MASTER OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

MSDS 516/ 520

RESEARCH DISSERTATION GUIDE

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AUTHORS:

Maxwell Constantine Chando Musingafi

PhD in Public Management & Governance (NWU)
Master of Development & Management (NWU)
Master of Business Administration (ZOU)
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Politics & Administration (UZ)
Bachelor of Business Administration (IMM)
Post-Graduate Diploma in Education (ZOU)
Higher Diploma in Human Resource Management (IPMZ)
Diploma in Personnel Management (IPMZ)
Diploma in Marketing Management (IMM)

Tobias Guzura
Master of Commerce in Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies (KZN)
MA in Development Studies (MSU)
BA (Honours) in History and Development Studies (MSU)
Diploma in Education (Hillside Teachers College)
Certificate in Peace Research Methodologies (Africa University)
Certificate in Alternatives to Violence (Alternatives to Violence Project)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... iii
MODULE OVERVIEW .................................................................................................... vi
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROJECT ................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Academic Research Project .......................................................................................... 1
Activity 1.1 ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Purpose of the Research Project ................................................................................... 2
Activity 1.2 ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 The Supervisor .............................................................................................................. 3
Activity 1.3 ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 4
References ........................................................................................................................... 4
UNIT 2 RESEARCH PROPOSAL..................................................................................... 5
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Research Proposal ......................................................................................................... 5
Activity 2.1 ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Compiling a Research Proposal .................................................................................... 6
2.3.1 Working title .......................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Background to the study ........................................................................................ 7
2.3.3 Research problem................................................................................................... 7
2.3.4 Statement of purpose.............................................................................................. 8
2.3.5 Research question, objectives and hypothesis ....................................................... 8
2.3.6 Justification and statement of contribution ............................................................ 8
2.3.7 Proposed research methodology ............................................................................ 8
2.3.8 Ethical considerations .......................................................................................... 10
2.3.9 Delimitations and limitations of the study ........................................................... 10
2.3.10 Definition of terms and list of references .......................................................... 10
Activity 2.2 ................................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 10
References ......................................................................................................................... 11
UNIT 3 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................... 12
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 12
3.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 12
3.2 What is Literature Review? ........................................................................................ 12
3.3 The Purpose of Literature Review .............................................................................. 13
Activity 3.1 ................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 When is Literature Review done in the Research Process? ........................................ 15
3.5 Getting Started ............................................................................................................ 15
Activity 3.2 ................................................................................................................... 16
3.6 Approaching and Managing Literature Sources ......................................................... 16
3.6.1 Electronic sources ................................................................................................ 16
3.6.2 References ............................................................................................................ 16
3.6.3 Hand searching of journals .................................................................................. 17

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 3.6.4 Collecting material ............................................................................................... 17
3.6.5 Keeping a record .................................................................................................. 17
3.6.6 Plagiarism ............................................................................................................ 17
3.6.7 When to stop ........................................................................................................ 18
Activity 3.3 ................................................................................................................... 18
3.7 Writing Literature Review .......................................................................................... 18
3.7.1 Structure ............................................................................................................... 19
3.7.2 Using tables .......................................................................................................... 20
3.7.3 References ............................................................................................................ 20
3.8 Reviewing your Review .............................................................................................. 20
Activity 3.4 ................................................................................................................... 21
3.9 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 21
References ......................................................................................................................... 22
UNIT 4 Research Methodology ........................................................................................ 23
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 23
4.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 Research Methodology and Methods.......................................................................... 23
Activity 4.1 ................................................................................................................... 23
4.3 Quantitative Research ................................................................................................. 23
4.4 Qualitative Research ................................................................................................... 24
4.5 Mixed Research .......................................................................................................... 24
Activity 4.2 ................................................................................................................... 25
4.6 Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 25
4.6.1 Population ............................................................................................................ 25
4.6.2 Sample.................................................................................................................. 26
4.6.3 Sampling frame .................................................................................................... 26
4.7 Sampling in Quantitative Research ............................................................................. 26
4.8 Sampling in Qualitative Research ............................................................................... 26
4.9 Data Collection Methods ............................................................................................ 26
Activity 4.3 ................................................................................................................... 27
4.10 Research ethics.......................................................................................................... 27
Activity 4.4 ................................................................................................................... 28
4.11 Summary ................................................................................................................... 28
References ......................................................................................................................... 28
UNIT 5 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ..................................................... 29
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 29
5.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Data analysis ............................................................................................................... 29
Activity .1 ..................................................................................................................... 30
5.4 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research .................................................... 30
Activity 5.2 ................................................................................................................... 31
5.5 Presenting the Results of Qualitative Research .......................................................... 31
Activity 5.3 ................................................................................................................... 32
5.6 Quantitative Data Measurement and Analysis ............................................................ 32
Activity 5.4 ................................................................................................................... 32
5.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 32

