VALUE SPRING COLLEGE

45/47 Mukandasi Street, Off Ago Palace way, Alidada

B/Stop, Okota, Lagos. www.springschool.com.ng
SECOND TERM E-NOTE 2023/2024 SESSION
SUBJECT: BIOLOGY CLASS: SS 1

WELCOME NOTE
Welcome back to school, I hope you enjoyed your holiday. It’s another fascinating
term to learn more about our body, and other living things around us. It is going
to be exciting and expository. I entreat you to pay attention in class and give more
time to studies, I wish you all the best.
Mr. U. Y. Bassey

SCHEME OF WORK
1. Basic ecological concepts
2. Biomes
3. Population studies
4. Functioning ecosystem
5. Energy transformation in nature
6. Ecological management
7. Nutrient cycling
8. Adaptation
9. Pollination
10. Conservation of natural resources

WEEK ONE

TOPIC: BASIC CONCEPT OF ECOLOGY

CONTENT
  Definition of eceology
 Branches of Ecology
 Ecological Concept
 Components of an Ecosystem
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
 Define ecology
 Discuss the two branches of ecology with example
 Explain the various ecological concepts
 Differentiate between biotic and abiotic components
DEFINITION OF ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of plant and animals (as well as microorganism) in relation to their
environment. As a practical science, ecological studies involve:-
Studying the distribution of living organisms
Finding out how living organisms depend on themselves and their non-living environment for
survival.
Measuring factors affecting the environment.
BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY
Depending on whether the organisms are studied alone or in groups, ecology is divided into
two:
AUTECOLOGY: This is the study of an individual organism or a single species of organism and its
environment e.g. the study of a student and his school environment.
SYNECOLOGY: This involves studying the inter-relationships between groups of organisms or
different species of organism living together in an area e.g. study of fish, crabs, seaweeds, etc in
a pond.
EVALUATION
1. Define ecology.
2. Differentiate between the two branches of ecology.
ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
The various concepts closely associated with ecology include;
ENVIRONMENT
This includes external and internal factors, living or nonliving which affects an organism or a
group of organisms. These include the habitat (with its peculiar physical conditions e.g. light,
food, water, air), the animals preying on other animals or the diseases affecting the organism.

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BIOSPHERE (ECOSPHERE)
This is the zone of the earth occupied by living organisms so as to carry out their biochemical
activities.
The ecosphere consists of 3 major portions:
Lithosphere:- this is the solid portion (the outer-most zone) of the earth which is made up of
rocks and minerals. This zone forms 30% of the earth surface and it is the basis of human
settlement.
Hydrosphere:- this is the liquid (aquatic) part of the biosphere. It covers about 70% of the
earth’s crust. It consist of water in various forms; solid, liquid or gas (water vapour),
hydrosphere includes lakes, pools, spring, oceans, ponds, rivers, etc.
Atmosphere: – this is the gaseous portion of the earth. It consists of three main gases; nitrogen
(78%), oxygen (21%) and carbon (iv) oxide (0.03%). There are also 0.77% rare gases.
HABITAT
This is a place where an organism is naturally found. Habitat is always affected by
environmental factors. Habitat can be divided into three:-
Aquatic habitat: this is where plants and animals (as well as micro organisms) live in water e.g.
Sea, ocean, lagoons, streams, etc.
Terrestrial habitat: this is where the organisms live on land e.g. forests, grassland, (savanna),
desert etc.
Arboreal habitat: These include tree trunks and tree tops where some organisms (usually
animals) are naturally found.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE
This refers to the habitat and the entire habit (behavioural, feeding, breeding) of an organism. It
is the physical space occupied by an organism and its functional role in the community.
POPULATION
This is the total number of organisms of the same species living together in a habitat e.g.
population of cockroaches in Biology laboratory.
COMMUNITY
This is made up of all the populations of living organisms that exists together in a habitat e.g. a
community of decomposer, insects and birds on a decaying log of wood. Favourable while
others are unfavourable.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Write a short note on ecosphere.
2. Differentiate between a habitat and ecological niche.
3. With two example each, state three subdivisions of habitat.

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 4. What is a population?
5. How is population related to the community?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Which of the following is not classified as a terrestrial habitat? A. forest B. guinea savanna
C. literal zone D. desert
The activities of an organism which affect the survival of another organism in a habitat can be
described as A. biotic factors. B. Abiotic factors C. climatic factor D. edaphic factors.
The number of individuals of the same species interacting in a habitat at a particular time is
best described as A. community B. ecosystem C. population D. biome.
A biotic community with its physical environment (abiotic factors) defines A. ecosystem B.
population C. habitat D. biosphere.
The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is A. oxygen B. nitrogen C. carbon dioxide D.
a rare gas.
THEORY
1. Differentiate between ecosystem and biomes.
2. State the two major components of an ecosystem with two examples each
READING ASSIGNMENT
Essential Biology, chapter 8, 130 – 135

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: BIOMES
CONTENT
Biomes Local Biomes
World Biomes
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
 Define biomes
 State the factors that determine the vegetation of a biome
BIOMES
Biomes are large natural terrestrial ecosystem, identified by their dominant vegetation. They
are terrestrial because plants form the bulk of the community in any ecosystem e.g. a forest
biome has densely packed tall trees while grasses and few scattered shrubs are found in a

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savanna biome. Climatic factors determine the type of vegetation in a biome. These factors may
include rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, wind and light.
EVALUATION
1. What is a biome?
2. Mention four factors that determine the vegetation of a biome.
3. Discuss the two local biotic communities in Nigeria
LOCAL BIOMES
The local biomes particular to Nigeria include the following:
Mangrove swamp
Tropical rain forest
Savanna (northern and southern Guinea savanna, Sudan savanna and sahel savanna)
MANGROVE SWAMPS
These are found in the tropics along coastal region and river mouths. Mangrove swamps are
forest of small, evergreen, broad-leaved trees growing in shallow, brackish water or wet soil.
Many mangrove trees have pop roots and breathing roots called pneumatophores. The climate
here is hot and wet, with total annual rain fall of above 250cm and temperature of about 260c.
In Nigeria, mangrove swamps are found in the delta region of Lagos, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa and
Cross rivers states.
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST:
This occurs in the region that is between the equator and latitude 50-100N and S. It has the
following characteristics:
The forest are mainly lowland.
The climate is hot and wet.
It consists of broad leaved trees that are mostly ever green; the leaves are gradually shed
throughout the year and replaced by new ones.
The trees form canopy strata with their interior design having low light intensity, high humidity
and damp floor.
The trees possess thin bark.
The forest is rich in epiphytes and wood climbers.
The annual rainfall and temperature are 200cm and 270c respectively.
In Nigeria, tropical rainfall is found in Edo, Delta, Ondo, Imo, Lagos, Rivers state e.t.c
SAVANNA
These are tropical grassland in Africa. They are usually flat for miles at a stretch and made up
mainly of grasses. The savanna region has a hot and wet seasons (290c) which alternate with a

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cool and dry season (180c). The total annual rainfall around 50cm-150cm. During the dry
season, the grasses are usually dry and brown and bush fire is common occurrences.
South Guinea savanna (the largest of all the biomes in Nigeria) has tall grasses with scattered,
deciduous trees. It is found in Enugu, Kogi, Benue, Kwara, Oyo, Osun, Ekiti State etc.
Northern Guinea Savanna has scattered, deciduous trees, sometimes with thorns and tick
barks. Grasses are short and numerous. It is found in plateau, Kaduna, Bauchi, Niger, Kano,
Adamawa states etc.
Sudan savanna has the shorter grasses fewer trees which are more scattered. It is found in
Kano and parts of Borno, Sokoto, Niger, Bauchi states e.t.c
Sahel savanna has high temperature and low rainfall with short and scanty grasses as well as
Short and tough shrubs or trees. The plants are drought-resistant. It is found in Borno, Kastina,
Sokoto, Yobe, Kano, Jigawa states etc.

EVALUATION
1. In a tabular form, distinguish between the three major biomes in Nigeria using the
following
a. Total annual rainfall
b. Temperature
c. Regions found
2. List five characteristics of savanna.
WORLD BIOMES
Of all abiotic factors affecting ecological system, temperature and rainfall determine the world
biomes. The biomes include: tropical rain forest, temperate forest, coniferous forest, temperate
shrubland, savanna, temperate grassland, desert, and tundra and mountain vegetation.
TEMPERATE FORESTS
These are forests with the following characteristics they are

Mainly of broad leaved deciduous trees which shed their leaves during winter.
Possession of moderately wet climate with a dry or cold season.
CONIFEROUS FORESTS
These are characterized by
1. Needle-leaved evergreen conifers such as pines, firs.
2. Possessing few trees.
3. Possessing tall tree forming upper storey.
4. The forest floor being covered with a thick layer or conifer needles.

