Welcome to this presentation on Electrical Characteristics of LEDs.

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An LED is a device that emits light when electrically biased. Similar to any
electronic component, LEDs also have electrical parameters that need to be
taken into consideration when designed into a system.

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This slide shows how an LED emit light when it is electrically biased. As it
can be seen, in short, electrons recombine with holes and some of these
combinations emit light.

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Listed in this slide are some of the key electrical parameters that are
required when designing with LEDs.

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One key parameter is the forward voltage of an LED. Similar to standard
diodes, nothing happens in an LED until the threshold voltage of ~2.5V is
applied across the LED. Once the threshold is reached, current through the
LED increases exponentially with increase in voltage. This behavior of an
LED requires LEDs to be better driven with a constant current than fixed
voltage.

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One of the key parameter is the LED current. LED current plays a role in
luminous flux, forward voltage, and color shift.

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The luminous flux from an LED is highly dependant on the LED current.
Higher the current through the LED means higher luminous flux.

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LED current also determines the efficacy of an LED. The higher the LED
current, the lower the efficacy.

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A slight color shift can be expected when the LED current is varied. This
behavior of LEDs should be carefully considered when designing with
multiple LEDs of various colors.

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One of the other key parameters is the reverse voltage or current of LEDs.
Not only will LEDs not emit light when operated in reverse direction,
operating in reverse direction will cause the LED to fail, if the maximum
reverse voltage or current exceed the limit.

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Junction temperature of the LEDs is one of the key parameters that
determines many of the LED behaviors, including life time of an LED, light
output, color, and forward voltage. Electrically speaking, higher the junction
temperature, lower the forward voltage. This is a key parameter, especially
when a resistor is used to regulate the LED current.

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This slide shows the relationship between junction temperature and luminous
flux from an LED. An increase in junction temperature will decrease luminous
flux.

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Also, there will be a slight color shift depending on the junction temperature
of an LED. Depending on how severe the shift is, there may be a need for
compensation for the shift at the system level.

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Even though a PCB foot-print of an LED may not be considered as an
electrical parameter, this is considered part of the electrical driver design and
included in this page. Proper pad design is required for appropriate thermal
management and ease of assembly.

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Thank you for viewing this presentation by OSRAM Opto Semiconductors.

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Welcome to this presentation on Driving LEDs – Resistors and Linear Drivers, part
of OSRAM Opto Semiconductors’ LED Fundamentals series.
In this presentation we will look at:
- Simple resistor based current regulation for LED systems
- Use of linear drivers to regulate current in an LED system

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Just like any other electronic component, LEDs should be driven properly for
improved efficacy, better reliability, and longer lifetime. Because of some of the
fundamental variations, such as Vf mismatch between LEDs and color variation
within the same bin, even more care needs to be taken when deciding what type of
driving method is suitable for LEDs in a particular application.

Some of the key parameters that play a major role in selecting the proper driving
method are: expected junction temperature of the LED, expected Vf mismatch
between LEDs and/or LED strings, color accuracy required, and whether or not
dimming is required.

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As previously mentioned, an understanding of the electrical, optical, and thermal
characteristics of an LED is required to properly select a driving method for an LED
circuit or system. Because LEDs have an I-V characteristic that is similar to
standard diodes, they are more effectively driven with a constant current source
than with a fixed voltage source. Also, optical characteristics such as color shift vs
LED current, and thermal characteristics such as Vf and color shift vs junction
temperature of an LED, also play key role in selecting the proper driving method.

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There are at least three different ways of driving LEDs that can provide constant
current to LED circuits and systems. They are resistor or discrete based driving,
linear regulator based driving, and switching regulator based driving. In this
presentation, discrete based driving and linear regulator based driving are
examined.

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Discrete based driving can either be a simple resistor to regulate LED current or it
can be based on a transistor.
In this example, simply applying ohm’s law will give the resistor value for a specific
current, which is 350mA in this case. Also, the power dissipated in the resistor can
be calculated by using the I² equation.
Even though this is the simplest way of driving LEDs, this is also a less efficient way
of driving LEDs. As seen in this example, depending on the source voltage, the
power wasted on the resistor can be significant.

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When a resistor is used to regulate LED current, the current can vary depending on
the Vf of the LED. The change in current due to Vf variation may or may not be
significant and is highly dependant on the application. For instance, this may be
significant when multiple color LEDs are mixed to achieve a target color point.

Even with a Vf difference of 250mV, which is typical for LEDs, the LED current can
vary between 304mA and 394mA for the same resistor.