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References ......................................................................................................................... 33
UNIT 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 34
6.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 34
6.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 34
6.2 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 34
6.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 34
6.4 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 34
UNIT 7 REFERENCING ................................................................................................. 35
7.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 35
7.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 35
7.2 Plagiarism and Citation ............................................................................................... 35
7.3 Referencing format (in the text) .................................................................................. 36
7.4 Reference List ............................................................................................................. 37
7.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 38
UNIT 8 STRUCTURE OF THE FINAL RESEARCH PROJECT REPORT .................. 39
8.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 39
8.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................... 39
8.2 The Preliminary Pages ................................................................................................ 39
8.3 The Research Report Text .......................................................................................... 41
8.3.1 Text formatting .................................................................................................... 41
8.4 Back Page Materials ................................................................................................... 43
8.5 Binding ........................................................................................................................ 44
8.6 Language ..................................................................................................................... 44
8.7 Common Abbreviations .............................................................................................. 45
8.8 Quotation marks - single v. double ............................................................................. 45
8.9 Ellipsis......................................................................................................................... 46
8.10 Summary ................................................................................................................... 46
APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 47
Appendix I: Title Page ...................................................................................................... 51
Appendix II: Release Form ............................................................................................... 52
Appendix II: Approval Form ............................................................................................ 53

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OVERVIEW
This Guide should be read together with the Module MSDS 502: Research Methods for
Development Studies. The guide is intended to help students organise and write a quality
research dissertation in development studies.

While these guidelines may provide valuable information for research proposal and
project writing in general, they were specifically prepared for the final year students in
post-graduate programmes in the Department of Development Studies, Faculty of
Applied Social Sciences at Zimbabwe Open University.

All final year students in the Department of Development Studies programmes are
required to submit a project of 10 000 – 15 000 words (undergraduate projects and min-
dissertations for post-graduate diploma students) and 25 000 to 45 000 (Masters
dissertations), excluding references and appendices.

This Guide describes the formal requirements that the post-graduate research project /
dissertation in the Department of Development Studies must satisfy. The Guide provides
guidelines on the substance, structure and presentation of the project. The Guide outlines
the criteria used by markers in assessment.

This Guide also describes the role and duties of the supervisor. Although the topic and
approach is discussed with the supervisor, the project / dissertation is an independent
piece of work and responsibility for choosing the topic, planning, preparation, writing,
presentation and submission lies with the student.

We hope that you find this Guide informative.

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UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH PROJECT

1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we introduce you to research project/dissertation at post-graduate level in the
Department of Development Studies. The research project is the final requirement for
final year students in the Department of Development Studies. It should reflect your best
work. The dissertation is a process of research, reflection, and writing. As the
culmination of your post-graduate training in Development Studies, the dissertation
should develop from an interest or specialization defined through courses covered in your
Development Studies curriculum.

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the term academic research;

 explain the purpose of an academic research project; and
 explain the role of the supervisor in the academic research process.

1.2 Academic Research Project

In our applied discipline of development studies, a research project is an academic project
that focuses on answering questions and offering potential solutions to significant
problems encountered by our communities, governments and all other development
agents in their development endeavours. A worthy research project would involve an
investigation into a major challenge faced by one or more of these development groups.
The goal of the research project would be to better understand the phenomenon, offer
new insight about its occurrence, and suggest actions that may help to alleviate the
problem.

Research is an enquiry carried out with a clear thought in a systematic and disciplined
way to gather data on a particular subject in order to contribute new information to the
existing body of knowledge (Charema, 2013).

In the academic circles, academic research is expected to:

 generate new knowledge;

 be thorough;
 be balanced;
 be fair; and
 be ethical (Tirivangana, 2013).

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When you carry out an academic research project, you need to ask and answer the
following questions:

 Why carry out the research?

 What information is needed?
 What are the variables?
 Who will provide the information?
 What studies have been conducted already?
 What resources are needed for the study?
 How will the results be analysed?
 How will the results be used? (Ibid).

Following are the major three types of research:

 basic research to add to the existing body of knowledge;

 applied research to solve an immediate practical problem; and
 action research to aid in decision-making.

Activity 1.1
1. What do you understand by the term research project?
2. What do you see as the goal of a research project?
3. What questions do you need to ask and answer when carrying out an academic
research?

1.3 Purpose of the Research Project

The major purpose of the research project is to enable students to advance their
knowledge of the field covered by their degree programme by pursuing an independent
research project on a chosen topic within the field. Students completing the project will
have examined a subject in substantial depth, shown evidence of an ability to undertake
sustained critical analysis, developed and improved their research skills, and produced a
long piece of written work that demonstrates understanding of their area of study.

The Post-graduate dissertation in the Department of Development Studies is a self-

directed work and therefore requires you to identify and develop your own subject,
organise your research, manage your time, and prepare a coherent, well-structured and
original piece of writing. Throughout the process, you will receive assistance from the
department in the form of one-to-one tutorials with your project supervisor and group
workshops coordinated by the Regional Programme Coordinator.

Activity 1.2
1. What is the major purpose of a research project for final students?

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1.4 The Supervisor
Supervisors have been chosen because they are experienced researchers and
knowledgeable in your subject area. You will meet with your supervisor several times
before you submit your dissertation. Your first task is to convince your supervisor of the
viability of your research idea and agree with her or him on a clearly specified topic.

Supervisors monitor the running and academic content of the project. They provide
general advice, will be available for discussion, and give you detailed feedback on your
draft submission which is due two weeks (or earlier) before the final deadline. They do
not propose or develop your topic, structure your project, or supply you with books and
bibliographies. They will comment on your progress and offer assistance, but they do not
‘fix’ or proofread your final draft before submission. On the whole, you can gain the
most from your supervisor if you consider him or her as an informed and curious person
with whom you can enter into a subject-centred debate.