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 5. Possessing cool temperature climate with light rainfall and snow.
TEMPERATE SHRUBLAND
This is forest with the following characteristics
1. It consists of drought-resistant shrub plants and dwarf trees, often fire-resistant e.g.
marquis.
2. It has temperate climate with low rainfall.
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
This is characterized by:
 Perennial grasses grow on very fertile soil to support herds of grazing mammals
 It has moderately dry climate with a cold winter and a hot summer.
SAVANNA
This is a tropical grassland with:
1. Scattered trees and often infertile soil
2. Moderately dry climate with a warm dry season and a hot rainy season
DESERT
This has:
1. Very sparse vegetation, with succulent perennials that have deep root systems.
2. Tropical temperate and afro-alpine regions with less than 25 cm annual rainfall.
TUNDRA
This is characterized by:

1. Treeless marshy vegetation composed mainly of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichen and moss
with very few plant trees.
2. Cold climate with long icy winter and very short summer with an average temperature
of 100c.
MOUNTANE VEGETATION
This has:
1. Evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain, these forest are less luxuriant than the
tropical rainforest.
2. Afro alpine vegetation occurs at heights above 3000m on mountain, vegetation consists
mainly of heath, grasses and sedges.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by the term biome?
2. State the local biomes found in Nigeria.

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 3. State the four savannas present in Nigeria.
4. What are the two factors that determine the world biomes?
5. State four of the world biomes with two characteristics each.
6. Using their characteristics, differentiate between savanna and desert.
READING ASSIGNMENT
Essential Biology, chapter 8, page 132 – 135
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. How is savanna plants protected from bush fires? They have A. sunken stomata B. thorn
bark C. thick barks D. soft leaves
2. Which of the following limiting resources is competed for by organisms in the desert?
A. Light B. oxygen C. temperature D. water
3. Which of these is not a true characteristic of the tropical rain forest? A. Vegetation
consists predominantly of tall tree with thick canopy B. forest is rich in epiphytes and
climbers C. annual rainfall is less than 100 cm D. annual temperature is 270c
4. Which of the following does not describe the coniferous forest? A. needle leaved evergreen
conifers B. broad leaved evergreen conifers C. possessing few trees
D. possessing cool temperate climate
5. Montane vegetation is described by the following except A. treeless marshy vegetation
B. evergreen rainforest on slopes of mountain C. forest are less luxuriant than tropical
rain forest D. afro alpine vegetation at heights above 300m on mountain.
THEORY
1. Outline the properties of the savanna as a world biome.
2. State four characteristic features of vegetation found in A. savanna B. tropical
rainforest C. desert.

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: POPULATION STUDIES
CONTENT
 Definition of population
 Factors affecting population
 Method of population studies
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
 Define population

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  Discuss the three ways in which population can be studied
 Highlight the factors affecting population
 Describe the method of population studies
POPULATION
Definition
A population is defined as the total number of organisms of the same species living together in
a given area at a particular time. In any ecosystem, the community is made up of many
populations of different species.
To study a habitat’s populations, the following are usually investigated.
I. The type of organisms in the habitat: This involves listing all the different types of
populations found in that particular habitat. This helps to determine the relationships
that exist between the different organisms in the habitat.
II. The dominant species: This refers to the species of organisms in a community which
exert a great influence on the habitat and on the other populations. Dominance may be
expressed in terms of their number, size, the portion of space occupied and contribution
to the energy flow of the habitat.
The characteristics of the population: This refers to;
(a) Population size: The total number of individuals of the same species in the
habitat (the total numbers of individuals in a population). A large population
stands a better chance of surviving unfavourable conditions such as fires,
diseases, harsh climate changes, while a small population can be easily wiped
out. A large population also has the advantage of increasing its vigour through
breeding which invariably increases its ability to withstand adverse conditions.
(b) Population density: This is defined as the number of individual organisms per
unit area or volume of the habitat.
Mathematically represented as;
Population density=Total population or Population / sizeArea of habitat

Populations can be of the same size, but they may have different densities.
When we consider the number of individuals per…
Example: If an area of land of 100m² has an elephant grass population of 1000
plants, the density of elephant grasses will be;
Total number of individualsTotal area=1000100m2 elephant grasses=10∅∅1∅∅m2
elephant grasses=10 elephant grasses/m2
Population density can be used to estimate the total number of individuals of a
population i.e. population size.

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 (b) Population frequency: This refers to how often the species occurs at different
sites in its habitat. It is recorded as the number of times the organism is sited (seen).
(c) Population growth rate: This refers to the total and final effect of birthrate and
death rate of organisms in the habitat.
(e) Percentage cover: This is the area of ground or space covered (or occupied) by a
given species its habitat. It is expressed in percentage.
(f) Distribution: This refers to the way in which individuals of a particular population
are arranged in a given habitat. The individuals may live in clumps, they may be
evenly spaced or randomly spaced.
Example: If the western half of the habitat contained ¾ of the elephant grasses,
then,
Density =34×1000=75Ø5Ø=15 grasses/m^2
Methods of Studying Populations
1.To conduct population studies the following procedure is use;
2. Choose the habitat to be studied Choose a sampling method
3. Identify the species in the hhabita
4. Collect, count and record the different types of organisms present.
5. Repeat the population studies at different periods.
The following methods can be used to study specific populations:
1.Collection of plants: In a small area plants are easy to count and their distribution
can be recorded on a map or scale diagram of the area, however for larger areas
quadrats or transects are used.
(a) Quadrat Sampling: A quadrat is made of a square or rectangular piece of wire,
plastic, wood or metal frame with predetermined area. E.g. the area of a quadrat
may be 25cm². A quadrat is used to sample the number of plant species in a habitat.
It is not suitable for sampling animals because they move around so much. A
quadrat is used by throwing it over the shoulder at random several times and on
each landing, the area covered/enclosed by it is observed. The type of plant species
and their number within the quadrat are recorded. From the results, the average
number of plant per m² is calculated. If the area of the habitat is known, the total
number of plants it contains can be estimated.
2. Permanent quadrats, with mapping grids attached can be made to study seasonal
variations of plants. These quadrats are sturdier, larger and remain permanently
fixed on a marked area.
(b) Transect method: A marked tape is used in this method. The tape is marked at
convenient intervals and then stretched across the area to be studied. The plants

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 encountered at the interval marks are counted and recorded. This procedure is
repeated a few times. In this way, a fairly accurate estimate of the number and types
of plants in the habitat are obtained. Plants are usually collected in plastic bags and
then pressed and dried in a plant press. The dried plants are mounted on stiff paper,
fixed in position with masking tape/cellotape and labeled with both the scientific
and common names.
Collection of Animals: Animals are more difficult to collect than plants; however
their presence can be inferred by looking for signs of their presence such as nests,
eggs, feaces, tracks, feathers, etc and by studying the vegetation with which they are
associated. To study animals different types of nets and traps are used in capturing
them. The following methods can be used.
(a) Capture – Recapture method: In this method animals of one type in a particular
area are caught, counted and marked with ink and released. Their number is
recorded as A1. The following day another set is captured and the number
recorded as A2.This second batch may include animals which had been caught
and marked the previous day, their number is recorded as A3. The population of
animals present in the area is found using the formula;
Population in area A1×A2A3
This method is based on the assumptions that;
I. Individuals do not move out of or into the ecosystem
II. The marked individuals are randomly distributed in the population.
III. The marked individuals are a random sample.
IV. The initial capture and markings do not influence recapture.
V. That none of the marks have worn off during the interval between the two
catches.
NB: The results obtained by this method are approximations.
(b) Collection of soil animals with quadrats: The soil animals in an area can be
studied by collecting samples of soil from several sites chosen by tossing a
quadrat randomly. A 25% sodium chloride solution is added to each soil sample
and the animals are collected as they float in the solution.
For earthworms, the sites chosen with the quadrat are irrigated with 25% formalin
solution and the earthworms are collected as they move to the surface of the soil.
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
OBJECTIVE
1. The total number of individuals of the same species in the habitat is called
____ A. Popilation size B. population studies C. population density
2. This refers to how often the species occurs at different sites in its habitat A.
population frequency B. population density C. population sites

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 3. Which of this method of population studies requires a marked tape? A.
Transect method B. sampling method C. population method
THEORY
1. What is ecosystem? B. describe the location and characteristics of any
three biomes in Nigeria
2. Describe how population studies can be conducted in a school garden
READING ASSIGNMENT: Essential biology chapter 8, page 138-141

WEEK FOUR
FUNCTIONING ECOSYSTEM
CONTENT
 Feeding Relationship
 Trophic Levels
 Food Chain and Food Web
 Energy Flow and Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Transformation in Nature
 Laws of Thermodynamics
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
Since all living organisms must obtain energy and nutrients from the environment in
order to remain alive, they are into feeding relationships. This makes an ecosystem a
functional unit. All organisms fall into one of the three major groups of biotic
community, namely: producers (autotrophs), consumer (heterotrophs) and
decomposers
The autotrophs provide food for other organism in the habitat. In terrestrial habitat,
they include grasses, trees and shrubs while aquatic autotrophs include
phytoplankton, seaweeds etc
The heterotrophic include: (i) herbivores (called primary consumers) feeding on
plants, carnivores (called secondary consumers) feeding on primary consumers and
omnivores is other animals called (tertiary consumers) that feed on secondary
consumer or on both. Terrestrial heterotrophs include cow, dog, lion, man etc while
water fleas, tadpoles, larvae of insect and fishes are aquatic heterotrophs
Decomposers like termites, larvae of housefly (maggot), bacteria and fungi break
down dead organic matter to release simple chemical compounds which can be
absorb and use again.
Of all the three biotic groups, consumers have better chance of survival than any
other in an ecosystem.

