-fire behaviour of
CFRP laminates created using common fibre orientations utilised in

ASPINALL ET AL.
hazardous locations of aircraft structures, all of which have been
known to compromise aircraft safety.9
Acquiring this knowledge is therefore important to confidently
design safe fire-resilient aircraft made of CFRP laminates. Furthermore,
the loading conditions and thermal environments represent those likely
to be experienced due to a fire nearby and adjacent to a leak from a
fuel tank during an accidental fire during flight. Hence, experiments are
performed on aircraft structural-grade CF and a high-performance
epoxy resin (ER) following exposure to a one-sided radiant heating
representative of the critical (critical due to the impact these heating
conditions have on the load-bearing mechanical properties of CFRP
laminates) temperatures based on the four conditions of exposure enu-
merated above. To clarify, these are (1) ambient (room temperature), (2)
LE ¼ T g , (3) ME ¼ T d , and (4) HE ¼ T o .
2 | MATERIALS
A total of three CFRP laminates were produced for this study. Each
laminate contained a unique fibre orientation and comprised 8 plies
bonded with ER and a hardener (curing agent). The CF was supplied
by Hexcel Composites GmbH, and the ER and hardener were supplied
by Easycomposites Ltd, UK, and nominally applied using a 70:30
resin-to-hardener ratio as per the manufacturer's instructions. A nomi-
nal 50:50 fibre-to-resin ratio was pursued whilst manufacturing
the CFRP laminates to provide a composite with good tensile and
compressive strength and stiffness properties. All laminates were
produced identically using a hand lay-up technique, which involved
applying a release agent to a glass mould and then stacking the dry
fabric plies to the glass mould whilst coating each of the 8 plies with
resin layer-by-layer.
2.1 | Curing process and specimen preparation
After the hand lay-up of each laminate, they were left to cure at
room temperature for 24 h. The average thickness of the laminates
(calculated from five measurements taken from each) was 6.37
± 0.3 mm. After curing at room temperature for 24 h, specimens
were prepared using a water-cooled diamond wheel saw and dried
at 20
C for 12 h in a gravity convection oven. After drying for 12 h,
the specimens were visually inspected for surface defects to check
that they were free from external delamination, pinholes, cracks or
voids. After the visual inspection, small bonding tabs measuring
50 mm  30 mm were carefully attached to each end of the tensile
specimens using an adhesive (Sikadur 330). Bonding tabs were
attached to avoid gripping damage from the universal testing
machine (UTM) clamps during the tensile experiments and prevent
mechanical failure outside the fire-tested gauge region during the
post-fire experiments. All specimen's dimensions were identical,
measuring 250 mm  30 mm and 5 mm in thickness. An illustration
showing the fibre orientations of each CFRP laminate used in this
study is shown in Figure 1.
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3
In total, 48 specimens were produced, 16 specimens from each of
the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP laminates, of which 8 specimens were desig-
nated tensile specimens, and 8 were designated bending specimens.
The eight specimens were chosen as this allowed two specimens at
each of the ambient, LE, ME and HE, where one specimen would be
embedded with thermocouples and one without (other than at ambi-
ent room temperature where neither would have thermocouples
embedded). A total of three K-type thermocouples were embedded at
the exposed (x ¼ 1 mm) denoted TC1, middle (x ¼ 2:5 mm) denoted
TC2 and unexposed surfaces (x ¼ 5 mm) denoted TC3 at the horizon-
tal midspan to generate temperature distribution data. Thermocouples
were embedded into a select few specimens, not all of them, as their
presence could reduce the mechanical performance.
2.2 | Fibre-to-resin volume ratio
The fibre-to-resin ratio of each laminate was determined by running
three repeat burn-off tests using small 8 mg sample crucibles for each
laminate using standard thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) (TGA/DSC
1, Mettler Toledo®) and following ASTM standards,33 Procedure G.
These burn-off tests were run in an air atmosphere at a heating rate
of 2.5
C/min. The fibre-to-resin ratio has an important effect on the
mechanical properties of CFRP laminates. In theory, the higher
the carbon fibre content, the lower the resin content and the higher
the strength and stiffness of the composite. Suppose the composite
has a resin content that is too low. In that case, it will result in poor
interlaminar adhesion (due to the lack of space for the matrix to fully
surround and bond with the fibres), causing the carbon fibres to bond
too quickly and reducing the mechanical properties of the composite.
If the composite has a resin content that is too high, it will cause a
decrease in the strength and stiffness properties of the composite
material, as fibres are the main load-carrying members of the compos-
ite. Therefore, the resin content of carbon fibre reinforced composites
should be controlled optimally.
3 | E X P E R I M E N T A L P RO G R A M M E
3.1 | Characterising the critical temperatures
The critical temperatures, Tg, Td and To were determined using
dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and TGA. The Tg was quantified
using the Perkin Elmer® DMA 8000 Dynamic Mechanical Analyser
with a built-in displacement sensor and a 500 N load cell. The DMA
experiments were carried out in a standard three-point bending orien-
tation in which the temperature inside the testing chamber increased
from 25 to 250
C at a heating rate of 10
C/min allowing the glass
transition to be identified. The specimens were small rectangular
specimens measuring 15 mm  10 mm  5mm (L  W  H), weighing
approximately 8 mg produced from each of the CFRP laminates.
Three repeat runs under identical conditions were performed on each
CFRP laminate, and a mean temperature was taken as the Tg. In this