Your supervisor will work with you to define the purpose and scope of your study so that
you know exactly what is required. He/she will also try to ensure you can complete the
task in the time available without neglecting your other studies or interfering with your
preparation for examinations. It is important that you choose a subject in which you are
already interested and which will complement and support your other studies. It is
important to note that the project is fundamentally your responsibility. Hence you must
not place unnecessary pressure on the supervisor or expect unreasonable assistance.
Remember, a project is a show case piece of work designed, carried out and written-up
by a final year student.

Structured supervision will be scheduled at regular intervals. It is vital that you prepare
for each supervision session by listing the areas that need discussion and the precise
points that should be cleared up as they arise. If advice is sought about a particular
chapter or section ensure that your supervisor has been furnished with a draft copy in
advance. Always try to space sessions and amounts submitted; it is unreasonable to
expect supervisors to deal effectively with thousands of words at short notice.

It is useful to use log-books to record meetings and to assess progress from week to
week, for both the student and the supervisor. If for some reason you are unable to attend
your meeting you should inform your supervisor as early as possible.

Mouton (2011) outlines the roles of a supervisor as follows:

 to advise the student;
 to guide the student;
 to ensure scientific quality in a student’s work; and
 to provide the emotional and psychological support.

The supervisor is expected to guide the student in methodological matters including the
development of research proposal, formulation of research problem, choice of appropriate

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research design and theoretical framework and through all the technical stages of the
research process (ibid). The student could expect the following specific guidance:

 assistance with selection of research topic;

 guidance to relevant literature;
 guidance in developing a research proposal; and
 assistance on the use of specific research methods (Chabaya and Chataika, 2013).

Activity 1.3
1. Explain the relationship between the supervisor and the student in the field
research process.
2. Describe the duties of the supervisor in the field research process.

1.5 Summary
In this unit we defined a research project as an academic project that focuses on
answering questions and offering potential solutions to significant problems encountered
by our communities, governments and all other development agents in their development
endeavours. The major purpose of the research project is to enable students to advance
their knowledge of the field covered by their degree programme by pursuing an
independent research project on a chosen topic within the field. In the research process
you work with an experienced academic supervisor who provides general advice, is
available for discussion, and gives you detailed feedback on your draft submission which
is due two weeks (or earlier) before the final deadline.

Having defined a research project and outlined how you work with your research
supervisor in this unit, in the next unit we take you through research proposal.

References
Chabaya, O. and Chataika, T. (2013). Roles and Responsibilities of Supervisors and
Research Students. In Tichapondwa, S.M. (ed). Preparing your Dissertation at a
Distance: A Research Guide. Vancouver. Virtual University for Small States of
the Collonwealth.
Charema, J. (2013). Getting Started in Research. In Tichapondwa, S.M. (ed). Preparing
your Dissertation at a Distance: A Research Guide. Vancouver. Virtual
University for Small States of the Collonwealth.
Mouton, J. (2011). How to Succeed in your Masters and Doctoral Studies: A South
African Guide and Resource Book. Pretoria. Van Schaik Publications.
Tichapondwa, S.M. (ed). (2013). Preparing your Dissertation at a Distance: A Research
Guide. Vancouver. Virtual University for Small States of the Collonwealth.
Tirivangana, A.M. (2013). The Nature of Academic Research. In Tichapondwa, S.M.
(ed). Preparing your Dissertation at a Distance: A Research Guide. Vancouver.
Virtual University for Small States of the Collonwealth.

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UNIT 2 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

2.0 Introduction
Writing a research proposal is a great way to focus your ideas and clearly define what
you are – and are not – going to do. Your finished research proposal is your research
plan. With it you are ready to begin. Our aim in this unit is to help you develop a sound
proposal, one that will help you to write your final year research project in a focused and
disciplined way. In this unit, therefore, we outline elements of a research proposal.
Whether you are doing quantitative or qualitative research, it is important that you outline
the reasons why you propose doing the study and what process or procedures you will
follow to complete the proposed study.

2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the term research proposal;

 explain the purpose of research proposal in the research process;
 outline the components of a research proposal; and
 write a meaningful research proposal.

2.2 Research Proposal

A research proposal is a document of usually three to fifteen pages that informs others of
a proposed piece of research. It is an outline of the entire research process that gives the
reader a summary of the information in the research project (Magwa, 2013). The proposal
specifies what you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it and how you will
interpret the results (ibid). Being clear about these issues will help you complete your
research project in time. A vague, weak or fuzzy proposal leads to a long, painful and
mostly unsuccessful research project writing exercise.

Without a clear proposal, it is unlikely that you will be able to embark on a systematic
investigation and discussion of a problematic issue in your area of research (Ababio,
2006). The initial step of the process starts with an idea of what you would like to
investigate. This idea is then formulated into a research problem question. The procedure
you propose to follow in order to answer the problem question is your research design.
You then write this up in your research proposal.

The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the research idea you have and to
present the practical ways in which you think this research could be conducted (Magwa,
2013). Your research proposal should answer the following questions:

 What research project will you undertake?

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  Why is it important to know that thing?
 How will you proceed to make that research?

The purpose of the proposal is to make sure the student has done sufficient preliminary
reading in the area of his / her interest. It also helps to ensure that the student has thought
about the issues involved. It is intended to convince others that you have the competence
and work plan to complete it.

Activity 2.1
1. Examine the purpose of research proposal in the development studies research
process.