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 EVALUATION
1. State two examples each of the following in both terrestrial and aquatic
habitat A. Autotrophs B. heterotrophs C. Decomposers.
2. How do the three groups of organisms in one above relate?
TROPHIC LEVELS
In an ecosystem, energy and nutrients are transferred step by step among organisms
along a feeding path way. The feeding pathway in all ecosystems follows a similar
pattern which is as follows:
1. It begins with a producer e.g green plant like grass.
2. The producer is eaten by a primary consumer e.g Zebra , goat.
3. The primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer e.g. lion.
4. Decomposers convert the remains of dead producers and consumers into
simple inorganic substance which return to the non –living environment. The
difference in the feeding pathways within an ecosystem Or between different
ecosystems is the termination of the pathway. Some may end at the primary
consumer step or may go on to secondary consumer, tertiary consumer etc.
5. Trophic (feeding) level: is each step along a feeding pathway. The order in
which the trophic levels are arranged gives the path of energy (food) flow
among the functional groups of organisms. The trophic levels are numbered
in ascending order, starting from one to indicate the path of energy flow.
6. Trophic level 1 always consists of producers or autotrophs, trophic level 2
always consists of primary consumers. Above trophic level 2, consumers
could be carnivores, parasitic organisms and scavengers. The final consumers
eventually die and are fed upon by decomposers.

EVALUATION

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 1. Describe the pattern that feeding pathway follow in all ecosystems.
2. What do you understand by feeding level?
FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB
This is the feeding relationship involving the transfer of energy through food from
producers to consumers in a linear form.
Numerous food chains present in an ecosystem produce a food web.
FOOD WEB: – is a complex feeding relationship among organisms in the same
environment with two or more interrelated food chains. Food webs therefore
contain more organisms than food chains. A single plant could be fed upon by more
than one or two organisms.
In an ecosystem, a consumer has a better chance of survival because it feeds on
different types of plants or animals in a food web.

ENERGY FLOW AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramids are diagrammatic representations used in ecology. They include pyramid
of number, pyramid of energy and pyramid of biomass.
PYRAMID OF NUMBER: this refers to the numbers of individual organisms at each
trophic level, decreasing from the first to the last level in a food chain.

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 Pyramid of number has the following defects: The individual organisms is given the
same status, though they varied greatly in size e. g. grass and trees grouped together
as producer and is not drawn to scale.
PYRAMID OF ENERGY: This is the amount of energy present in the living organisms at
different trophic level of a food chain, which decreases from the first to the last i. e.
from the base of the pyramid to the apex.
PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: Biomass refers to the size and numbers of living organisms.
It represents the total wet or dry mass of the organisms in each trophic level. This
gives a more accurate picture of the relationship between the organisms at various
trophic levels in a food chain than the pyramid of numbers.
ENERGY LOSS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Energy is the ability to do work. All living organisms obtain energy from the food
they eat. The food is produced by green plants and other organisms depend on
them. As energy is passed from one organism to another along the food chain, it is
progressively lost due to respiration (energy used for various metabolic activities)
and as heat. In most ecosystems, only about 1 – 10% of the solar energy may be
available to photosynthetic producers.
EVALUATION
What is a pyramid? State three types of ecological pyramids.
State the similarities between pyramid of numbers and pyramid of energy.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics simply means heat change. Heat as a form of energy that is subject
to change in living organisms is governed by two laws
First law of thermodynamics which states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, although it can be changed from one form to another. E.g. chemical
energy in food is converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in our muscles when
we walk or run.
Second law of thermodynamics which state that in any conversion of energy from
one form to another, there is always a decrease in the amount of useful energy i. e.
no transformation of energy from one state to another is ever 100 percent efficient.
During metabolic activities, some chemical energy is constantly lost as heat energy
from the body of an organism. As energy is converted from one form to another,
there will always be a loss.
FOOD CHAIN AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Using the first law: in a food chain, energy from the sun is transferred from the
producer to the final consumer and the sum total of the energy remains constant.

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 Using the second law: as the energy is transformed from one trophic level to
another, part of it is converted into heat it is lost, among a progressive drop in
energy in successive trophic levels.

PYRAMID OF ENERGY & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

(i) Using the first law: The energy of the producers at the base of the pyramid
is higher and it is gradually transformed to other trophic levels.
(ii) Using the second law: As energy is transferred from one trophic level to
another, part of the energy is converted to heat.
ENERGY FLOW AND LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
(i) Using the first law: Energy flows from producers to 10 consumers, then to
20 consumers and finally to 30 consumers in a food chain. The energy flow in a
food chain is therefore in one direction only.
(ii) Using the Second law: Energy transfer between trophic levels is not 100%.
Successive levels have less useful energy and so can only support fewer organisms.
Produce (green plants) have the highest amount of energy. When herbivores feed

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 on the plants, the energy level is reduced. When carnivores consume the herbivores,
the energy level is reduced.

EVALUATION
State the laws of thermodynamics and explain.
Explain pyramid of energy and food chain using the laws of thermodynamics.
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is a food chain?
2. Explain the role of the following in a food chain (i) Producer (ii) Consumer
(iii) Decomposer.
3. Draw a food chain involving four trophic levels in a marine habitat.
B. Explain (i) the flow of energy through the food chain drawn in 3C
(ii) how energy in the chain is lost to the environment.
READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology chapter 23, page 544 – 551
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
The ultimate source of energy in nature is A. green plants B. moon C. star D.
sun
The usable form of energy in animals is A. chemical energy B. kinetic energy
C. potential energy D. ATP
Available to photosynthetic plants is ________ of the solar energy. A. 1-5% B. 2-
5% C. 5-15% D. 1-10%
The study of the relationship between heat energy and other forms of energy is
called_____________. A. thermodynamics B. thermocouple C. thermosetting D. all
of the above
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be changed from one form
to another This refers to the A. first law of thermodynamics B. second law of
thermodynamics C. third law of thermodynamics D. none of the above
THEORY
State the first and second law of thermodynamics.
In a tabular format, state four differences between food chain and food web.

WEEK FIVE

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 TOPIC: ENERGY LOSS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
CONTENT
 Solar energy
 Energy transformation in nature
 Laws of thermodynamics
You remember that energy exists in various forms, and various forms are
interconvertible and as such one form of energy can be transformed into one
another form. In nature, energy transformations are brought about by living
organisms. Their activities cause energy to flow through ecosystems unidirectionally.
Now, how does energy get lost in the ecosystem?
Solar Energy
Only about 2% of solar energy is used by green plants while the rest is lost to the
earth’s surface. Thus, energy is a limited factor in the production of autotrophs.
Energy Transformation in Nature
When primary consumer, the herbivores feed on the producers, the green plants,
the secondary consumers, the carnivores in turn feed on the herbivores; the energy
transferring efficiency in each stage is about 5-20% while the rest is lost to the
atmosphere.
Energy Laws
Energy transformations in nature are governed by the laws of thermodynamics.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
This states that when one form of energy is converted into another, the total
quantity of energy is constant (there is no net loss or gain in energy) that is to say
that energy is neither created nor destroyed. Hence, in the process of burning,
chemical energy of wood changes into heat and light. In a motor vehicle, energy in
the form of fuel changes into mechanical energy. So, energy can only be converted
from one form to the other.
Second Law Of Thermodynamics
The law states that when one form of energy is converted into another, a proportion
of it is converted into heat. The second law of thermodynamics is sometimes known
as the entropy law; entropy being a measure of disorder in terms of unavailable
energy in a closed thermodynamic system.
How the Laws are Used to Explain Energy Flow Across the Trophic Levels
Pyramid of Energy
According to the first law, energy is transferred into a variety of other forms in the
successive trophic level but the sum total is constant.

18
 Using the second law, we observe that during energy transformation in the
successive trophic levels, a proportion of it is converted into heat which is lost,
hence the progressive drop in energy in successive trophic levels and also the
pyramidal shape of feeding relationship.
Food Chain
In accordance with first law, chemical energy stored in plants, can be converted into
light energy in glow-worm which in turn is converted into electrical energy in fire-fly
and when eaten by man, it is converted into mechanical energy in muscular
contraction without any loss or gain.

The second law shows that when energy flows through a food chain, only a small
proportion of the energy taken up by each link is transferred to the next step. This is
because at each transfer, most of the energy is lost as heat.
According to the second law:
In the flow of energy from herbivore to carnivore, there is loss of usable energy. This
loss of energy means that les life can be maintained at highest trophic level.

19
 The energy travels from one organism to another with a loss of energy each time it
enters another organism. The various organisms represent trophic levels or stages of
energy flow.

WEEK SIX
TOPIC: BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
CONTENT
• Biological Association
• Tolerance
• Tolerance Range
• Geographic Range

20
 Biological Association
In a community, there exist different kinds of biological associations between
organisms of different species. Some of these biological associations are beneficial,
some are neutral while others are harmful.
Types of Associations
Symbiosis
Definition: This is a close association between two organisms in which one or both of
them benefit from each other. Symbiosis is a beneficial association and each
member is called a symbiont. This association can be further divided into
1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism
Mutualism
Mutualism is the association between two organisms in which both of them benefit
from each other.
Examples of mutualism include: Algae and fungi in lichen; Protozoa in the intestine
of termites; Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of leguminous plants;
Bacteria in the rumen of ruminants.