4 ASPINALL ET AL.
FIGURE 1 An illustration of the fibre orientations of the CFRP laminates used in this study.
study, the temperature at the tangential onset of the increase in the
tan δ definition has been used to identify the Tg from the DMA data
because it defines the beginning of the loss of load-bearing capacity.
Therefore it would be undesirable to use the material beyond this
temperature.
The Td and To were identified using a Mettler Toledo TGA/DSC1.
Experiments were carried out in an air atmosphere using a flow rate of
50 mL/min at a heating rate of 2.5
C/min from 25 to 900
C. The nomi-
nal size of the crucibles was 2 mm3 . Specimens were prepared by dril-
ling through each CFRP laminate using a 5 mm tungsten carbide bit,
grinding the chippings using a mortar and pestle and placing them into
ceramic crucibles. Crucible preparation was performed carefully to
ensure that the intended fibre-to-resin ratio of each of the CFRP lami-
nates was representative of the bulk material since this factor could
affect the data due to the heterogeneity of the CFRP laminates. Dur-
ing TGA, three repeat runs under identical conditions were performed
on each CFRP laminate to improve the reliability of the data, and a
mean Td and To were reported. In this study, the Td and To are consid-
ered the temperatures corresponding to the tangential onset of the
DTG for the ER (first peak) and the CF (third peak). These two defini-
tions have been chosen because they represent conservative values.
3.2 | Characterising the thermal exposure
Thermal exposure of the specimens was performed using a cone calo-
rimeter apparatus (Fire Testing Technology, UK) utilising a 3, 15 and
30 kW=m2 heat fluxes. These heat fluxes correspond to the LE, ME
and HE scenarios associated with the known physico-chemical
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degradation of CFRP laminates. The dimensions of all specimens were
identical. Specimens were horizontally orientated perpendicular to the
heater. The distance between the cone heater and the exposed sur-
face of the specimens was identical for each experiment and fixed at
25 mm. The 25 mm spacing distance was chosen because it gives the
best results concerning the mitigation of ‘fire-plume wander’ and ade-
quately capturing the combustion products within the confines of the
cone calorimeter exhaust hood.34 During the experiments, each speci-
men's 100 mm  30 mm midspan section was exposed directly to the
external heat fluxes. The lateral specimen surface, unexposed face
and ends (nearest the bonding tabs) were insulated to minimise heat
losses and promote one-dimensional heat transfer. The duration of
the heat fluxes was chosen to allow sufficient damage to the speci-
mens to weaken them to their LE, ME and HE scenarios. The required
level of degradation was known when a thermocouple located at the
unexposed surface at the centre of the midspan section recorded the
critical temperatures.
Initially, the solid-phase temperature distribution was measured
for one of each specimen at each heat flux under identical conditions
(i.e. room temperature, airflow) to determine the time taken for LE,
ME and HE to reach the unexposed surface and obtain temperature
profiles. After the temperature distribution data had been generated,
the cone heater subjected the remaining specimens containing no
thermocouples to the required level of damage corresponding to LE,
ME and HE. After the cone experiments, those specimens containing
thermocouples were carefully trimmed to remove the thermocouples
before being mechanically tested. The thermocouples were trimmed
to avoid getting caught in the UTM cross-head or pose a tripping
hazard.
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ASPINALL ET AL. 5

3.3 | Post-fire experiments
Post-fire tensile and bending mechanical properties were obtained using
an industry-standard UTM (Instron 3380 series) using a loading rate
(cross-head speed) of 2 mm/min. Each experiment was carried out under
identical conditions (i.e. room temperature, airflow). Images were captured
during each experiment using a single ultra-high definitions (UHD) camera
(Canon® EOS 5D Mark IV) capable of recording high-quality videography
and capturing images simultaneously. Images were captured at 2-s inter-
vals. The camera was placed at an offset distance measuring 450 mm

TABLE 1 Three-point bending failure identification codes based on ASTM D7264.36

First character Code Second character Code Third character Code

Tension T At loading nose A Top T
Compression C Between loading nose B Bottom B
Buckling B At support nose S Left L
Interlaminar Shear S Between loading and support nose L Right R
Multi-mode M(x,y,z) Unknown U Middle M
Other O Various V
Unknown U

T A B L E 2 Tensile failure
First character Code Second character Code Third character Code
identification codes based on ASTM
D3039.35 Angled A Inside grip/tab I Bottom B
Edge delamination D At grip/tab A Top T
Grip/tab G <1 W from grip/tab W Left L
Lateral L Gage G Right R
Multi-mode M(x,y,z) Multiple areas M Middle M
Long splitting S Various V Various V
Explosive X Unknown U Unknown U
Other O

F I G U R E 2 Results from the

DMA and TGA showing the glass
transition (Tg), pyrolysis (Td) and
oxidation (To) temperatures.

6 ASPINALL ET AL.
from the lateral surface of the specimen and used to capture the midspan
behaviour of the material at the location directly opposite the loading
grips/nose. The lighting used during the post-fire experiments was pro-
vided by a 200-W LED light (Godox® SL-200W) at 2000 mm from the
specimen's lateral surface.
3.3.1 | Tensile experiments
In total, 24 tensile experiments were carried out and loaded in the longi-
tudinal x-direction using wedge action grips attached to bonding tabs.
The undamaged specimens were initially tested until failure in orders S1,
S2 and then S3. This procedure was followed by the fire-damaged LE,
ME and HE CFRP specimens in orders S1, S2 and then S3. The experi-
ments were stopped when mechanical failure of the specimens, indicated
by a drop in load and a runaway displacement, was recorded.
3.3.2 | Three-point bending experiments
A total of 24 bending specimens were loaded on their unexposed
(undamaged) surface using a constant vertical compressive load. All
FIGURE 3 Temperature distribution data for the S1 CFRP laminate.
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specimens were placed using a customised double overhanging three-
point bending specimen holder and loading nose. This customised
bending apparatus contained steel roller-type supports with a span
distance measuring 200 mm. This span distance remained the same
for each of the three-point bending experiments. To prevent speci-
men slippage whilst in the supports, the length of the specimens was
equal to the span length plus 50 mm overhangs at either end. The
load and corresponding vertical displacement were recorded continu-
ously by the UTM. The experiments were stopped when mechanical
failure of the specimens, indicated by a drop in load and runaway
displacement, was recorded.
3.3.3 | Mechanical failure modes
Failure modes and mechanisms were studied through macroscopic
and microscopic observations using a high-resolution flatbed
scanner (Epson® V800) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
(Jeol® JSM-6010LA), respectively. SEM was carried out to study
the topography of the CFRP laminates and acquire imagery of the
specimens before and after the experiments in microscopic detail.
At the same time, the high-resolution scanner provided detailed