2.3 Compiling a Research Proposal

The research proposal is compiled in conjunction with the supervisor.

The starting point is to read as much literature on the general subject matter as time will
allow. While you read the literature it is advised to take notes and then summarise the
purpose and findings of each study relevant to the general subject matter of the eventual
research proposal. Note that the general purpose of this literature review is not to have
notes on a whole bunch of different journal articles and books on a particular subject. The
purpose is to understand what studies have already been done on the subject and then to
identify any glaring gaps in the literature. Identifying gaps in the literature will open up
opportunities to add to the body of knowledge within the general subject area. Thus, this
preliminary literature review will help you in the identification of a specific area of
investigation and coming up with a working title.

The components of a research proposal are as follows:

 working title;
 background to the study;
 Research problem;
 Statement of purpose;
 research question, objectives, and hypothesis / central theoretical statement;
 justification and statement of contribution of the research;
 proposed research methodology;
 theoretical framework and /or conceptual framework
 ethical considerations;
 delimitations of the research;
 limitations of the study;
 definition of terms; and
 list of references used in preparing the proposal

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2.3.1 Working title
We call your initial title of the research project a working title because it is subject to
change as the research process progresses. According to Ababio (2006), formulating a
title may never be an easy task. It exists disjointedly in memory and can be polished
when you discuss with colleagues and your supervisor. The title must be in the domain of
your area of study in the social sciences like Development Studies. In this, your interest
in any of the modules you studied in relation to issues at your workplace or of a
phenomenon can help much in title formulation. It may be noted that subject fields are
often too wide. Titles must therefore be narrowed to specifics which can help make
research manageable. A title such as Effectiveness of linking planning to budgeting at
Masvingo Municipality provides a narrow and manageable scope for research. Firstly, the
title provides for strong literature review on budgeting and planning (chapter 2).
Secondly, it narrows the research into mainly an aspect of Development Studies and
Public Management, that is, Public Finance. Thirdly, there is the action word for
investigation, that is Effectiveness; and fourthly, it identifies the locus, where the research
is based i.e. Masvingo Municipality.

2.3.2 Background to the study

Background to the study is intended to give the reader an orientation to the research
problem. It thus gives the reader a brief historical, theoretical and empirical overview of
the problem area. In your background discussion, indicate the theme of the investigation
and place it in perspective with information from the literature in the research field
concerned. The specific gap (problem) in the current knowledge on the topic or the area
in which a contribution can be made must be indicated. This is confirmed with an
evaluating (not summative) reference to recent research (problems, ambiguities,
unanswered questions or niches for creative development). It must be clear that the
problem is currently still unsolved or that there is a need or possibility for the new,
meaningful development. This background to the study should smoothly flow into the
research problem. The background statement (orientation of the study) and statement of
the problem forms the bedrock of the research proposal (Ababio, 2006).

2.3.3 Research problem

It is important for the research problem to which the proposed study intends finding a
solution to be explicitly formulated. This section presents and summarizes the problem
you intend to solve and your solution to that problem. What is the exact problem that you
want to explore in your research and why is this an interesting and important problem?
Here is an example of a problem statement in the ICTs and small enterprises sector:

The problem is that small enterprises, although having access to ICTs, do not seem
to be using them to add value to their business processes, and cumulatively to
remain competitive.

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2.3.4 Statement of purpose
Next is research purpose in which you indicate what the broad aim of the proposed
research is. In the case of empirical investigations the general aims usually pertain to
what is intended with the literature and empirical research, while the specific objectives
are formulated particularly for the empirical research.

2.3.5 Research question, objectives and hypothesis/central

theoretical statement
Pose 3 to 5 questions and objectives which the research will investigate. The technical
requirement is that questions and objectives must each tally or correlate. Then formulate
the basic hypothesis or expectation of the central theoretical statement (guiding
argument).

2.3.6 Justification and statement of contribution

This section can simply be called significance or importance of the study. Here the
researcher wants to convince the examiner why the research is worth doing. The section
describes the potential value of the study and its findings. Research is conducted to add to
the existing body of knowledge and/or to solve a problem. How your particular research
will do this should be articulated in this section.

2.3.7 Proposed research methodology

In this section, to be built upon in Chapter 3, you need to show the direction with regards
to the research methodology that you are going to take. The section comprises brief
allusion to:

 whether the study is qualitative, quantitative or mixed;

 data collection methods; and
 data analysis, which involves organisation and interpretation of the data
generated.

2.3.8 Theoretical framework / Conceptual framework

Theories are formulated to explain, predict and understand phenomena, and, in many
cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding
assumptions.

Academic studies require a theoretical foundation or a conceptual framework (or both)

that is discussed in the literature review section. The theoretical foundation is important
because it is the lens through which you evaluate your research problem and research
questions. A theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a

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research study. It provides a particular perspective, or lens, through which to examine a
topic. It introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research problem under
study exists.

There are many different lenses, such as psychological theories, social theories,
organisational theories and economic theories, which may be used to define concepts and
explain phenomena. Often times these, frameworks may come from an area outside your
immediate academic discipline. Using a theoretical framework for your dissertation can
help you to better analyse past events by providing a particular set of questions to ask,
and a particular perspective to use when examining your topic. This framework helps to
ground the research focus under study within theoretical underpinnings and to frame the
inquiry for data analysis and interpretation.