Evaluation
1. Mention five different types of biological associations.
2. What is mutualism?
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms of different species, in
which one (comensal) benefits while the other (host) neither gains nor loses.
Examples of Commensalism
Remora fish and the shark, oyster and crab, man and intestinal bacteria
Parasitism
Parasitism is a close association between two organisms in which one, known as the
parasite, lives in or on the body of another; the host, deriving benefits from and
causing harm to it while the host loses in the process. The parasite benefits from the
association while the host usually suffers harm or may die.
Examples of Parasitism
Man and the tapeworm: Mistletoe and flowering plant:
Competition

21
 Competition involves the interactions among two organisms of the same or different
species in which one outgrows the other and survives.
Competition is often based on limited environmental resources which can be in
short supply such as food, water, nutrients, gases, light and space. During
competition, one organism controls one or more of these resources which enable it
to grow and survive while the other neither grow nor survive leading to its
elimination.
When the competition is between members of the same species, it is called intra-
specific competition while it is called inter-specific competition if it is between
members of different species.
Examples of Competitive Associations the (a) Flowering plants and grasses: flowering
plants due to its size and numerous branches and leaves are capable of eliminating
the grasses by depriving the grasses of nutrients, space and sunlight. The grasses
may eventually be eliminated.

Predation
Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator kills
the other, called the prey and directly feeds on it. The predator which is usually
larger in size and always stronger than the prey benefits by deriving its food while
the prey is completely eliminated.
Examples of Predation
The hawk and chicks of domestic fowls, the leopard and antelope, the lion and
gazelle

Evaluation
1. What is commensalism?
2. Differentiate between parasitism and symbiosis.
Tolerance
Tolerance is the ability of living organisms to withstand a little unfavorable change in
the environment which affect there survival. Abiotic factors play important role in
the distribution of living organisms in the various terrestrial and aquatic habitats of
the world. Some of these factors include temperature, rainfall (availability of
moisture),light intensity salinity and edaphic factors. Each of these factors occurs
over a range in the various habitats.
Tolerance Range

22
 Tolerance range is the range between the minimum and maximum limits to which
organisms can tolerate certain changes in their environment so as to survive.
Organisms can only live within certain minimum and maximum limits for each
abiotic factors. The range between the upper and lower limits is known as the
tolerance range for the factors. For example, for most animals, the minimum
temperature limit is 0c while the maximum limit is 42cDeath occurs beyond this
range.
Geographic Range
It refers to the areas where a species of organism can only be found within the
minimum and maximum limits of its tolerance. For example, the geographic range of
the tropical rainforest is within the equator as a result of high rainfall and
temperatures, whereas tropical rainforest cannot be found at the Northern and
Southern poles because of low rainfall and temperature.

General Evaluation
1. Define tolerance.
2. Differentiate between a parasite and a commensal.
3. State the two forms of parasitism.
4. What is tolerance range?
5. Explain Geographic Range.
Weekend Assignment
1. Lichen are made up of two organisms, they are A. algae and fungi B. algae and
bacteria C. fungi and bacteria D. protozoa and algae.
2. Bacteria in the rumen of ruminants is an association called A. symbiosis B.
parasitism C. predation D. competition.
3. The minimum temperature limit for most animals is A. 0oC B. -10oC C. 5oC D. -
10oC.
4. The following abiotic factors are responsible for geographical boundaries except
A. Light intensity B. Rainfall C. Temperature D. Competition.
5. An example of a plant parasite is A. venus B. mistletoe C. cactus D. xerophite
Theory
1. Define a) mutualism b) commensalism c) predation
2. Give example each of the following above.
Reading Assignment: College Biology by idodo Umeh. Chapter 23, page 556-558

WEEK SEVEN

23
 TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING
CONTENT
 Definition
 Carbon Cycle
 Process of Cycling
 Importance of Carbon
 Carbon-oxygen balance
Nutrient cycling refers to the movement of certain nutrients like nitrogen, carbon,
water, oxygen and other elements from the environment into various organisms and
back into the environment. The path along which the atoms or elements pass is
called a cycle. The popular well known nutrients cycles are nitrogen cycle, carbon
cycle, water cycle and decomposition in nature.

Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle is the cycle of carbon usage by which energy flows through Earth’s
ecosystem. The basic cycle begins when photosynthesizing plants use carbon dioxide
(CO2) found in the atmosphere or dissolved in water.

The atmosphere gains carbon dioxide through:

1. Combustion of organic materials such as coal, wood and petroleum
2. The action of volcanoes which releases carbon dioxide
3. The respiration by plant and animals
4. The death, decay and putrefaction of plants and animals
5. Diffusion of carbon dioxide from seas and other bodies of water acting as
reservoir of carbon dioxide
15 Carbon Cycle ideas | carbon cycle, carbon, photosynthesis
Water cycle
Evaluation
1. Define carbon cycle.
2. Mention three ways atmosphere gain carbon dioxide.
Importance of Carbon in Nature
1. Plant uses carbon dioxide obtained from the air to manufacture their food
during photosynthesis.
2. It provides carbon which is the major building block of all organic matter.
3. It helps to purify the atmosphere and maintain atmospheric level of carbon
dioxide

24
 4. Organic matter which is made from carbon helps to replenish soil nutrient.
CARBON-OXYGEN BALANCE
Oxygen constitutes 21% of the gases in the atmosphere. Respiration, decay and
combustion are the processes which remove oxygen from the atmosphere while
photosynthesis is the process that releases oxygen into the atmosphere. Human
activities such as deforestation lead to the release of less oxygen into the
atmosphere while less carbon dioxide is removed from atmosphere. Increase in the
combustion of fuel, respiration and decay leads to the removal of more oxygen from
the atmosphere while more carbon dioxide is added As a result of the activities
mentioned above, oxygen level in the atmosphere decreases while carbon dioxide
level increases. A decrease in the atmospheric oxygen level by 2-8% do not cause
any significant effect but a slight increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide may
cause green house effect, i.e., increase in-the retention of the sun’s radiant (heat)
energy. This result in the warming of the atmosphere of the earth. So to prevent
this, there is the need to balance the carbon-oxygen level in the atmosphere.

EVALUATION
1. What is the importance of carbon?
2. Explain carbon-oxygen balance.
Water Cycle.
Definition: Water cycle is the continuous movement of water from the earth to the
atmosphere by evaporation, transpiration and perspiration and back from the
atmosphere to the earth by precipitation.
Process of Water Cycling in Nature
The solar energy causes water to evaporate from the hydrosphere into the
atmosphere. When the water vapour cools, it condenses. At high altitude, the
condensed water form clouds. The clouds precipitate as rain returning to the
hydrosphere.

Evaluation
1. Define water cycle.
2. State the major processes that bring about water cycle.
Water Cycle | Water cycle project, Water cycle diagram, Water cycle activities
Water cycle
Importance of Water to plants

25
 Water is very important to living organisms, both plants and animals, in number of
ways:
1. Water provides the medium for absorption of dissolved mineral salts by
plants.
2. Water is an essential raw material in the process of photosynthesis.
3. It acts as a medium of transport for plants nutrients.
4. It maintains osmotic content of body tissues.
5. Water is the main component of plant protoplasm.
6. Water is required for germination.
7. Importance of Water to animal
8. It acts as a solvent for soluble food substances in digestion of food.
9. It constitutes a large portion of the blood.
10. Water aids excretion-of waste products by animals.
11. Water regulates body temperature.
12. Water provides a natural habit for aquatic organisms.
General Evaluation
1. Mention three processes that involve carbon.
2. Mention three importance of water to animals.
3. Explain the following terms: Hypertonic, Hypotonic and Isotonic solution.
4. Outline the process of water cycle in nature.
5. List the constituents of air in nature.

Reading Assignment
College Biology by Idodo Umeh. Chapter 23, page 553-555

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which of the following processes removes water from the water cycle? (a)
Condensation (b) Perspiration (c) Photosynthesis (d) Transpiration.
2. What type of energy causes water to evaporate from the hydrosphere (a)
mechanical energy (b) chemical energy (c) solar energy (d) hydro-electric power.
3. Water is returned to the atmosphere from animals through the following
processes except (a) excretion (b) respiration (c) condensation (d) perspiration.
4. When organisms die, water returns to the atmosphere by (a) decay (b) sweating
(c) respiration (d) condensation.
5. Atmosphere gains carbon through the following processes except (a)
Photosynthesis (b) Decay (c) Respiration (d) Volcano
THEORY
1. Water is essential for living organism, discuss.

26
 2. Describe the process of carbon cycling in nature.

WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: NITROGEN CYCLE
CONTENT
 Definition
 Process of cycling
 Importance of Nitrogen
 Decomposition in nature
 Types of decomposers (Micro and Macro decomposers)
 Roles of decomposers
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is an abundant element in the atmosphere. It is an essential constituent of
proteins, a group of substances found in all living cells. About 78% of air is composed
of gaseous nitrogen. Plants cannot incorporate nitrogen gas into organic compound
and therefore depend on various types of bacteria to make nitrogen available for
them in a global cycle called the nitrogen cycle. In nature, nitrogen is constantly
being removed from the soil and returned to it via the nitrogen cycle.