ASPINALL ET AL.
FIGURE 4 Temperature distribution data for the S2 CFRP laminate.
HD imagery of the fire-damaged areas observable with the naked
eye. Failure modes were characterised based on the failure codes
described by ASTM for tension35 and three-point bending.36 This
classification used a three-part notation to identify each failure
characteristic. Tables 1 and 2 represent the notations used for ten-
sion and three-point bending, respectively.
4 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 | Fibre-to-resin volume ratio
The thermogravimetry results revealed fibre-to-resin volume
ratios of 52%, 55% and 57% for the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP laminates,
respectively. The minor variation in the fibre-to-resin ratio
between the CFRP laminates can be attributed to the fact that S2
and S3 CFRP laminates required more resin to completely embed
the fibres in the resin, reducing the possibility of matrix voids
between ply layers and resulting in a smooth surface finish. The
S2 and S3 required more resin because they have carbon fibres
oriented in multiple directions and, therefore, small lumps caused
by the warp and weft yarns of carbon fibre passing over and under
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7
one another, which the S1 CFRP laminate does not have as it is a
unidirectional CFRP.
4.2 | DMA and TGA data
Figure 2 shows the DMA and TGA results. Analysis of the DMA data
shows that the Tg of the CFRP laminates is 70
C. On the other hand,
the analysis of the TGA data shows that the Td and To of the CFRP
laminates are 230 and 630
C, respectively. Because the method of
obtaining these critical temperatures is performed in a kinetically
dominated regime (controlled by the rate of the chemical reaction),
these temperatures do not depend on the fibre orientation. Hence
these temperatures are the same for all CFRP laminates.
4.3 | Temperature distribution data
Figures 3–5 show the temperature distribution measurements for the
S1, S2 and S3 CFRP laminates, respectively. In addition, images of the
frontal and lateral surfaces following the experiments are provided in
Figures 6–8 for the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP laminates, respectively.
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8 ASPINALL ET AL.

4.3.1 | S1 CFRP laminate
Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution data for the S1 CFRP
laminate at LE, ME and HE. At LE, the Tg is recorded at x ¼ 1 mm,
FIGURE 5 Temperature distribution data for the S3 CFRP laminate.
x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm depths below the heated surface in 101, 185
and 305 s, respectively. On the other hand, the Td and To are not
recorded. These temperature measurements show that the through-
thickness temperature gradients are small and evenly distributed because
the temperatures are not high enough to pyrolyse or oxidise the speci-
men. Because pyrolysis nor oxidation occurs, char formation, delamina-
tion, voids or cracks in the ER do not occur, meaning there is no
reduction in the heat transfer rate or associated distortion in the energy
balance across the specimen. Hence the S1 CFRP laminate after LE is
dominated by the effects of the glass transition only.
After ME, the Tg is recorded at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and
x ¼ 5 mm, in 27, 109 and 135 s, respectively. The data also shows that
the Td was recorded at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 64, 391
and 549 s, respectively. On the other hand, the To is not recorded;
therefore, after ME, the S1 CFRP laminate is first dominated by the
effects of the glass transition, followed by the pyrolysis of the
ER. These temperature measurements also show a large temperature
gradient forming between the exposed and middle of the specimen.
This behaviour is due to char formation, which prevents migrating and
pyrolysing gas species flow, reducing heat transfer and pyrolysis rate.
After HE, the data shows that the Tg is recorded at x ¼ 1 mm,
x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 22, 34 and 105 s, respectively. It also
shows that the Td was recorded at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm
in 51, 102 and 517 s, respectively. The To, on the other hand, was

FIGURE 6 Post-fire high-resolution images of the S1 CFRP laminate showing damage after different exposure intensities.

ASPINALL ET AL.
F I G U R E 7 Post-fire high-resolution
images of the S2 CFRP laminate showing
damage after different exposure
intensities.
recorded at x ¼ 1 mm in 218 s. These measurements show that the
temperatures are not evenly distributed in the specimen and vary spa-
tially and temporally, resulting in a large temperature gradient. This
behaviour is because the ER has quickly heated, raising its tempera-
ture to produce pyrolysis products containing gaseous fuel that
ignites. When ignition occurs, a char layer forms, impacting the heat
and mass transport resulting in additional heat release. Ignition is indi-
cated in the data by a steep temperature increase over a very short
time increment. The data also shows that the temperature at x ¼ 1 mm
is sufficient to oxidise the char and fibre reinforcement, causing the
regression of the char layer resulting in the exposure of the CF, which
then oxidises. The regression of the char is also indicated in the TC1
temperature data at HE, which appears to fluctuate when reaching
the To. This behaviour is due to surface regression and char oxidation
resulting in TC1 no longer being embedded in the specimen and
becoming exposed to the heat source resulting in what looks like gas
phase measurements. When this occurs, the recorded temperature
fluctuates, becomes unstable and can no longer be considered reli-
able. This behaviour is reflected in the data for TC1 at x ¼ 1 mm from
approximately 450 s until the end of the experiment. Temperatures
recorded at x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm, on the other hand, are below
those required for char and fibre oxidation, resulting in those fibres
not being damaged.
Figure 6 displays post-fire images of the frontal and lateral sur-
faces of the S1 CFRP specimen. After LE, damage appears very lim-
ited. After ME, the frontal image shows that the ER has pyrolysed,
producing a small char layer and cracks in the residual resin. In
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9
contrast, the lateral images show that the middle and unexposed
surfaces appear undamaged. After HE, the images show delamination
and cracking from the exposed surface through to the mid-thickness
of the specimen. They can be most likely attributed to a build-up of
interlaminar internal pressure due to pyrolysis gases. The pressure
exerted due to this inter-ply pressure appears to have forced the plies
nearest the exposed surface apart from the bulk specimen, causing
damage around this area.
4.3.2 | S2 CFRP laminate
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution data for the S2 CFRP
laminate. At LE, the temperature data shows that the Tg is measured
at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm below the heated surface in
239, 286 and 442 s, respectively, whereas the Td and To were not
recorded. This behaviour shows that the glass transition is the only
physico-chemical process occurring in the S1 CFRP specimen at LE.
At ME, the Tg is measured at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm
in 37, 48 and 201 s, respectively, whilst the Td is recorded at x ¼ 1 mm
and x ¼ 2:5 mm at 252 and 446 s, respectively. The To, on the other
hand, is not recorded. This behaviour shows that glass transition
occurs throughout the depth, and pyrolysis occurs and the exposed
and middle.
During HE, the specimens ignited, causing additional heat release
and a rapid temperature increase. The temperature data reflects this
as the Tg is measured at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 20, 92