The theoretical / conceptual framework strengthens the study in the following ways:

 an explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate

them critically;
 it connects the researcher to existing knowledge (guided by a relevant theory, you
are given a basis for your central theoretical argument / hypothesis and choice of
research methods);
 articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how; and
 it specifies which key valuables influence a phenomenon of interest and
highlights the need to examine how those variables might differ and under what
circumstances.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing of
specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint that the researcher will take in
analysing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of
concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by
validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

From a philosophical or paradigm point of view, the theoretical framework section is

typically required for quantitative studies, while a conceptual framework is used in
qualitative studies.

In some cases, a conceptual framework is seen as different from a theoretical framework

for it is seen as part of the broader theoretical framework. It is seen as representing the
researcher’s synthesis of literature on how to explain a phenomenon. It maps out the
actions required in the course of the study given one’s previous knowledge of other
researchers’ point of view and one’s observations on the subject of research. The
conceptual framework is thus the researcher’s understanding of how the particular
variables in the present study connect with each other. Thus, it identifies the variables
required in the research investigation. It is the researcher’s map in pursuing the
investigation.

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2.3.9 Ethical considerations
Ethics of the research here refers to the morals of the investigation or intervention as
regards the minimal abuse, disregard, safety, social and psychological well being of the
person, community and /or animals i.e. how the principles of consent, beneficence and
justice are handled in the study. Include a statement of where ethical clearance has been
or will be obtained.

2.3.10 Delimitations and limitations of the study

The delimitations provide for the boundary of the research in terms of depth of
investigation, content, geographical, time frame and theoretical coverage.

Limitations refer to anticipated constraints imposed by methods/location/situation of

research. Potential sources of bias in the proposed study are presented here. Show how
the limitations/bias will be addressed. However, these must not be seen to prevent the
study from being carried out, Otherwise it will not start. The limitations are major
considerations before embarking on a study to ascertain the feasibility of
accomplishment.

2.3.11 Definition of terms and list of references

The same words may have different meanings not only to different people but also in
different context. It is therefore important to give contextual meaning to selected key
terms in your topic and those that appear frequently in your study.

All the sources referred to in the proposal should be listed alphabetically at the end of
your proposal.

Activity 2.2
1. Define the term research proposal.
2. Give an outline of the components of a research proposal.

2.4 Summary
In this unit we defined a research proposal as a document that informs others of a
proposed piece of research. Your finished research proposal is your research plan. With it
you are ready to begin. We closed the unit by giving you a generic outline of the elements
in a research proposal. Whether you are doing quantitative or qualitative research, it is

10
important that you outline the reasons why you propose doing the study and what process
or procedures you will follow to complete the proposed study.

Most of the information in your proposal is what is going to be translated to your chapter
one of the research project report. We therefore skip chapter one of your research project
report and move on to chapter two of the report. Your supervisor will guide you on how
to turn your proposal into chapter one.

References
Ababio, E.P. (2006). Guidelines to writing research proposal development and
management/political science. Vanderbijlpark. North-West University: Vaal
Triangle Campus.
Magwa, W. (2013). Writing the Research Proposal. In Tichapondwa, S.M. (ed).
Preparing your Dissertation at a Distance: A Research Guide. Vancouver.
Virtual University for Small States of the Collonwealth.

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UNIT 3 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.0 Introduction
The ability to review, and to report on relevant literature is a key academic skill. A
literature review is a text written by someone to consider the critical points of current
knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological
contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such,
do not report any new or original experimental work. Its main goals are to situate the
current study within the body of literature and to provide context for the particular reader.
Literature reviews are a staple for research in nearly every academic field. A systematic
review is a literature review focused on a research question, trying to identify, appraise,
select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to that question. In this
unit, we are going to help you understand the meaning and purpose of literature review.
You will be required to review related literature in chapter two of your research project
report.

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define literature review;

 justify the importance of literature review in research; and
 examine the processes to consider when doing literature review.

3.2 What is Literature Review?

In our introduction to this unit, we define literature review as a text written by someone
to consider the critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings, as
well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. This definition
guides our discussion in this unit. Literature review is not an annotated bibliography in
which you summarise briefly each article that you have reviewed. Wellington, et al.
(2005) argues that while a summary of what you have read is contained within the
literature review, it goes well beyond merely summarising professional literature. It
focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis of the
relationship among different works, and relating this research to your work. It may be
written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a
research study such as a thesis, dissertation or undergraduate research project. It is thus
very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of what others
have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a critical
discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at
all times to your own purpose and rationale.

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Literature review is an important showcase of your talents of understanding,
interpretation, analysis, clarity of thought, synthesis, and development of argument
(Galvan, 2006). The process of conducting and reporting your literature review can help
you clarify your own thoughts about your study. It can also establish a framework within
which to present and analyse the findings. According to Caulley (1992), the literature
review should:

 compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue;

 group authors who draw similar conclusions;
 criticise aspects of methodology;
 note areas in which authors are in disagreement;
 highlight exemplary studies;
 highlight gaps in research;
 show how your study relates to previous studies;
 show how your study relates to the literature in general; and
 conclude by summarising what the literature says.