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One of the key issues with resistor based driving is the variation in source voltage.
Changes in source voltage will directly impact LED current. Any source voltage will
have some tolerances and having a +/-10% tolerance is very common. A 10%
tolerance can change the LED current to be between 300mA and 400mA where the
actual calculated LED current should be 350mA.

Any change in LED current is not desired. A change in LED current will have an
impact on flux output, which may increase or decrease total light output of a system.

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To explain impact on flux at different LED currents, an example is shown in this
slide. Flux output at 300mA is only 90% of that at 350mA and at 400mA, it is 115%
of that of 350mA.
The calculation of flux variation reveals that with just one LED, the flux can vary up
to 25lm. In a system with multiple LEDs, the change in flux can be significant.

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Also, there will be a slight color shift when LED current is changed. Depending on
the application, this should be taken into account when selecting the correct driving
method for an LED application. The color shift for two different currents is shown on
this slide.

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This slide shows a different approach to resistor based driving using a transistor and
an OP-AMP. In this way of driving, the Vf mismatch and source variations will not
change the LED current.
The LED current in this circuit will be Vref divided by Resistor R.

The addition of a transistor and an op-amp can be justified in an application where

impacts of Vf mismatch and source variation cannot be tolerated
tolerated.

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In this slide the advantages and disadvantages of methods discussed so far are
analyzed.

A resistor based current regulation is very cost effective and very simple for space
constrained application, and ideal for applications where color, flux, and Vf
mismatch are not a significant concern, such as flashlights or torch lights. However,
with a resistor based solution, Vf mismatch, variation in supply voltage and flux, and
color shift cannot be addressed. It is also very inefficient.

With the OP-AMP + transistor method, source variation and Vf mismatch are
addressed.

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Aside from resistor based regulation, LEDs can also be driven using linear
regulators. Linear regulators can either be fixed voltage or constant current. In
fixed voltage linear regulators, a resistor is also required to set proper LED current.

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A constant current linear regulator is preferred over fixed voltage linear regulator
because it can take a wide range of voltage and output with a set constant current,
ideal for driving LEDs. Because the output is constant current, Vf mismatch
between LEDs is not a concern with constant current linear regulators. Also, a
linear driver requires very few passive components, in many cases only a resistor
and/or a capacitor.

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There are many different constant current linear regulators on the market. In many
cases, the passive components that are required to complete the linear driver circuit
are very minimal. A picture of Infineon’s TLE4309 and its features are shown here
for reference.

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One of the issues with linear regulators is that the LED current is limited to tens of
mA due to the maximum power rating on the regulator itself. If higher current LEDs
are required, external circuitry should be in place.

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Pictured in this slide is the external circuitry required to boost LED current using
Infineon’s BCR402R. If more than 65mA is required, the LED current can be taken
up to 500mA by adding a transistor.

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One of the key advantages of linear regulators is the stability of linear drivers over
temperature. The stability of the BCR400 series over a wide range of operating
temperature is illustrated here. As seen from the graph, the change in reference
voltage between 20°C and 100°C is only one milli volt.

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As with resistor based driving, linear regulators are also very inefficient. The
difference in input and output voltages are simply wasted as heat within the
regulator itself. Therefore, wasted power is directly proportional to how wide the
difference is. The difference between input and output voltages should be taken
into consideration when designing with linear drivers, to ensure the power rating on
the driver is not exceeded.

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Linear regulators are very simple to design and a cost effective solution for driving
LEDs. Also, with linear drivers, the fundamental variations such as Vf mismatch,
are addressed. As with any driving method, there are also disadvantages, which
are listed here.

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In conclusion, resistor based and linear regulator based driving are the simplest and
most cost efficient ways of driving LEDs, even though they come with some
disadvantages. Linear drivers address some of the fundamental variations that
LEDs have, but still isn’t a very efficient way of driving LEDs. There are other
available options when it comes to driving LEDs.

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Please refer to the LED Fundamental “Driving LEDs - Switching Drivers”
on this website for additional information.

Thank you for viewing this presentation by OSRAM Opto Semiconductors.

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Welcome to this presentation on Driving LEDs – AC-DC Power Supplies, part of
OSRAM Opto Semiconductors‘ LED Fundamentals series.
In this presentation we will look at:
- the typical circuit structure of AC-DC drivers
- the importance of TRIAC dimmability
- some of the standards covering drivers for LED systems

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Just like any other electronic component, LEDs should be driven properly for
improved efficacy, better reliability, and longer lifetime. Because of some of the
fundamental variations, such as vf mismatch between LEDs and color variation
within the same bin, even more care needs to be taken when deciding what type of
driving method is suitable for LEDs in a particular application.