10
FIGURE 8 Post-fire high-resolution images of the S3 CFRP laminate showing damage after different exposure intensities.
and 128 s, respectively. The Td is measured at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm
and x ¼ 5 mm in 56, 224 and 367 s, respectively, whereas the To, is
measured at x ¼ 1 mm and x ¼ 2:5 mm in 651 and 742 s respectively
but not at x ¼ 5 mm. This behaviour shows that at HE, the ER has pyr-
olysed throughout the specimen whilst also experiencing char and
fibre oxidation damage at x ¼ 1 mm and x ¼ 2:5 mm. This oxidation is
likely to have damaged the fibres in these locations and resulted in
the thermocouples being no longer embedded in the specimen, as
shown by the converging temperature in TC1 and TC2.
Figure 7 shows post-fire high-resolution frontal and lateral sur-
face images of the S2 CFRP laminate. After LE, some discolouration
(yellowing) about the specimen midspan can be observed; otherwise,
physical damage appears limited. After ME, the ER has some disco-
louration (yellowing) due to the pyrolysis of the ER. The lateral view
also shows delamination and the formation of large voids due to a
build-up of interlaminar internal pressure and general deformation.
This deformation of the S2 CFRP specimens appeared to be the most
visible at the centre of the exposed surface around the midspan loca-
tion, where the heat flux would have been the highest due to the
non-uniformity of the cone heater-emitting surface. After HE, the
pyrolysis of the ER appears complete at the exposed and midspan
locations, which has resulted in delamination of the plies closest to
the exposed surface.
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ASPINALL ET AL.
4.3.3 | S3 CFRP laminate
Figure 5 presents the temperature distribution data for the S3 CFRP
laminate. At LE, the data shows that the Tg is measured at x ¼ 1 mm,
x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 98, 141 and 302 s, respectively. Glass
transition is the only physico-chemical process occurring at LE. The
data also shows that the temperatures at x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm
begin to converge; this is most likely due to variability in the thermo-
couple placements and is unlikely to result from a char layer forming
and slowing the heat transfer rate.
At ME, the temperature measurements show that the Tg is mea-
sured at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 36, 43 and 270 s,
respectively, the Td is measured at x ¼ 1 mm and x ¼ 2:5 mm in 302
and 450 s respectively but not at x ¼ 5 mm, whereas the To is not
recorded. This temperature differential shows that half of the
through-thickness remains below the Td but above the Tg. This behav-
iour shows that the specimen is weaker at the exposed and middle
surfaces than towards the unexposed surface.
At HE, the temperature measurements show that the Tg is mea-
sured at x ¼ 1 mm, x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 22, 37 and 142 s,
respectively. On the other hand, the Td is measured at x ¼ 1 mm,
x ¼ 2:5 mm and x ¼ 5 mm in 59, 103 and 731 s, respectively. In con-
trast, the To is not recorded.
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ASPINALL ET AL. 11

TABLE 3 Results by each specimen.

Tensile Failure loada (kN) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Failure modeb (–) Number of specimens (–)
Specimen designation
S1-A-T 85.5 792.9 LAT 2
S1-LE-T 72.2 456.2 LGV 2
S1-ME-T 28.9 186.9 DGV 2
S1-HE-T 5.4 44.2 XGV 2
S2-A-T 95.5 580.7 LGM 2
S2-LE-T 64.9 507.4 LGM 2
S2-ME-T 25.5 181.8 DGM 2
S2-HE-T 2.0 28.5 XGM 2
S3-A-T 89.9 587.9 LGM 2
S3-LE-T 71.7 410.8 AGM 2
S3-ME-T 31.8 125.8 DGM 2
S3-HE-T 1.2 14.7 XGM 2
Three-point bending Failure loada (kN) Ultimate bending strength (MPa) Failure modec Number of specimens
S1-A-B 2.7 164.3 TAB 2
S1-LE-B 1.6 127.2 CBV 2
S1-ME-B 1.1 71.5 M(T,C,B)LV 2
S1-HE-B 0.66 39.8 M(C,B,S)LV 2
S2-A-B 1.9 117.7 TAB 2
S2-LE-B 1.3 99.5 CBV 2
S2-ME-B 0.9 59.4 M(T,C,B)LV 2
S2-HE-B 0.68 41.7 M(C,B,S)LV 2
S3-A-B 2.2 134.5 TAB 2
S3-LE-B 2.1 127.4 CBV 2
S3-ME-B 1.1 70.3 M(T,C,B)LV 2
S3-HE-B 0.69 41.8 M(C,B,S)LV 2

Note: A, LE, ME, and HE denotes ambient, low, medium and high exposure, whereas T and B correspond to the type of test, T being tensile and B
representing three-point bending.
a
Average value taken from two repeat experiments.
b
Based on ASTM D3039/D3039M.
c
Based on ASTM D7264/D7264M.