27
 Conversion of Gaseous Nitrogen into Nitrogenous Compounds
Gaseous nitrogen is converted into nitrates in the following ways
The action of thunderstorms
Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms
During thunderstorms, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitric oxide. The nitric
oxide is oxidized to nitrogen peroxide which dissolves in rainwater to form nitric
nitrous acids. When these acids enter the soil, they combine with mineral salts to
form nitrates. The nitrates then dissolve in soil water and are absorbed by the
plants. These nitrates are converted into plant proteins and become part of the
plant body (assimilated). The organisms capable of splitting the nitrogen molecule
and use it to form nitrites or nitrates is known as nitrogen fixation. Some
microorganisms are able to change gaseous nitrogen directly into proteins.
Types of Nitrogen-
1. fixing Microorganism
2. Free living organism.
3. Symbiotic organism.

28
 Azotobacter and Clostridium are free living bacteria. They are able to absorb
nitrogen from the atmosphere and change it into amino compounds and proteins.
Energy needed for these processes is obtained from the breakdown of
carbohydrates in humus. Symbiotic bacteria like the Rhizobium which are found in
the root nodules of leguminous plants use gaseous nitrogen to manufacture amino
compounds and proteins which they share with the host plants. These bacteria get
the energy needed for nitrogen fixation from the breakdown of carbohydrates in the
host’s tissues. When the host plants die, the amino compounds and proteins in the
root nodules are converted to soil nitrates.
Evaluation
1. What is nitrogen cycle?
2. Explain the types of nitrogen fixation.
Putrefaction: Plants are the food producers in nature; animals feed on plants and
convert plant proteins; to animal proteins. When these animals are eaten by
carnivorous animals, more animal proteins are formed. Proteins are decomposed
through amino acids to ammonia when an organism dies. The nitrogen that is
trapped in the bodies of all these living organisms re-enter the nitrogen cycle
through putrefaction or decay. When living organisms die, they decay and the
excretory product also decays.
Ammonification: The putrefying bacteria and fungi are responsible for decay. These
saprophytic organisms convert plant and animal materials into simple substances
like carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia. This breakdown of protein into ammonia
is known ammonification.
Nitrification: Animal wastes and excreta are decomposed and the chemosynthetic
bacteria then oxidize ammonia to nitrites and the nitrites are converted to nitrates
by nitrifying bacteria. This process is called nitrification.
Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria in the soil convert nitrates into gaseous
nitrogen which escapes into the atmosphere. This reduces the nitrogen content and
fertility of the soil.
Evaluation
1. What is nitrification?
2. Explain denitrification.
Decomposition in Nature
Decomposition is the process by which organisms, mainly bacteria and saprophytes
break down dead organic materials which could be of plant or animal origin.

29
 Types of Decomposers
1. Micro decomposers: These are small or microscopic organisms that can cause
decay e.g. certain bacteria and fungi.
2. Macro decomposers: These are bigger organisms that can cause decay of dead
organic materials e.g. earthworms, termites, snails, mushroom, toad stools, etc.
Nitrogen cycle vector illustration. Labeled N2 process biogeochemical explanation.
Educational diagram with denitrific… in 2021 | Nitrogen cycle, Science for kids,
Nitrogen
Nitrogen cycle
Process of Decomposition
The decomposers secrete enzymes onto their food source such as a decaying dead
organisms. These enzymes break down complex organic compounds (food) like
carbohydrates into simple soluble inorganic Compounds. A lot of the chemical
energy in the compounds Is lost as unstable heat energy. The decomposers only
absorb a small amount of nutrients and energy for their use. The rest is released into
the soil, air and water. When decomposers die, other decomposers feed on them,
the nutrient released are used by plants to manufacture their food. Products
released during decomposition are gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia and water vapour. Others are heat energy and nutrients such as nitrates,
sulphates, phosphate, ions, etc.
Role of Decomposers

30
 1. They enrich the soil with nutrients required for plant growth.
2. They contribute to environmental pollution.
3. Decomposition is useful in the making of cheese and yoghurt.
4. They allow the ecosystem to function by enabling the recycling of nutrients.
5. They also prevent an unsightly accumulation of remains and wastes of living
organisms on earth surface.
General Evaluation
1. Write on the two types of decomposers.
2. State the roles of decomposers.
3. What is autotrophic nutrition?
4. List the two modes of autotrophic nutrition.
5. Differentiate between the two modes listed above.

Reading Assignment
Essential Biology by M.C. MICHAEL Chapter 9, page 155-158

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Legumes incorporate nitrogen gas into their proteins because (a). of the
presence of Azotobacter in their roots (b) they posses root nodules containing
Rhizobium (c) they have a well developed root system (d) they are autotrophic.
2. Thunderstorm can be beneficial to plants because (a) it kills the pest that attacks
crops (b) it destroys some of the major crops (c) it adds nitrate to the soil (d) it
makes rain water available to plants.
3. Which of the following is responsible for the conversion of nitrites to nitrates?(a)
Denitrifying bacteria (b) Nitrifying bacteria (c) Lightening (d) Fungi.
4. Which of the folloowing is a nitrifying bacterium? (a) Nitrobacter (b) Rhizobium
(c) Azotobacter (d) Nitrosomonas.
5. Bacteria inhabiting legume root nodules and which add atmospheric nitrogen to
the soil are referred to as (a) denitrifying bacteria (b) nitrifying bacteria (c)
nitrogen-fixing bacteria (d) nitrogen putrefying bacteria.
THEORY
Explain the types of nitrogen fixing mechanisms.
Explain the following a. Nitrification b. Ammonification.

31
 WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: ADAPTATION
CONTENT
 Definition of adaptation
 Animal adaptation
 Plants adaptation
 Special adaptive features of some organisms
Definition of adaptation
Adaptation is a change in an organism that make it to adjust or survive in its environment. The
various animals of the same species try to specialize using their structure and function to
survive in a new environment. This is called adaptive radiation. For instance, fish use fins to
move in water but terrestrial organisms such as lizard develop limbs to move on land. Toad that
live a dual life both in water and on land limbs for hopping on land. It develops web digits for
swimming in water and limbs for hopping on land.

Animals living in the extreme cold have dense fur and fat for heat insulation

32
Adaptation Meaning
The meaning of adaptation implies how a species changes its body and behaviour to better suit its
natural environment. There are an estimated 8.7 million species currently living on earth. They are
found across a wide and diverse natural environment, ranging from frozen and desolate Arctics to
the sweltering sands of the Sahara.

The natural environment is an ever-changing feature of planet earth. The process of adaptation
ensures that the species which adapts the most, survive.

Examples of Adaptation
In Humans:
Long hours of exposure to the sun results in a tan. As the exposure to heat and UV rays increases,
the melanocytes present in the skin ramp up the production of melanin.

This pigment helps to absorb the heat and protects the nucleus, thus protecting the DNA from
mutation due to UV radiation. Hence, the process of tanning represents how our body adapts to the
heat and UV radiation from the sun.

Example 2: In high-altitude environments, the human body signals an increase in the production
of red blood cells. This is done to compensate for the relatively low-oxygen content in the air.

But this is not an instantaneous process, hence, people who are not acclimatized to the high altitude
environment might feel a shortness of breath.

In Animals:
Animals living in extremely cold environments have thick fur and fat around their body to provide
insulation. Pregnant polar bears bulk up on fat before the winter. This is an adaptation that helps
them survive the harsh winter where food is very scarce.

Sometimes, adaption is often mistaken for evolution, though both are very different processes.
Evolution brings about drastic changes that occur in the genetic level, whereas adaptation is a short-
term process where the changes that occur are usually reversible.

But adaptation does lead to evolution. Following is an example illustrating how evolution is different
from adaptation.

Example of Evolution
Giraffe
Giraffes are the tallest land mammals today, but they weren’t so tall a few million years ago. During
the Miocene Epoch, nearly 25 million years ago, the earliest giraffe ancestor was the size of a
modern red deer. It did not have a long neck, nor long legs like its modern-day relatives.

33
However, the competition for food with other herbivores was rather stiff. However, the leaves in the
taller shrubs and trees was an untapped niche. But only the animals with longer necks were able to
graze on the foliage higher up in the trees.

So, traits that contained the genes for longer necks were passed down over many generations.
Eventually, this adaptation led to the gradual evolution of animals with longer necks. 25 million years
later, we have the tallest land animal on earth today – the giraffe.

Types of Adaptations
Types of adaptations in animals and plants are categorized according to their function and the
response observed. These include:

Structural Adaptations
These are special attributes that involve some parts of an organism’s body, such as skin, colour and
shape. These adaptations help the organisms to survive in their natural habitat. Examples include
the blubber of a whale, the beak of a woodpecker, baleen of a humpback whale.

Physiological Adaptations
These are mechanisms present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical reactions
to survive in its natural habitat. Example: A snake’s ability to produce venom, mammal’s ability to
maintain constant body temperature. Even the ability of our body to produce hydrochloric acid to
digest food is considered as a physiological adaptation.