After reading your literature review, it should be clear to the reader that you have up-to-
date awareness of the relevant work of others, and that the research question you are
asking is relevant. However, do not promise too much! Be wary of saying that your
research will solve a problem, or that it will change practice. It would be safer and
probably more realistic to say that your research will ‘address a gap’, rather than that it
will ‘fill a gap’ (Galvan, 2006).

As a concluding remark to this section, we remind you that your literature review is more
than just a list of references with a short description of each one. Merriam (1988:6)
describes the literature review as ‘an interpretation and synthesis of published work’.

3.3 The Purpose of Literature Review

When readers come to your research project or dissertation, they will not just assume that
your research or analysis is a good idea; they will want to be persuaded that it is relevant
and that it was worth doing. They will ask questions such as:

 What research question(s) are you asking?

 Why are you asking it/them?
 Has anyone else done anything similar?
 Is your research relevant to research/practice/theory in your field?
 What is already known or understood about this topic?
 How might your research add to this understanding, or challenge existing theories
and beliefs?

These are questions that you will already probably be asking yourself. You will also need
to be ready to answer them in a viva / presentation if you will be having one.

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According to Taylor and Procter (2008), a literature review summarises, interprets, and
critically evaluates existing "literature" or published material in order to establish current
knowledge of a subject. For them, the purpose for doing so relates to ongoing research to
develop that knowledge: the literature review may resolve a controversy, establish the
need for additional research, and/or define a topic of inquiry. According to Caulley
(1992), a literature review:

 defines and limits the problem you are working on;

 places your study in an historical perspective;
 avoids unnecessary duplication;
 evaluates promising research methods;
 relates your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research.

A literature review (see Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 2001; Galvan, 2006; Taylor and
Proctor, 2008):

 provides an overview and a critical evaluation of a body of literature relating to a

research topic or a research problem;
 analyzes a body of literature in order to classify it by themes or categories, rather
than simply discussing individual works one after another;
 presents the research and ideas of the field rather than each individual work or
author by itself;
 situates your research focus within the context of the wider academic community
in your field;
 reports your critical review of the relevant literature; and
 identifies a gap within that literature that your research will attempt to address.

Thus, the aim of a literature review is to show your reader that you have read, and have a
good grasp of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in your
field. This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In the
latter cases in particular, the review will be guided by your research objective or by the
issue you are arguing and will provide the framework for your further work.

The depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in
his or her field. Literature reviews provide a solid background for a research project’s
investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most
research projects. A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written,
identifies areas of controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need further
research.

Activity 3.1
1. Define the term literature review.
2. Why do academic empirical researchers embark on literature review?

14
 3. What are the implications of the observation: ‘your literature review is more than
just a list of references with a short description of each one’.

3.4 When is Literature Review done in the Research Process?

Our experience as lecturers and research projects supervisors has taught us that with
small-scale writing projects such as undergraduate projects, the literature review is likely
to be done just once; probably before the writing begins. We, however, encourage our
students that this is a continuous process which should be done throughout the research
process. As you encounter new information and insights you are not only likely to revisit,
but also revise your literature review to make it more appealing and persuading. As you
continue reading you are likely to find out that the information you thought was current is
in fact obsolete!

According to Wellington, et al. (2005), there are three stages at which a review of the
literature is needed:

 an early review is needed to establish the context and rationale for your study and
to confirm your choice of research focus/question;
 as the study period gets longer, you need to make sure that you keep in touch with
current, relevant research in your field, which is published during the period of
your research; and
 as you prepare your final report, you need to relate your findings to the findings of
others, and to identify their implications for theory, practice, and research. This
can involve further review with perhaps a slightly different focus from that of
your initial review.

You need to be able to demonstrate that you are aware of current issues and research, and
to show how your research is relevant within a changing context.

3.5 Getting Started

Reading anything on your research area is a good start. You can then begin your process
of evaluating the quality and relevance of what you read, and this can guide you to more
focused further reading.

Taylor and Procter (2008) have some useful suggested questions to ask yourself at the
beginning of your reading:

 What is the specific problem or research question that my literature review helps
to define?
 What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory?
Methodology? Policy? Quantitative research? Qualitative research?
 What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using
(e.g., journals, books, government documents, popular media)?

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  What discipline(s) am I working in (e.g., nursing, psychology, sociology,
development studies, medicine)?

You can add other questions of your own to focus the search, for example: What time
period am I interested in? What geographical area? What social setting? What materials?
You may also want to make a clear decision about whether to start with a very narrow
focus and work outwards, or to start wide before focusing in. You may even want to do
both at once. It is a good idea to decide your strategy on this, rather than drifting into one
or the other. It can give you a degree of control, in what can feel like an overwhelming
and uncontrollable stage of the research process.

Activity 3.2
1. Examine the three stages at which a review of literature is needed.
2. How useful are Taylor and Procter’s (2008) guiding questions at the beginning of
your reading for literature review?

3.6 Approaching and Managing Literature Sources

Staff and students in your area can be good sources of ideas about where to look for
relevant literature. They may already have copies of articles that you can work with.

If you attend a conference or workshop with a wider group of people, perhaps from
other universities, you can take the opportunity to ask other attendees for
recommendations of articles or books relevant to your area of research.

Each department or school has assigned to it a specialist Information Librarian. You

can find the contact details for the Information Librarian for your own area via the
Library web pages. This person can help you identify relevant sources, and create
effective electronic searches. They help you to find information, provide training in
information skills and the use of databases and can help you to develop your research
skills.