Overall the data shows that the temperatures after HE, irrespec-
tive of through-thickness location, are generally lower than those in
the S1 and S2 CFRP specimens. Lower temperatures result from the
cross-plied quasi-isotropic nature of the carbon reinforcement used
for the S3 CFRP specimen, which provides more stability, is less likely
to delaminate and has a lower resin fraction. Less resin means there is
less combustible fraction able to exhibit cracks and voids or pyrolyse,
the latter of those issues resulting in the formation of pyrolysis gases
that are known to increase inter-ply pressure, which is one of the
main contributors leading to interfacial delamination of CFRP lami-
nates exposed to fire.9
Figure 8 presents post-fire images of frontal and lateral sur-
faces of the S3 CFRP specimens. After LE, physical damage appears
in the form of small bubbles in the resin surface around the mid-
span location and localised delamination of the surface ply close to
the heat source.
After ME, discolouration (yellowing) and char formation can be
observed between the exposed surface and mid-thickness. In addition,
the char appears to have tiny bubbles propagating from its surface.
These bubbles are produced by an accumulation of migrating pyrolysis
gases from the unexposed to the exposed surface that eventually
erupts closest to the heat source and causes swelling. Bubbles that
appear visible but remain trapped below the surface are due to the
residue cooling quickly and hardening, causing the gases to remain
encircled and unable to propagate.
After HE, the ER at the exposed and middle surface has experi-
enced pyrolysis and further discolouration (yellowing) (increasing
degrees of discolouration are observed with increasing heat flux,
which translates to higher degrees of thermal decomposition across
the depth of the specimen). This pyrolysis has resulted in cracks and
delamination forming at the exposed surface and localised char forma-
tion at the unexposed surface.

12
FIGURE 9 Results from the post-fire tensile experiments.
4.3.4 | Summary
To summarise the results from this section, the data shows that, gen-
erally, the highest temperatures are recorded in the S1 CFRP speci-
mens and the lowest in the S3 CFRP specimens. Higher temperatures
result in further damage to the CFRP laminate resulting in them
becoming mechanically weaker. However, the data in this section also
shows that when a CFRP laminate is exposed to a fire, not all the
material can be considered damaged but rather a series of sections,
each containing respective residual mechanical properties and perfor-
mance levels. For example, the unexposed surface may be considered
undamaged, whereas the sections that have experienced glass transi-
tion but then rehardened may have resulted in further curing, possibly
improving their mechanical properties. In contrast, those sections that
have pyrolysed but not experienced oxidation may still be able to sup-
port applications requiring tensile strength. On the other hand, those
sections that have experienced oxidation temperatures may have lost
a portion of the load-carrying ability.
Furthermore, as the temperature recorded at TC3 has also
exceeded the Td in Figure 3 at 12 and 40 kW=m2 and Figures 4 and 5
at 40 kW=m2 , the validity of the testing procedure will be impacted as
damage will have occurred in the form of pyrolysis damage to the
epoxy resin, which will have weakened these specimens to a greater
degree than the those that have not experienced pyrolysis damage at
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ASPINALL ET AL.
TC3. The result of this damage means these specimens will likely have
reduced failure modes, bending strength and different failure modes
than the other specimens.
4.4 | Post-fire experiments
The data relating to the post-fire experiments using the UTM appara-
tus is shown in Table 3. The results from the tensile experiments are
presented in Figures 9 and 10 whilst the results from the three-point
bending experiments are presented in Figures 11 and 12.
4.4.1 | Tensile experiments
Figures 9 and 13 show the tensile load–displacement and tensile
stress–strain relationship for each CFRP laminate, whilst Figure 10
shows the ultimate tensile strength and tensile failure load as a func-
tion of temperature for each CFRP laminate. The data in Figure 9
shows that all CFRP specimens exhibit linear behaviour until they
reach peak load and fail, irrespective of fibre orientation. The S1 spec-
imens reach peak load over the smallest displacement, whereas the S3
specimen reaches peak load over the largest displacement. The cause
of this behaviour is that all the fibres are orientated parallel to the load
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13

F I G U R E 1 1 Results from the

F I G U R E 1 0 Ultimate tensile

post-fire three-point bending

strength and ultimate tensile
failure load data.
ASPINALL ET AL.

experiments.

14
FIGURE 12 Ultimate bending strength and ultimate bending failure load data.
in the S1 CFRP specimens, whereas, in the S2 and S3 CFRP speci-
mens, they are not. Because CF is stiff and does not yield under stress
when undamaged, the fibres and resin retain a good interfacial bond
that provides optimal load-bearing support meaning they will fracture
rather than deform.
After LE, the effect of the Tg on the specimens has increased the
variability of the maximum displacement and resulted in lower peak
failure load values. However, all CFRP specimens still exhibit linear
behaviour. The cause of the variability, however, can be attributed to
the effects that the Tg has on the specimens, which causes a tempo-
rary loss of interfacial bond between the fibre and resin as the speci-
men is heated. Although temporary, this loss of interfacial bond allows
the fibres to slip relative to one another, causing them to move out of
optimal alignment with the load direction. When the fibres slip rela-
tive to one another, this causes them to lose performance resulting in
less consistent behaviour and a reduction in load-bearing capacity.
After ME, the load, displacement and data variability all decrease
compared to the undamaged and LE specimens. This behaviour is due
to the pyrolysis of the ER, which has resulted in these specimens
retaining less than 50% and 34% of their undamaged peak load and
displacement, respectively. The reason for the reduction in variability,
however, is unknown. Furthermore, although the temperatures
recorded in the specimens exposed to ME were well below the To,
meaning the fact that such a large reduction is observed in the load
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ASPINALL ET AL.
and displacement shows that the ER plays an important fundamental
role in assisting the CF to resist failure by providing support through
the redistribution of the stresses. Therefore, if the ER pyrolyses, it
cannot support the fibre to retain the load.
After HE, the specimen's load–displacement relationship
behaviour demonstrates more displacement before failure and very
low peak loads relative to the undamaged specimens. This behav-
iour is due degradation of the CF. It is why the largest decrease in
load-carrying capacity is observed after HE (due to oxidation and
weakening of the fibre reinforcement) and not after LE or ME,
where the CF remain undamaged.
On the other hand, Figure 10 shows that all the specimens, irre-
spective of fibre orientation, show a small decrease in tensile strength
and failure load between the undamaged specimens and LE. However,
this increases between LE and ME and between the ME and HE speci-
mens. The data also shows that, on average, the S2 CFRP laminate
has the lowest ultimate tensile strength, whereas the S1 CFRP lami-
nate has the highest ultimate tensile strength.
4.4.2 | Bending experiments
Figures 11 and 14 show the load–displacement and stress–strain rela-
tionship for each CFRP laminate, whilst Figure 12 shows the ultimate
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15

bending stress–strain curves for

F I G U R E 1 3 Tensile stress–

F I G U R E 1 4 Three-point
strain curves for each CFRP

each CFRP laminate.