Some of the key parameters that play a major role in selecting a proper driving
method are: expected junction temperature of the LED, expected Vf mismatch
between LEDs and/or LED strings, color accuracy required, and whether dimming is
required.

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As mentioned earlier, understanding some of the electrical, optical, and thermal
characteristics of an LED is required to properly select a driving method for an LED
circuit or system. An I-V characteristic that is similar to standard diodes makes
LEDs better driven with a constant current source. Also, optical characteristics such
as color shift vs LED current and thermal characteristics such as Vf and color shift
vs junction temperature of an LED, also play a key role in selecting a proper driving
method.

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When selecting a proper driving method for an LED application, just considering
electrical characteristics of an LED is not sufficient. Electrical, optical, and thermal
characteristics should be considered to select the appropriate driving method for an
LED system. There are three commonly used methods of driving LEDs.

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Resistor/discrete based driving, linear driver based driving, and switching driver
based driving. This presentation covers switching driver based AC-DC driver/power
supplies.

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When it comes to LED systems, efficacy (lm/W) is one of the measures that makes
LED systems more attractive when compared to traditional lighting systems. The
efficacy of an LED system can be improved by optimizing electrical, thermal, and
optical efficiencies of the overall system.

This presentation covers the optimized driver, one of the key areas that should be
considered to improve electrical efficiency of an LED system.

Switching regulators offer flexibility in the design and the advantage of increased
power conversion efficiency, especially in high power applications.

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An AC-DC driver would take an AC voltage from the mains and convert it into either
fixed DC voltage or constant DC current. A switching driver IC within an AC-DC
driver, acts as the brain of the driver. For more information on switching drivers,
please refer to LED Fundamentals “Driving LEDs – Switching Drivers”. The
output of an AC-DC driver can be fixed voltage or constant current. Since LED
circuits and systems are better operated with fixed current, constant current type
AC-DC drivers are explained in this presentation. The intention of this presentation
is to provide the viewer with the basic understanding of AC-DC drivers.
drivers Therefore,
Therefore
the information in this presentation is very basic in nature.

An AC-DC driver can have the following constructions:

1. An AC-DC Driver without Power Factor Correction (PFC)
2. An AC-DC driver with Power Factor Correction
3. An AC-DC driver can be TRIAC dimmable, non-dimmable, or
dimmed by other means such as 0-10V dimming

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For regulatory reasons, such as Energy Star, a Power Factor of greater than .90 is
required for commercial applications and a Power Factor of greater than .7 is
required for residential applications. For more information on Power Factor, please
consult the application guide “Power Factor Correction (PFC) Basics” on the
Tools tab under Technical Papers and Presentations on this website.

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There are two widely used configurations of AC-DC drivers. The first is called a “2-
stage” design, in which there are two sets of circuits used to regulate output. The
PFC circuit is the first part of the circuit. This circuit generally employs a boost type
topology and would have a fixed DC voltage output. The second part of the circuit
is generally a buck type topology to convert the PFC output of ~400Vdc into fixed
voltage or constant current. For more information on boost or buck topologies,
please refer to LED Fundamental “Driving LEDs – Switching Drivers”. The
second widely used configuration is called single stage designdesign, in which both stages
of a 2-stage design are combined.

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Efficiency of an overall power system, in this case an AC-DC driver, is highly
dependant on the number of stages for the overall system. This is due to the fact
that the overall efficiency, is the product of all the stages. The higher the number of
stages, the lower the overall efficiency. For example, if stages 1 and 2 each has an
efficiency of 90%, the overall system efficiency would only be 81%.

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There are many driver IC’s available on the market to design a 2-stage AC-DC
driver. Shown in this slide is a block diagram of a 2-stage design from Infineon
Technologies. The first stage is the AC to fixed DC voltage block with PFC. The
second stage is the fixed DC to constant current conversion that is suitable to driver
the LEDs. This stage can utilize a linear or switching driver. Infineon Technologies’
BCR450 is one of the many drivers that are available in the market.

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A two-stage AC-DC driver will have very low output ripple, generally in the range of
5-20%. The ripple frequency on a 2-stage design is equivalent to the switching
frequency of the driver. Also, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), can be kept below
15-20%. The Total Harmonic Distortion of a signal is a measurement of the
harmonic distortion present and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of
all harmonic components to the power of the fundamental frequency. One of the
other advantages of a 2-stage design is that it exhibits better transient response
compared to a single stage design
design. At a very high level view
view, any sudden change in
a signal is regarded as transient. A better transient response from a system would
ensure stable operation of the system due to transient events. As a draw back, a 2-
stage design will cost more because of component count and PCB size.