3.6.1 Electronic sources

Searching electronic databases is probably the quickest way to access a lot of material.
Guidance will be available via your own department or school and via the relevant
Information Librarian. There may also be key sources of publications for your subject
that are accessible electronically, such as collections of policy documents, standards,
archive material, videos, and audio-recordings.

3.6.2 References
If you can find a few really useful sources, it can be a good idea to check through their
reference lists to see the range of sources that they referred to. This can be particularly

16
useful if you find a review article that evaluates other literature in the field. This will then
provide you with a long reference list, and some evaluation of the references it contains.

3.6.3 Hand searching of journals

No electronic literature search can be 100% comprehensive, as the match between search
terms and the content of articles will never be perfect. An electronic search may throw up
a huge number of hits, but there are still likely to be other relevant articles that it has not
detected. So, despite having access to electronic databases and to electronic searching
techniques, it can be surprisingly useful to have a pile of journals actually on your desk,
and to look through the contents pages, and the individual articles.

Often hand searching of journals will reveal ideas about focus, research questions,
methods, techniques, or interpretations that had not occurred to you. Sometimes even a
key idea can be discovered in this way. It is therefore probably worth allocating some
time to sitting in the library, with issues from the last year or two of the most relevant
journals for your research topic, and reviewing them for anything of relevance. Blaxter et
al. (2001:103) recommend this method, in addition to other more systematic methods,
saying ‘Take some time to browse – serendipity is a wonderful thing.’

3.6.4 Collecting material

To avoid printing out or photocopying a lot of material that you will not ultimately read,
you can use the abstracts of articles to check their relevance before you obtain full copies.
As you review the references, remember to be a critical reader.

3.6.5 Keeping a record

Keeping a record of your search strategy is useful, to prevent you duplicating effort by
doing the same search twice, or missing out a significant and relevant sector of literature
because you think you have already done that search. Increasingly, examiners are looking
for the detail of how you chose which evidence you decided to refer to. They will want to
know how you went about looking for relevant material, and your process of selection
and omission.

3.6.6 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is regarded as a serious offence by all Universities, and you need to make sure
that you do not, even accidentally, commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is the using of someone
else’s words or ideas, and passing them off as your own. It can happen accidentally, for
example, if you are careless in your note-taking. This can mean that you get mixed up
over what is an exact quote, and what you have written in your own words; or over what
was an idea of your own that you jotted down, or an idea from some text.

A practical way to help you avoid accidentally forgetting to reference someone else’s
work, is routinely to record short extracts of text verbatim i.e.: using the exact words of

17
the author, rather than putting the idea into your own words at the point where you are
still reading. You will need to put inverted commas around the exact quote, and record
the page number on which it appears. This has the advantage that, when you come to use
that example in your writing up, you can choose to use the exact quote in inverted
commas, with the reference and page number; or to describe it in your own words, and
use the standard reference format, without the page number, to acknowledge that it was
someone else’s idea.

3.6.7 When to stop

It is important to keep control of the reading process, and to keep your research focus in
mind. Rudestam and Newton (1992:49) remind us that the aim is to ‘Build an argument,
not a library’.

It is also important to see the writing stage as part of the research process, not something
that happens after you have finished reading the literature. Wellington, et al (2005:80)
suggest ‘Writing while you collect and collecting while you write.’ It is often not until
you start explaining something in writing that you find where your argument is weak, and
you need to collect more evidence.

A skill that helps in curtailing the reading is knowing where to set boundaries. Decisions
need to be made about where to focus your reading, and where you can refer briefly to an
area but explain why you will not be going into it in more detail.

Activity 3.3
1. Where do you get information for your literature review?
2. With the coming of electronic sources of information hard copies of academic
texts are becoming obsolete. Do you agree? Why do you think that?

3.7 Writing Literature Review

The task of shaping a logical and effective report of a literature review is undeniably
challenging. Some useful guidance on how to approach the writing up is given by
Wellington, et al (2005:87):

 It should be framed by your research questions.

 It must relate to your study.
 It must be clear to the reader where it is going: keep signposting along the way.
 Wherever possible, use original source material rather than summaries or reviews
by others.
 Be in control, not totally deferent to or ‘tossed about by’ previous literature.
 Be selective. Ask ‘why am I including this?’
 It is probably best to treat it as a research project in its own right.
 Engage in a dialogue with the literature, you are not just providing a summary.

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In most disciplines, the aim is for the reader to reach the end of the literature review with
a clear appreciation of what you are doing; why you are doing it; and how it fits in with
other research in your field. Often, the literature review will end with a statement of the
research question(s).

Having a lot of literature to report on can feel overwhelming. It is important to keep the
focus on your study, rather than on the literature (Wellington, 2005). To help you do this,
you will need to establish a structure to work to. A good, well-explained structure is also
a huge help to the reader.

3.7.1 Structure
Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic
elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review
containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations
section to end the paper, body and conclusion.

Your introduction should give a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as
the central theme or organisational pattern. The introduction should define or identify the
general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context for
reviewing the literature. You should point out overall trends in what has been published
about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps
in research and scholarship; or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.
You also need to establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature;
explain the criteria to be used in analysing and comparing literature and the organisation
of the review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not
included (scope).