ASPINALL ET AL.

laminate.
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16 ASPINALL ET AL.

FIGURE 15 Photographs showing the progressive tensile failure of the S2 CFRP specimens at ambient, LE, ME and HE.

F I G U R E 1 6 Photographs show the tensile failure of the different CFRP specimens at different thermal exposures. Images (A) and (B) show
the S1 CFRP laminate after LE and HE, respectively; images (B) and (C) show the S2 CFRP laminate after LE and HE, respectively, whereas images
(E) and (F) show the S3 CFRP laminate at the LE and HE, respectively.

bending strength and ultimate bending failure load as a function of
temperature for each CFRP laminate.
The data in Figure 11 shows that the undamaged specimens
exhibit initial linear elastic behaviour up until peak load before failing
gradually over a large displacement. The data also shows that the S1
specimen has a larger failure load and bending strength than the S2
and S3 CFRP specimens whilst also displaying a larger yield strength
based on the stress–strain relationship in Figure 14. In addition, the
S1 CFRP specimens have a larger initial elastic linear loading response
than the S2 and S3 CFRP specimens because all the fibres run parallel
to the loading direction in the S1 CFRP laminate, whereas in the S2
and S3, they do not.

ASPINALL ET AL.
FIGURE 17 General tension failure mechanisms for the CFRP specimens.
After LE, the S1 specimens exhibit similar behaviour to the unda-
maged S1 specimens; however, the S2 and S3 specimens show
completely different behaviour than the undamaged S2 and S3 speci-
mens. The S2 and S3 specimens' behaviour after LE can be attributed
to the fact that these specimens have experienced glass transition,
resulting in a loss of interfacial bond strength (although temporary)
and physical weakening of the ER. This process can result in unpre-
dictable behaviour and a loss of interfacial bond after the resin re-
hardens because the fibres have been allowed to move. This results in
the fibres being positioned in a sub-optimal direction to carry the load
and adequately prevent failure.
After ME, the specimen's load–displacement and stress–strain
relationship appear very different to the undamaged and LE speci-
mens. They are marked by significant displacements, lower peak
loads and smaller yield strengths. The data for these specimens also
show small and irregular fluctuations in the loading response. These
fluctuations are due to the individual ply layers, whose strength and
stiffness properties are independent variables failing in isolation
rather than more broadly. Therefore, in principle, if a single-ply layer,
or even a single fibre tow (a bundle of fibres), fail in isolation due to
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17
a given stress, the overall load-carrying capacity decreases but redis-
tributes across the remaining plies (or fibre tows), causing the mate-
rials load-bearing capacity to either sustain itself or increase, albeit
for a short duration. Because of this unique behaviour, CFRP lami-
nates can continue to support an applied load (even with some loss
in strength) after the ER has partially pyrolysed due to the retained
strength of the load-bearing CF.
The HE specimens are also characterised by irregular fluctuations
due to the fracture and pull out of the individual plies from what
remains of the char on the exposed surface. This behaviour is because,
after HE, oxidation has attacked the centre of the specimens, meaning
when bending occurs, the strength of the specimen is governed solely
by damaged CF above the neutral axis at the convex surface. Therefore,
like the specimen's behaviour in the tensile experiments, if a ply or fibre
tow fails in isolation, the overall load-carrying capacity reduces but
redistributes across the remaining plies and different layers, causing it
to continue to maintain partial resistance.
On the other hand, Figure 12 shows increased variability between
the specimens and generally shows that the S1 CFRP laminate has the
highest ultimate bending strength and failure load. In contrast, the S2

18
F I G U R E 1 8 Typical failure modes due to three-point bending, showing (A) delamination, (B) more delamination, (C) debonding of the
inter-ply layer, (D) matrix and fibre shearing and finally (E) micro-buckling.
and S3 CFRP specimens present similar behaviour to one another,
albeit with lower ultimate bending strengths and failure loads than the
S1 CFRP specimens.
Another factor influencing the behaviour of the bending speci-
mens behaviour during the experiments is which surface (damaged
or undamaged) is placed under tension and which one is in com-
pression. This factor is important as, unlike in tensile specimens, in
bending, one surface of the material will act in tension, and the
other surface will act in compression. The heating effect on either
of these faces will likely result in drastically different outcomes. For
example, heating of the tension surface will mean that the CF oxi-
dation can dominate the failure and can take a long time compared
to heating onto the compression surface, which will be dominated
by the loss of the mechanical performance of the epoxy resin. This
behaviour is because the carbon fibres perform poorly in compres-
sion and become more susceptible to micro-buckling as fibre inter-
actions are reduced due to softening of the polymer matrix. This
behaviour is due to the carbon fibre reinforcement primarily
controlling the material's response in tension and the epoxy resin
primarily controlling the material's response during compression.
Therefore, heating the tensile surface exposes the fibre reinforce-
ment to maximum thermal and mechanical stress. For this reason
alone, the data obtained for the bending specimens shown are only
representative of such scenarios where the fibre reinforcement
dominates the exposed surface whilst the load is applied on the
unexposed surface. These data show that the validity of the testing
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ASPINALL ET AL.
approach is affected by the fact that the damaged areas are no
longer in composite action.
4.5 | Post-fire tensile failure modes and
mechanisms
This section presents images detailing the tensile failure modes and
mechanisms. Failure of the tensile specimens at ambient (undamaged)
and LE occurred as a transverse brittle fracture. After ME and HE,
on the other hand, failure was attributed to an explosive failure.
Figure 15 shows a clear chronological series of images showing the
propensity for the specimen to fail explosively as heat damage
increases. On the other hand, Figure 16 shows photographs of the
tensile failure modes of all the CFRP specimens containing different
fibre orientations.
Figure 17 illustrates the general tension failure mechanisms for
the CFRP specimens at ambient, LE, ME and HE leading up to failure.
In addition, an analysis of this kind was performed to provide insight
into possible damage that could have contributed to the failure of the
specimens. During the tensile experiments, it was observed that brit-
tle (at ambient (undamaged) and LE) and explosive failure (after ME
and HE) were the two most common failure modes for the specimens;
however, the mechanical failure mechanisms that contributed to
failure were different depending on the level of fire damage and fibre
orientation of those specimens.