Behavioural Adaptations
These are ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat. Migration of animals
and birds are considered as a behavioural adaptation. Hibernation and aestivation are also
behavioural adaptations.

Animal Adaptations
The most significant animal adaptations entirely depend on the type of habitats they are found in.
The earth has several natural environments that are spread across large geographic areas. In the
broadest sense, this area, where life exists, is called the biosphere.

Animal Adaptations In Deserts

The desert has extreme temperature fluctuations – soaring heat during the day and sub-zero
temperatures at night. It also has very limited water bodies and rain is rather scarce. But there are
many animals that are well-adapted to life in the desert.

34
Camels, jackrabbits, foxes, snakes, insects are some of the predominant xerocoles or desert
animals. However, these animals in the desert have to face many major challenges, from water
conversation to avoiding excess heat.

Various Desert Animal Adaptations:

Conservation of water through reduced sweating

Camels are able to withstand ambient temperatures of 44℃ without sweating. Cold-blooded animals
entirely lack sweat glands as they rely on the external environment to regulate body temperature.

Adaption to nocturnal life

The average daytime temperatures in the desert often exceed more than 38°C. Nocturnal lifestyle
helps to cut down the loss of water, especially in desert biomes. It also enhances osmoregulation.
Some animals become active during twilight hours, i.e., during dawn and dusk. Such animals are
called crepuscular animals.

Specialized Mode of Excretion

Birds and reptiles in the desert retain water as their metabolic wastes are excreted in the form of an
insoluble white compound called uric acid. When compared to mammals, the metabolic wastes are
excreted through urea, a considerably more soluble compound.

Other Sources of Water

Natural sources of water, such as lakes and river are almost non-existent or are seasonal. So,
animals derive water from desert plants such as cactus. Some insects also tap fluids such as saps
and nectars from various parts of the plants.

Specialized Appendages

Animals like the jackrabbit have very large ears that have a network of blood vessels. When these
animals rest in the shade, their enormous ears dissipate the excess heat from their bodies.

Animal Adaptations In Grassland

Grasslands are areas where the dominant vegetation is grasses. Grasslands are found throughout
the world except for Antarctica. The largest grasslands are found in East Africa. One of the
characteristic features of grasslands is its wide-open spaces.

This means the average speed of animals is much higher – for predators and prey. Therefore, it is
no surprise that two of the fastest land animals in the world are found in grasslands – the cheetah
(top speed: 113 km) and the pronghorn antelope (top speed: 98 km)

Few of the Grassland Animals Adaptations

Specialized Digestive systems

Animals that live in the grasslands like the bison have specialized teeth and digestive systems that
help in breaking down the tough grass.

35
Camouflage

Predators that ambush their prey have skin colours that closely resemble their environment. This
enables them to blend in and sneak up to their prey.

Feeding Habits

Grasslands near the equator have relatively high ambient temperatures. Hence, some herbivores
such as antelopes graze at night, as this is when the vegetation has the most water content. The
same can be said for some nocturnal predators too, as they can prevent unnecessary water loss.

Also Read: Mammalia – Diversity in Living Organisms

Animal Adaptations In Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforests are generally hot and humid as it is located near the equator. The average
temperature is higher than 15 °C even in the winter and crosses 40 °C in summer. Rainfall is also
plenty, with average annual precipitation between 60 inches to 160 inches.

There are also extremes, with some places receiving over 400 inches annually. Tropical rainforests
are found in India, Brazil, Central America. The largest tropical rainforests are found in the Amazon
River Basin in South America.

Significant Tropical Rainforest Animal Adaptations

Camouflage:

This is an important aspect in almost all biomes, including the animals that live in the tropical
rainforests. Primarily, animals need camouflage for either predation or to avoid becoming the prey.

The Green-Eyed Tree frog has textured flaps of skin that is designed to resemble the tree barks on
which it resides. This adaptation helps the frog to blend in and not become prey.

Mimicry:

Sometimes, having a good camouflage is not enough. So, some animals resort to mimicry, where
they change their physical appearance to mimic other animals, which are usually poisonous or
venomous.

This reduces the chances of becoming prey for other predators. The Margin-winged stick insect
(Ctenomorpha marginipennis) does mimicry so well that it resembles a piece of twig or a dried-up
stalk.

Animal Adaptations In Polar Regions

The polar regions represent extreme weather conditions and inhospitable environments. Polar
regions include the north and south poles, countries such as Sweden, Iceland, Norway. These
regions are usually covered in snow almost the entire year.

Average winter temperatures reach as low as -37 °C. Furthermore, the sun does not set for over 6
months and for the next 6 months, it does not rise at the poles.

36
Prominent Polar Region Animal Adaptations
Dense Fur:

This is an important adaptation as it protects the organisms from the extreme cold. Animals such as
polar bears have fur even covering the soles of their feet. This prevents them from slipping on the
ice.

Sometimes, the white colour of the fur helps to camouflage the animal against the background of the
snow. This helps in predation or not becoming prey.

Blubber:

In some sea mammals such as whales and seals, a thick layer of fat covers the entire body, except
for the fins and flippers. This layer provides insulation from the bitter cold and also aids in buoyancy.

They can also fall back on this fat as a food resource when there is no food available in the
environment or during periods of inactivity (such as hibernation). Moreover, research has found that
blubber is much more effective at retaining heat than fur.

Adaptations of Plants
Earth is known to have around 3,00,000 species of plants. Like animals, plant life is also dependent
on various fundamental necessities for their survival. Light, water, air, soil, nutrients and suitable
climatic conditions are necessary for growth.

But every habitat does not provide the required necessities. Therefore, plants have evolved certain
physiological, behavioural and structural modifications to thrive in such environments.

Adaptations of Plants In Deserts

Deserts are too dry and hot to imagine life in them. Despite these arid conditions, few plants have
adapted to thrive here.

37
 The spines on cacti help prevent excessive loss of water
 Succulents are such plants which can store water in their modified stems and leaves
 The spines on cacti also help prevent excess water loss
 Some plants have long, deep roots which can absorb water from the ground
 Other plants grow short to save energy
 Another form of adaptation is dormancy, few seeds remain dormant until they get the water
needed for growth

Adaptations of Plants In Tropical Rainforests

Tropical forests are usually packed with big and tall trees. These tall trees often provide stiff
competition for small shrubs and herbs. Tall trees block the sunlight from reaching the ground. They
are also known to absorb the nutrients from the soil.

Some plants climb the branches of taller trees to get sunlight

38
  In such conditions, ground level plants start flowering during the spring season. This is
because, during autumn, other trees shed their leaves, which means more sunlight reaches
the forest floor.
 Other species of ground-level plants are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in low light.

Adaptation in Aquatic Plants

Plants which live in water ecosystem like lakes, rivers, ponds, bogs etc. face many problems. The
most common are low oxygen content, low light intensity, lack of soil, and nutrients.

Aquatic plants have their roots underwater, but the upper half partially emerges from the water to
enable photosynthesis
 Some of these issues are resolved by floating in water streams. Aquatic plants develop in a
way such that their roots are in the water, but the upper half partially emerges from the
surface of the water for efficient photosynthesis.
 Food, nutrients, and air are absorbed through modified stems and roots.

Adaptations of Plants In Polar Regions

Polar regions include one of the coldest regions on earth. And the vegetation found here is quite
sparse. Sedges, dwarf shrubs, grasses and certain mosses and lichens are some plant species
found in these terrains. The special features of these plants include short stature (not more than 12
inches), hairy parts, darker colour etc.

39
Only plants with shallow roots grow in the tundra because the deep layers of permanently frozen ice
prevent the roots from breaking through the permafrost
Sometimes, trees hold on to dead leaves for insulation. However, larger plants such as trees as
uncommon as the roots cannot penetrate deeply because of the permafrost.

Adaptations of Plants against Herbivory

Herbivory is the consumption of plant matter by any organism. Since plants are the primary
producers in an ecosystem, nearly all consumers depend on them for sustenance. Therefore, to
prevent herbivory, plants developed thorns, spines and chemicals.

Plants employ spines, thorns or toxins to deter herbivores

Thorns are the most common form of deterrent. Other plants might use chemicals to leave an
unpleasant taste in the mouths of the herbivores. But some of these chemicals are very toxic and
might result in the death if consumed.

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Habitat
A biome is a place where a plant or animal lives. Biome also is known as a habitat, a part of an
ecosystem. The climate, plants, and animals are the identities of a habitat. Habitats are classified
into two domains: Terrestrial/ Land habitat and Aquatic/Water habitat.

A habitat is the natural environment of an organism

Land habitat includes forests, grasslands, deserts, coastal and mountain regions. The aquatic
ecosystem includes freshwater habitats (lakes, ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands, swamp, etc)
and marine habitats (oceans, intertidal zone, reefs, seabed, etc.).

Living organisms sustaining on different habitats depend on that habitat for their food, shelter,
reproduction and all other life activities.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

OBJECTIVE

1. A place where an organism or group of organisms live and obtain food, air, water, shelter or
space, or light needed to survive is called _________________________.