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In a single stage design, only one driver IC is used instead of two. Shown in this
slide is Infineon Technologies’ ICL8002G in single stage configuration. Compared to
2-stage design, a single stage design will have much lower component count.

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A single stage AC-DC driver will have significantly higher output ripple, generally in
the range of 20-50%. The ripple frequency on a single stage design is equivalent to
two times the input voltage frequency. Also, Total Harmonic Distortion can be over
20%, which may not comply with some standards such as energy star. The
advantages of a single stage design include more efficiency, lower cost, and
reduced size.

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When designing or selecting a proper AC-DC driver for an LED circuit or system, it
is always good to understand what type of design configuration is utilized with the
AC-DC driver. Between the two commonly used designs of 2-stage and single
stage, there are advantages and disadvantages of each design. A 2-stage design
will have better output regulation with lower ripple, lower THD, and better transient
response while a single stage design would offer better efficiency, lower cost, less
PCB area for the driver, and less overall component count.

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TRIAC dimming is widely accepted in the lighting industry for various reasons.
When a traditional lighting source, such as incandescent or fluorescent, is replaced
with an LED system, it is always expected that the TRIAC dimmer should work with
the LED system as well. The function of a TRIAC is to chop the AC voltage and
keep it at zero for a period of time that depends on the setting of the dimmer. When
selecting an AC-DC driver for an LED system, be sure that the driver will operate
with a TRIAC dimmer.

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In many cases, an AC-DC driver designed for LED systems needs to be in
compliance with some of the industry standards such as UL, NEMA, and Energy
Star. The applicable standards depend on the application and geographical region.
For more information on standards, please refer to Dr. Jianzhong Jiao’s training
videos “LED and SSL Standardization Regulations” on the Knowledge section of
this website.

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In conclusion, there are two widely used designs of AC-DC drivers. One is the 2-
stage design and the other is the single stage design. AC-DC drivers can be Power
Factor corrected or not. For regulatory requirements, such as Energy Star, Power
Factor correction in LED drivers are required. A driver with TRIAC compatibility is
also expected as most of the traditional lighting sources are presently dimmed using
TRIAC dimmers. To select the appropriate driver solution, a deep understanding of
the application and its’ requirements at system level is required.

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Please refer to the LED Fundamental “Driving LEDs – Resistors and
Linear Drivers” on this website for additional information.

Thank you for viewing this presentation by OSRAM Opto Semiconductors.

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Welcome to this presentation on Switch Mode Drivers, part of OSRAM Opto
Semiconductors‘ LED Fundamentals series.
In this presentation we will look at:
How switch mode drivers work, switch mode driver topologies, and benefits of
switch mode drivers in LED circuits and systems.

1
Like any electronic component, LEDs should also be driven properly for improved
efficacy, better reliability, and longer lifetime. Because some of the fundamental
variations, such as vf mismatch between LEDs and color variation within the same
bin, more care needs to be taken when deciding what type of driving method is
suitable for LEDs in a particular application.

Some of the key parameters that play a major role in selecting the proper driving
method are expected junction temperature of the LED, expected Vf mismatch
between LEDs and/or LED strings, color accuracy required, and whether dimming is
required.

2
As mentioned earlier, understanding the electrical, optical, and thermal
characteristics of an LED is required to properly select the driving method for an
LED circuit or system. An I-V characteristic of an LED is similar to that of a
standard diode, meaning LEDs should be driven with a constant current source.
Also, optical characteristics such as color shift vs LED current and thermal
characteristics such as Vf and color shift vs junction temperature, play key roles in
selecting the proper driving method.

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When selecting the proper driving method for an LED application, only considering
electrical characteristics of an LED is not sufficient. Electrical, optical, and thermal
characteristics should be considered to select the appropriate driving method for an
LED system. There are three typical methods for driving LEDs.

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Commonly used driving options are: discrete component based drive, linear driver
based drive, and switch mode driver based drive. This presentation covers switch
mode driver based drive.

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Before starting with a switch mode regulator, please take a look at the table on this
slide to understand the advantages and disadvantages of each driving option. The
biggest advantages of a discrete based drive are low cost and simplicity, where the
major disadvantages of a switch mode based driver is the complexity of the design
and the cost associated with it.

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At present, when it comes to LED systems, efficacy (lm/W) is one of the key
measures that make LED systems more attractive compared to traditional lighting
systems. The efficacy of an LED system can be improved by optimizing electrical,
thermal, and optical efficiencies of the overall system.

This presentation reviews how an optimized driver can be used to help improve the
electrical efficiency of an LED system.