ASPINALL ET AL.
FIGURE 19 General three-point bending failure mechanisms for the CFRP specimens.
The tensile failure mechanisms for the S1 CFRP laminate under
ambient (undamaged) conditions were due to a rapid build-up of loca-
lised strain that occurred disproportionately over a small region at the
midpoint leading to all the fibres in this zone fracturing on the same [0
]
plane. This small transverse area was when the nominal stress against
nominal strain was maximum. After LE, the failure mechanisms occurred
as a brittle failure caused by stress concentrations and the gradual
release of energy. This gradual release of energy resulted in an audible
loud ‘pinging’ sound as a fibre tow reached its maximum stress and failed
in isolation. When a fibre tow reaches its maximum stress, the stress
released is transferred to neighbouring fibres, and consequently, the
stress in the fibres nearest to the break magnifies. Transferring the stress
overload begins sequential overloading of the other fibre tows, albeit
with a shorter duration between each ‘ping’. When the stress concentra-
tions increased, the ER responded by cracking. After ME, the S1 CFRP
laminate experiences fibre pullout and debonding of the ply layers due to
the pyrolysis of the ER. After HE, further delamination damage caused
by the internal pressure build-up was observed in addition to the mecha-
nisms observed after ME. Furthermore, at HE, the CF was also damaged
due to surface oxidation, with close coupling observed between the
completely pyrolysed areas of the ER and the oxidation of the fibres. At
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19
ambient (undamaged) conditions and LE, the S2 and S3 CFRP specimens
exhibited similar mechanical failure mechanisms to the S1 CFRP lami-
nate. This behaviour can be characterised by a progressive brittle failure
caused by stress concentrations and a gradual release of pockets of
stored energy. The stored energy culminates in localised tow failure due
to stress propagation across the fibre-matrix interface, which results in
near-neighbour tow failure. After ME and HE, on the other hand, the fail-
ure mechanisms are different from those experienced by the S1 CFRP
laminate. For these specimens, failure can be attributed to transverse
and splitting matrix cracking caused by a large amount of stored energy
released simultaneously; this release of stored energy culminated in
explosive delamination damage and failure.
4.6 | Post-fire bending failure modes and
mechanisms
This section discusses the bending failure modes and mechanisms.
Typical failure modes of the CFRP specimens during bending are
shown in Figure 18 where the images demonstrate (1) delamination,
(2) more delamination, (3) debonding of the inter-ply layer, (4) matrix

20
FIGURE 20 Photographs showing the progressive three-point bending failure of the S2 CFRP specimens at ambient, LE, ME and HE.
and fibre shearing and finally (5) micro-buckling. The failure modes of
the S1 CFRP at ambient (undamaged) temperature and LE, failure of the
S1 CFRP laminate was attributed to a combination of brittle tensile failure
on the convex tensile surface opposite to the loading nose and a small
interlaminar shear failure on the concave compression surface around the
area of the loading nose. Thus, the mechanisms leading to the failure of
the S1 specimen were due to localised crushing and interlaminar shear
damage above the area of the loading nose. An illustration showing the
general bending failure mechanisms for the CFRP specimens at ambient,
LE, ME and HE leading up to failure has been provided in Figure 19.
After ME, failure was predominately concentrated around the load-
ing nose on the concave compression surface. The mechanisms that con-
tributed to this were fibre breaking, interfacial debonding on the convex
tension surface and matrix cracking around the loading nose area due to
the pyrolysis of the ER and the limited mechanical properties of the char.
As the load increases, the specimen's behaviour becomes more complex,
with fibre breaking, pullout and delamination on the convex tension
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ASPINALL ET AL.
surface all increasing. These failure mechanisms caused delamination
damage to propagate down the entire middle of the specimen, causing a
complete fracture along the direction of the fibre, effectively splitting the
specimen into two separate parts. Finally, after HE, the failure was attrib-
uted to fibre pullout on the convex tension surface and kinking, a form
of micro-buckling, on the concave compression surface.
The S2 and S3 CFRP specimens presented very similar behaviour;
therefore, they will be discussed in unity. At ambient (undamaged)
conditions, the specimens exhibit brittle behaviour characterised by
tensile failure of the fibre reinforcement on the convex tensile surface
and interlaminar shearing due to the formation of cracks below the
loading nose on the concave compression surface. After LE, the
behaviour is very similar to those of the undamaged specimens; how-
ever, after ME, the ER had pyrolysed, failing due to the fibres ruptur-
ing and separating from the bulk material in the longitudinal direction.
This behaviour reduces the longitudinal resistance of the specimen as
the longitudinal tension and compression stresses distribute over the