A. A habitat B. A metamorphosis C. An adaptation D. Locomotion

2. A color or pattern that allows an animal to blend into its environment is called
_____________________.

A. Migration B. A behavioral adaptation C. Metamorphosis D. Camouflage

3. One advantage to camouflage is that it allows the animal to more easily sneak up on its prey.

A. True B. False

4. Food chains contain three types of organisms. Which one is NOT part of the food chain?

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A. Producers B. Carpenters C. Consumers D. Decomposers

5. Which is NOT an example of locomotion?

A. Swinging on vines B. Migration C. Hopping D. Crawling

THEORY

1. Define the following A. tolerance B. Tolerance range C. geographic range

2. Discuss the special adaptation of tilapia fish for movement

Reading assignment: Essential Biology chapter 25, page 327-331

WEEK NINE
TOPIC: POLLUTION
CONTENT
• Definition of Pollution
• Air Pollution
• Noise Pollution
• Land Pollution
• Water Pollution

POLLUTION
Definition: Pollution is defined as the release of toxic or harmful substances into the
environment by their natural forces or man and other animals to an extent that causes
biological damage to man and his resources. In other words, pollution is the release of harmful
substances into the environment, i.e., water, air and land in quantities or to the level that are
harmful to man, animals and plants.
The harmful substances that cause pollution in the environment are called pollutants.
There are four main types of pollution. These are

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(a)Air pollution
(b)Noise pollution
(c) Land pollution
( d) Water pollution
The major air pollutants, their sources, harmful effects and their control
Air Pollutants Sources Effects
Carbon monoxide Burning of fuel in cars Other combustion engines and some
industrial processes It causes suffocation because it combine with haemoglobin and reduces
its ability To carry oxygen which results in death.
Sulphur dioxide Burning from vehicle’s exhaust, Coal mining and cement factory It
causes impaired health such as the
Irritation of eyes, lungs and other respiratory tract diseases. It can cause acid rain.
Nitrogen oxides Electrical discharge in air and Industrial processes It forms nitric acid
with water in air form acid rain which corrodes metallic objects. It irritates the skin and
respiratory system.
Smoke and soots Burning of substances from industries, machines and coal into the air.
Particles can damage lungs and cause discomfort. Soot can cover the leaves of plant thereby
reducing photosynthesis. Smoke reduces visibility. It makes buildings black.
Dust particles
Mining, quarries, machines and industrial processes It irritates respiratory system
and cause respiratory diseases such as catarrh and cough.
It reduces visibility. Pollen grains containing dust can affect the lungs resulting in
asthma.

Control of Air Pollution

I. Conditions must be created for complete combustion of fuel in internal
combustion engines.
II. Chemical waste should be discharged into the air through fumes chambers.
III. Industries should be sited far away from residential areas.
IV. There should be provision of filters or absorbers to be worn around mining
and industrial areas so as to reduce pollution from waste gases.
V. Legislation should be made against indiscriminate burning that may bring
about smoke.

Evaluation
1. What is environmental pollution?

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 2. Mention five sources of air pollution.
Noise pollution
Noise Sources include
I. Factory or industrial noise.
II. Airplane or aviation noise.
III. Rail way engine noise.
IV. Car horns and sirens.
V. High pitched musical sound from loud speakers.
VI. Noise from heavy guns or cannon shots.
VII. Thunder noise.
VIII. Noise from generators.
Effects of Noise Pollution
I. It causes loss of hearing or deafness.
II. Noise can cause emotional disorder, anxiety.
III. Or lack of concentration.
IV. Noise can also cause high blood pressure or hypertension.
V. It causes gene;ral irritation or short temperedness.
VI. It can also cause changes in behaviour.
Control of Noise
i. There should be reduction of noise from loud speakers and sirens.
ii. Legislation should be made against the use of loudspeakers in public
places
iii. Installation of soundproof in industries.
iv. Heavy guns must be banned.
v. Railways and airports should be sited far away from residential areas.
Land Pollutants Sources Effects
(1) Refuse Home, offices, industries and markets (i) It causes offensive odour when
the decay.
(2) Sewage Homes and offices (i) It can cause respiratory disorder.
(ii) It results in offensive odour.
(iii) It serves as breeding ground for disease causing organisms.
(3) Metal Scraps Abandoned vehicles and machines (i) It occupies land space
(ii) It prevents proper land us.
(4) Pesticides and fertilizes Pesticides sprayed on crops and fertilizers used in soils (i)
They destroy useful soil organisms.
(ii). Excess fertilizers can cause soil acidity.

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 (iii). It can cause the death of aquatic organisms, e.g. fishes
(5) Chemicals, eg. Toxic waste Chemical waste from industries (i) These are
poisonous to plants and animals
(6) Glass particles Glass manufacturing or industries using bottles (i) It can cause
injury to human skin or body
(ii). It does not decay hence it prevents proper land use.
(7) Crude oil (Oil spillage) Oil drilling, loading or unloading of oil tankers (i) It
destroys soil and renders it infertile.
(ii). It destroys plants and animals’ life in water.
Control of Land Pollution
I. Refuse should be burnt in incinerators.
II. Urban wastes should be properly burnt or buried
III. Metal scraps, tin cans, bottles, motor vehicle parts and other related
materials should be recycled.
IV. Pesticides and fertilizers should be applied as instructed.
V. Legislation should be made against dumping of harmful wastes.
VI. Proper treatment of sewage before disposal.
VII. Proper maintenance and checking of oil pipelines.

Evaluation
1. Mention five common land pollutants.
2. Suggest ways of controlling the pollutants mentioned
Water Pollutants Sources Effects
(1) Sewage City sewage system (i). It supports the growth of pathogens that can
cause diseases, eg. Cholera.
(ii). It make water unfit for human consumption.
(iii). It can kill aquatic organisms.
(iv). It produces unpleasant odours.
(2) Pesticides and Fertilizers Washed by erosion from farms to rivers, streams or
ponds (i) It makes water unfit for human consumption.
(ii). It leads to rapid vegetative growth of water plants which makes fishing and
movement impossible, eg. Algae bloom.
(iii). It can destroy aquatic organisms, eg. Fish and sea birds.
(3) Chemical Wastes Industries and ships at harbours (i). It can kill aquatic
organisms.

45
 (ii). It makes water unfit for human consumption.
(iii). It can accumulate in human body and become toxic later, eg. Lead and mercury.
(4) Excreta or faeces Humans and animals (i). It produces unpleasant odour
(ii). It serves as a medium for the breeding of pathogens
(5). Crude oil (Oil spillage) Oil drilling, loading and unloading of oil tankers (i) It
destroys aquatic plants and animals.
(ii). It makes water unfit for human consumption.
(iii). Food chain is affected.
(iv). It leads to migration of animals.
Control of Water Pollution
(I) There should be efficient and proper sewage disposal system.
(ii) Dumping of refuse or petro-chemical byproducts into rivers, streams or seas
should be avoided.
(iii) There should be efficient techniques to deal with or prevent oil spillage.
(iv) Industries should be sited far away from residential areas.
(v) Government or local authorities should strictly monitor all industrial wastes.
(vi) There should be public enlightenment on waste disposal.
(vii) Industrial effluents should be recycled.
Methods of Purifying Water
Methods involved in purifying water include: (i) Boiling (ii) Addition of chemicals, e.g.
alum or chlorine (iii) Filtration (iv) Distillation (v) Sterilization using UV light (vi)
Boiling (vii) Sedimentation.
General Evaluation
1. Define the term pollution.
2. State four types of pollution.
3. Mention three air and noise pollution.
4. State the effect of air and land pollution.
5. What is sewage?
Weekend Assignment
1. The unfavorable alteration of environment due to the addition of impurities
is A. pollution B. pollutant C. global warming D. poisoning
2. These are causes of water pollution except A. Insects B. Fertilizers C. Sewage
D. Petroleum.

46
 3. Which of the following air pollutant depletes the ozone layer? A. Oxides of
sulphur B. Carbon dioxide C. Dust D. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
4. These are the effects of noise except A. Calmness B. Anxiety C. Short temper
D. High blood pressure.
5. Which of the following pollutants cause suffocation? A. CO2 B. No2 C. CFC D.
sewage.
6. Theory
7. What are the effects of the following pollution on man? (a) carbon monoxide
(b) dust (c) sewage
8. Highlight five dangers of water pollution.
Reading Assignment: Essential Biology by M.C. MICHAEL Chapter 25 page 332-335

WEEK TEN
TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
CONTENT

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 • Definition
• Need for Conservation
• Natural Resources that Needs to be Conserved
• Methods of Conserving Natural Resources
• Importance of Conservation of Natural Resources
• Ways of Ensuring the Conservation of Natural Resources
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
By the end of the class, students should able to;
• State the need for Conservation
• Highlight those Natural Resources that Needs to be Conserved
• Discuss the methods of Conserving Natural Resources
• List the importance of Conservation of Natural Resources
• Mention the ways of Ensuring the Conservation of Natural Resources