Switch mode regulators offer the advantage of more efficient power conversion,
especially in high power applications.

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A switch mode regulator takes a small portion of energy at a time from the input
voltage source and transfers it to the load or device being driven. An electrical
switch, such as a transistor, is used along with a controller that regulates the rate at
which the switch is turned on and off. In a switch mode driver, the driver IC is the
brain of the power supply. Basically, it generates the PWM signal that turns the
switch on and off so the output is maintained at a specified value.

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There are four different topologies in which a switch mode driver can be operated.
They are buck mode, boost mode, buck-boost mode, and fly back mode.

Next we will analyze each topology in greater detail.

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This example illustrates the simple circuit diagram of a buck type switch mode
regulator design. The primary function of the driver IC is to generate the control
signal which turns the switch on and off. When the switch is closed, there will be
two current loops (shown in green). When the switch is open, current flows in the
direction (shown in red).

Buck mode regulation is used when the input voltage or source voltage is higher
than the expected output voltage. For instance, if a standard 24V supply is used to
drive an LED system in which four 1W high power LEDs are connected in series,
there needs to be a buck mode constant current driver in place to drive the LEDs.

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There are a number of IC manufacturers that focus on LED drivers. The brain of a
power supply is the driver IC.
Shown on the right, is the schematic of a typical application circuit using Supertex’s
HV9910B, a buck driver IC. In many cases, the same driver IC can be configured to
be operated in buck, boost, or Single Ended Primary Inductance Converter (SEPIC)
configurations. The arrangement of the components is what changes in these
different configurations. The basic components for all modes stay the same.

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The boost topology is the second most commonly used configuration. In boost
mode operation, when the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor while
the capacitor supplies the load. When the switch opens, stored energy in the
inductor releases, the capacitor charges, and the load is supplied.

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Shown here is a simple boost topology schematic using a Supertex’s HV9911.
Please note that the circuit enclosed in dotted lines is not part of the boost topology.

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Ideally, boost topology is used when input voltage is lower than the output voltage.
However, due to the circuit component arrangement in boost topology, there will be
a direct current flow into the load when the input goes above the output voltage.
This is not desired, as there will be no current regulation in this situation.

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To address this loop hole in boost configuration, SEPIC configuration is used. In a
SEPIC configuration, the input voltage can either be higher or lower than the output
voltage. Please note that there are two inductors in this configuration compared to
only one inductor on the three previously explained modes. The addition of the
inductor may slightly increase the cost of the driver.

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One of the key differences between boost and SEPIC is the use of two inductors,
which may add cost to the system, but is very commonly used in portable battery
operated applications.

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An ideal example for SEPIC configuration would be a device which has a single
LED (Vf ~3.2V) and is operated with three AA or AAA batteries. When the batteries
are new, a buck mode operation is required and when the batteries drain below
3.0V a boost mode operation is required.

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Buck-boost is the third commonly used topology. It is also called inverter topology
because the output polarity is inverted. The operation is such that when the switch
is on, current flows through the inductor and energy is stored in the inductor. During
this period, the load is supplied by the capacitor. When the switch opens, stored
energy in the inductor is released and the capacitor charges up while the load is
also supplied.

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As an example, a National Semiconductor’s LM22670-ADJ in buck-boost mode
operation is shown.

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The fly back is the fourth commonly used topology. It can be configured for single
output or multiple outputs. In single output configuration, when the switch is on, the
current flows through the primary side of the transformer. During this cycle, the load
is supplied by the capacitor. When the switch is turned off, the voltage at the
primary side is reflected on the secondary side, which causes the diode to conduct,
supplying the load as well as charging the capacitor.

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This slide shows the typical configuration of a multiple output fly back topology. For
more information on multiple output configuration, please consult the LED
Fundamental “AC-DC Power Supplies.”

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All four of the topologies explained can be operated in either continuous conduction
mode or discontinuous conduction mode, depending on the current through the
inductor. In continuous conduction mode, inductor current never reaches zero, but
in a discontinuous conduction mode operation the inductor current does reach zero.

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In conclusion, there are four different switch mode driver topologies and the fly back
topology is the most versatile and widely used because of the flexibility it offers.
Irrespective of what topology is used, switch mode driver based current regulation is
much more efficient than discrete or linear based regulation. On the negative side,
switch mode drivers are more complex compared to a simple resistor or linear driver
based designs and can also add costs to the overall system.

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Please refer to the LED Fundamental “AC-DC Power Supplies” on this
website for additional information.

Thank you for viewing this presentation by OSRAM Opto Semiconductors.

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