ASPINALL ET AL.
FIGURE 21 Post-fire SEM images detailing the damage to the S1 CFRP laminate after (A) LE, (B) ME and (C) HE.
FIGURE 22 Post-fire SEM images detailing the damage to the S2 CFRP laminate after (A) LE, (B) ME and (C) HE.
remaining fibres over the depth of the cross-section when they sepa-
rate. As a result, the CF cannot support the load when the longitudinal
resistance is low. Finally, after HE, the specimens experience delami-
nation, splitting the specimen from the midspan location down one
leading edge. Images detailing this degradation are shown in
Figure 20, where a clear chronological series of images detailing the
three-point failure modes of the S2 CFRP laminate at ambient, LE, ME
and HE.
4.7 | Microstructural analysis
In order to obtain further information about CFRP laminates post-fire
response, the specimens have been examined by SEM. Figures 21, 22
and 23 show the SEM images for the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP specimens,
respectively. The black squares in the images outline and indicate the
specimen's damaged area.
4.7.1 | S1 SEM
Figure 21 shows SEM images detailing the progressive damage to the
S1 CFRP specimens after LE, ME and HE. At the LE (Figure 21A), the
ER appears relatively undamaged other than a few surface flaws due
to a loss of temporary interfacial bond and repositioning of some
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21
isolated CF. After ME (Figure 21B), the ER has pyrolysed, and surface
damage is much more evident in the image than after LE. Surface dam-
age increases because the pyrolysis of the ER has caused the individual
fibre to break free from their respective ply layers due to low interfa-
cial bond strength. After HE, pyrolysis reactions of the ER appear com-
plete as a char layer has formed and begun to regress in places due to
surface oxidation. This behaviour has resulted in the exposure of CF to
oxygen in the air causing them to weaken. A damaged section of a sin-
gle filament due to oxidation is shown in Figure 21C.
4.7.2 | S2 SEM
Figure 22A–C shows SEM images detailing the progressive damage to
the S2 CFRP specimens after LE, ME and HE, respectively. After LE,
the ER shows signs of superficial damage with surface bubbling and
flaking. After ME, the ER has pyrolysed, causing char to form in places.
In addition, the negligible mechanical properties of the char have
resulted in fibres breaking free from their original alignment. Finally,
after HE, similar behaviour to the S1 CFRP laminate has occurred,
and pyrolysis of the ER is complete, exposing the CF to oxygen and
leading to complex oxidation reactions that attack and weaken the
surface of the fibre reinforcement. This surface damage is shown in
Figure 22C, where a large, damaged section of a single carbon-fibre
filament is shown.

22
FIGURE 23 Post-fire SEM images detailing the damage to the S3 CFRP laminate after (A) LE, (B) ME and (C) HE.
4.7.3 | S3 SEM
Figure 23A–C shows the progressive damage to the S3 CFRP speci-
mens after LE, ME and HE, respectively. After LE, the ER displays
signs of pyrolysis damage and some char formation around the areas
of pyrolysis damage. After ME, the images show the widespread dam-
age due to the pyrolysis of the ER and char formation that appears to
have spread proportionately across the specimen. Finally, after HE,
the pyrolysis of the ER largely occurred, exposing the CF to oxygen
and leading to the thermal decomposition of the CF via heteroge-
neous oxidation reactions. This oxidation damage is shown in the form
of crenulations in Figure 23C.
5 | C O N CL U S I O N S
This study has investigated the effect of fibre orientation and thermal
exposure on the post-fire mechanical behaviour of CFRP laminates. In
addition, DMA and TGA have been carried out to quantify the CFRP
laminates Tg, Td and To, whilst microstructural (SEM) and macrostruc-
tural (scanning techniques) analyses have also been performed to
investigate failure modes and mechanisms of the CFRP specimens.
Regarding the obtained results, the following conclusions can
be made:
1. The results have shown that CFRP's post-fire tensile and three-
point bending behaviour and failure modes are sensitive to fibre
orientation and heat flux.
2. The results have also shown that, on average, the tensile and bend-
ing properties of the CFRP specimens decreased the most between
LE and ME. However, the overall largest decrease in tensile and
bending properties of the CFRP specimens was found in specimens
after HE, as expected. These results show that the ER plays an
important fundamental role in assisting the CF to resist failure by
providing support by redistributing the stresses. Therefore, if the ER
pyrolyses, it cannot support the fibre to retain the load.
3. The results also show that after HE, the post-fire bending proper-
ties decrease 61%, 95% and 85% for the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP
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ASPINALL ET AL.
specimens, respectively, relative to the undamaged CFRP speci-
mens. This behaviour shows that the S1 CFRP specimens retain
the most post-fire bending properties, whereas the S2 CFRP speci-
mens retain the least. Furthermore, this shows that during bending,
the pyrolysis of the ER has a large impact on the residual proper-
ties. This behaviour is because the ER supports and redistributes
the stresses across the CF. Hence, when the matrix pyrolyses
after ME, a loss of stiffness and interfacial bond strength occurs,
resulting in delamination and a general loss of interfacial bond
between the residual char that encapsulates the fibres and the
fibres themselves.
4. The results also show that after HE, the post-fire tensile properties
decrease 93%, 97% and 98% for the S1, S2 and S3 CFRP speci-
mens, respectively, relative to the undamaged CFRP specimens.
This behaviour shows that the S1 CFRP specimens retain the most
post-fire bending properties, whereas the S3 CFRP specimens
retain the least highlighting the influence of HE oxidation on
the CF.
5. The data has also shown that when failure of the undamaged and
LE tensile specimens occurs, they exhibit brittle behaviour. After
ME and HE, the failure can be characterised as explosive and
sudden, irrespective of the fibre orientation. However, a mixture
of failure modes was observed in bending depending on the fibre
orientation and exposure intensity.
6. The data from this study also shows that the type of failure modes
in bending and tensile experiments is sensitive to the in-depth
temperature gradient. These in-depth temperatures, in turn,
depend on the fibre orientation due to the low through-thickness
thermal conductivity of the CF. This behaviour is because the level
of exposure directly influences the physico-chemical processes
occurring in the specimens, hence the changes to the chemical
composition. The results also demonstrate that the validity of the
testing approach is also affected by the fact that the damaged
areas are no longer in composite action.
ACKNOWLEDG MENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this work
from the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (Dstl).
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ASPINALL ET AL. 23

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