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Definition: Conservation is defined as the planned, control exploitation or judicious
use of natural resources to ensure their continuous availability and to preserve the
quality or original nature of the environment. In other words, conservation is the
preservation of natural resources from loss, waste or exploitation through rational
use and to ensure their continued use or availability and preserve the quality or
original nature of the natural resources
Natural resources can be renewable or non-renewable.
(i) Renewable natural resources: These are natural resources that are recoverable.
Examples are rain, animals, plants, water, and food and soil.
(ii)Non-renewable natural resources: These are resources which when exhausted
cannot be replaced or recovered. Examples are mainly mineral resources like
petroleum, coal, tin, copper etc.
Need or Reasons for Conservation
(i) To prevent destruction of natural environment or to allow for continued use of
natural resources for man’s benefits
(ii) To preserve rare and valuable species of plants and animals for the future
generation or to save them from extinction or permanent destruction.
(iii) To preserve naturally beautiful sceneries for their aesthetic values

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 (iv) To promote the recycling of some scarce mineral resources, e.g. water
(v) To prevent the destruction of natural ecosystem; this will allow the organisms in
the ecosystem to survive.
(vi) Forest which provides medicinal materials must be conserved to ensure easy
availability and continued existence.
(vii) Natural resources, e.g. wild life, forest, minerals etc provide basis for research
purposes.
Natural Resources that Need to be Conserved
Natural resources that need to be conserved include wildlife, water, forest, soil, air
and mineral resources.
Evaluation
1. What is conservation of natural resources?
2. State five needs for conservation.
Methods of Conserving Natural Resources
Methods of Conserving Wildlife
i) Establishment of game or forest reserves
ii) Establishment of zoological gardens.
iii) Control of hunting to prevent extinction of some animal species
iv) Prohibition of killing or poaching of animals in game reserves.
V) Prohibition of bush burning as this may lead to migration or displacement of
wildlife.
vi) Prohibition of deforestation and encouragement of afforestation or
reafforestation.
vii) Creation of awareness on the values of wildlife.
(viii) Prevention of pollution to prevent the destruction of aquatic life.
Methods of Conserving Forest
(i) Cutting of trees without destroying the undergrowth
ii) Reafforestation or encouraging the planting of trees.
iii) Prevention of bush burning or careless forest fires.
iv) Prevention of plant pests and diseases.
v) Establishment of forest reserves.
vi) Educating the public on the value of forests and the importance of conservation.

49
 Methods of Conserving Soil
i) Prevention of overgrazing which may cause soil erosion.
ii) Prevention of indiscriminate felling of trees or deforestation which exposes
the soil to erosion.
iii) Adoption of better farming practices, e.g. crop rotation so as to prevent
erosion, leaching, water logging or acidity.
iv) Prevention of pollution of land so as not to destroy useful soil organisms
(v) Avoidance of clean clearing which may expose the soil to
Erosion
(VI) Prevention of bush burning which may expose the soil to erosion.
Methods of Conserving Air
i) Prevention of effluents from factories or factory chimneys which may pollute
the air or cause acid rain
ii) Prevention of fumes from automobile or thermal plants which may affect
aerial life
iii) Proper treatment and disposal of sewage
iv) Proper burning of wastes so as to prevent smoke or soot from polluting the
air
Methods of Conserving Mineral
Mineral resources, unlike other resources are non-renewable resources because
once they are exhausted, they cannot be replaced hence the need to conserve. The
methods of conserving mineral resources are:
There should be legislation against indiscriminate mining of mineral resources.
Effective and efficient extraction of mineral should be adopted to prevent wastages.
There should be effective and efficient utilization of available mineral resources for
man’s use.
Over dependence on a particular mineral resource should be discouraged as this can
lead to the depletion of such mineral resource.
There should be proper pricing of mineral resources and their by-products to ensure
maximum value for the mineral products.
Evaluation
1. State five methods of conserving forest.
2. Suggest five ways of preventing depletion of soil.
Importance or Benefits of Conservation Of Natural Resources
Benefits of Wildlife Resources Conservation

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 I. It provides food for human consumption
II. It can serve as tourist centres for pleasure and relaxation.
III. It serves as sources of food supply, e.g. fish, prawns, crayfish etc.
IV. It is used for Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P.) generation which provides
electricity, e.g. Kainji dam.
V. Water is useful for agricultural purposes, i.e., irrigation.
VI. Water serves as a medium of transportation in rivers, lakes and oceans.
VII. Water is important for domestic and industrial uses, e.g. drinking, washing,
cooking etc.
VIII. Water can be used for recreational and tourist purposes.
IX. Water provides employment for people, e.g. fishermen, canoe or ship
builders etc.
Benefits of Forest Resources Conservation
I. Forests are sources of food supply, e.g. fruit, vegetables, meat etc.
II. Forests are sources of timber for construction purposes.
III. Forests provide medicinal herbs.
IV. They are sources of firewood used for cooking.
V. Forests are the home or habitat of wild animals which can serve as game
reserves.
VI. Forests provide employment for some people, e.g. forest guards, lumbermen
and hunters.
VII. Forest provides raw materials for industries, e.g. cotton, rubber, ropes and
twine, latex, timber, etc.
VIII. Forests can serve as centers of tourism.
IX. Forests can also serve as wind break.

Benefits of Soil Resources Conservation

I. Soil supports agricultural or farming.
II. It supports the growth of valuable wood for building and furniture making.
III. Buildings are erected on the soil.
IV. Mineral resources are obtained from the soil.
Benefits of Air Resources Conservation
I. Air provides oxygen used in respiration by plants and animals.
II. It provides carbon dioxide used by plants for photosynthesis.
III. Air also provides gaseous nitrogen used by plant to manufacture proteins.
IV. Air is the habitat of most organisms, e.g. birds, insects etc.
V. It makes life more meaningful and comfortable.

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 Benefits of Mineral Resources Conservation
I. Mineral resources provide fuel, e.g. coal, petroleum and natural gas, for use.
II. They are used for construction purposes, e.g. iron, zinc, aluminium.
III. Some are used for industrial development, e.g. diamond, iron, copper, silver
etc.
IV. Some are sources of ornaments, e.g. gold, silver, bronze etc.
V. Minerals are sources of foreign exchange.
VI. They also provide employment, e.g. miners, drillers, marketers etc.
Evaluation

1. State three benefits of conserving soil.

2. Mention two benefits of conserving petroleum in Nigeria.
Ways of Ensuring the Conservation of Natural Resources
(1) Establishment of agencies for conservation: Agencies are established ensure that
these natural resources are conserved, e.g. preservation of wildlife forest resources,
water resources, air, soil and mineral resources. Agencies for conservation are:
(i) Nigerian Conservation Foundation.
(ii) Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA)
(iii) River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA).
(iv) Ministries of Agricultural.
(v) Department of wildlife Conservation.

(2) Establishment of Game Reserves or National Parks: The game reserves or

national parks serve for the protection of wildlife, rare or endangered species and
for recreational purposes as well as scientific purposes.
Some game reserves in Nigeria include:
(i) Yankari game reserve in Bauchi.
(ii) Borgu game reserve in Niger State.
(iii) Shasha river forest in Ogun State.
(iv) Olomu forest reserve in Kwara State.
(v) Mamu river forest reserve in Anambra State.
(vi) Zamfara forest reserve in Zamfara State.
(3) Making of conservation laws, edicts or decrees: These laws, edicts or decrees are
made by government to regulate the felling of trees, hunting or exploitation of

52
 endangered species or indiscriminate exploitation of mineral resources. These laws
must be obeyed.
(5) Conservation education: Conservation education serves to inform the populace
about the need to conserve natural resources and the consequences of
extermination or exhaustion of such resources like trees, wildlife and minerals.
Problems Associated with Conservation
The following are challenges encountered in the process of conserving resources:
(i) Soil erosion caused by natural wind, rainfall and run-offs.
(ii) Land, air and water pollution.
(iii) Occurrence of natural disaster such as earthquakes and floods.
(iv) Overgrazing caused by domestic livestock.
(v) Indiscriminate hunting leading to wildlife disappearance.
(vi) Indiscriminate bush burning and felling of timber leading to disappearance of
wild plants and animals.
(vii) indiscriminate fishing leading to depletion of aquatic life.;
(viii) Adoption of poor farming methods, e.g. bush fallowing, shifting cultivation and
continuous cropping which leads to depletion of soil nutrients.
(ix) Problem of oil spillage which leads to loss of terrestrial and aquatic life.

General Evaluation
1. What is conservation?
2. Mention five factors affecting conservation of natural resources.
3. List five conservation agencies in Nigeria.
4. State five benefits of conserving resources.
5. Give five natural resources that need to be conserved.
Weekend Assignment
1. The planned use of natural resources to ensure the continuous availability is
A. Preservation B. Conservation C. Storage D. Exploitation.
2. These are examples of renewable natural resources except A. Rain B.
Petroleum C. Plants D. Soil
3. The following are agencies for conservation except A. FEPA B. RBDA C.
Ministry of Agriculture D. VMA
4. Borgu game reserve can be found in A. Abia B. Benue C. Niger D. Anambra
5. The following farm practices lead to depletion of soil nutrients except A. Bush
fallowing B. Shifting cultivation C. Continuous cropping D. Crop rotation

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 Theory
1. (a) Define the term “Conservation”.
(b) State three reasons for conservation.
2. List two methods of conserving each of the following (a) Water (b) wildlife (c)
forest
Reading Assignment
Essential Biology by M.C. MICHAEL Chapter 26, page 336-340.

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