The body of your literature review contains your discussion of sources. Some examples
of ways you might structure your literature review are:

 chronologically; although be careful not just to list items; you need to write
critically, not just descriptively;
 by theme; this is useful if there are several strands within your topic that can
logically be considered separately before being brought together;
 by sector e.g.: political background, practice background, methodological
background, geographical background, literary background;
 by development of ideas; this could be useful if there are identifiable stages of
idea development that can be looked at in turn;
 by some combination of the above, or by another structure you create.

There are many possible structures, and you need to establish one that will best fit the
‘story’ you are telling of the reason for your study. Once you have established your
structure you need to outline it for your reader.

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Once you have decided on the structure for the body of the review, the sections you need
to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your
organisational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections
for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors
that relate to the theme or issue.

In your conclusions/recommendations you discuss what you have drawn from

reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?

3.7.2 Using tables

As well as using tables to display numerical data, tables can be useful within a literature
review when you are comparing other kinds of material. For example, you could use a
table to display the key differences between two or more:

 possible theoretical perspectives;

 possible methods;
 sets of assumptions;
 sample profiles; and
 possible explanations.

The table format can make the comparisons easier to understand than if they were listed
within the text. It can also be a check for yourself that you have identified enough
relevant differences. An omission will be more obvious within a table, where it would
appear as a blank cell, than it would be within text.

3.7.3 References
Almost all academic writing will need a reference list. This is a comprehensive list of the
full references of sources that you have referred to in your writing. The reader needs to be
able to follow up any source you have referred to.

The term ‘bibliography’ can cause confusion, as some people use it interchangeably with
the term ‘reference list’; but they are two different things. The term ‘bibliography’ refers
to any source list that you want to place at the end of your writing, including sources you
have not referenced, and sources you think readers may want to follow up. A
bibliography is not usually necessary or relevant, unless you have been asked to produce
one.

3.8 Reviewing your Review

Once you have a first draft of your literature review it is possible for you to assess how
well you have achieved your aims. One way of doing this is to examine each paragraph in
turn, and to write in the margin a very brief summary of the content, and the type of
content e.g.: argument for; argument against; description; example; theory; link. These

20
summaries then provide the outline of the story you are telling, and the way that you are
telling it. Both of these are important and need to be critically reviewed.

Useful questions at this stage include:

 What is the balance between description and comment?

 Have I missed out any important dimension of the argument, or literature?
 Have I supported the development of each step in my argument effectively?
 Is the material presented in the most effective order?
 Are there places where the reader is left with unanswered questions?
 Is every element of my research question supported by the preceding material?
 Have I explained to the reader the relevance of each piece of evidence?
 Is there any material that is interesting but which does not contribute to the
development of the argument?
 Have I explained adequately the justification for this research approach / topic /
question?
 Are my references up to date?
 How effective is my linking of all the elements?

Beware of becoming too attached to your writing. You need to be ready to cross out
whole paragraphs or even whole sections if they do not pass the above tests. If you find
that what you have written is not in the best order, then re-shaping it is not a huge
problem. It may be mainly a case of cutting and pasting material into a different order,
with some additional explanation and linking. If this produces a more relevant and
streamlined argument it is well worth the effort.

Activity 3.4
1. How would you structure your literature review?
2. How important is literature review in development studies research?

3.9 Summary
In this unit, we defined literature review as a text written by someone to consider the
critical points of current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical
and methodological contributions to a particular topic. We argued that while a summary
of what you have read is contained within the literature review, it goes well beyond
merely summarising literature. Literature review focuses on a specific topic of interest to
you and includes a critical analysis of the relationship among different works, and
relating this research to your work. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide
a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study such as an undergraduate
research project. Its main goals are to situate the current study within the body of
literature and to provide context for the particular reader. In the next unit we look at
research methodology.

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References
Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2001). How to research. Buckingham: Open
University.
Galvan, J. (2006). Writing literature reviews: a guide for students of the behavioural
sciences (3rd ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Merriam, S. (1988). Case study research in education: a qualitative approach. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Rudestam, K. and Newton, R. (1992). Surviving your dissertation. London: Sage.
Taylor, D. and Procter, M. (2008). The literature review: a few tips of conducting it.
Health Services Writing Centre: University of Toronto.
Wellington, J., Bathmaker, A., Hunt, C., McCulloch G. and Sikes, P. (2005). Succeeding
with your doctorate. London: Sage

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UNIT 4 Research Methodology

4.0 Introduction
Your chapter three in your research project report focuses on research methodology.

In the Module MSDS502 we established that there are two major approaches to research
methodology and design, as derived from positivist and post-positivist paradigms. These
are quantitative and qualitative approaches. The two approaches can be combined to
come up with mixed approaches. Quantitative inquiries use numerical and statistical
processes to answer specific questions. Qualitative research is grounded in the
assumption that individuals construct social reality in the form of meanings and
interpretations. We thus use qualitative methods to capture what people say about their
meanings and interpretations. Qualitative research typically involves qualitative data, i.e.,
data obtained through methods such as interviews, on-site observations, and focus groups
that is in narrative rather than numerical form. Such data are analysed by looking for
themes and patterns. It involves reading, rereading, and exploring the data. In this unit,
we give you an overview of these three approaches to research.

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 distinguish between research methodology and methods;

 distinguish between quantitative, qualitative and mixed research designs; and
 appropriately apply these research methodologies in your research endeavours.

4.2 Research Methodology and Methods

Research methodology is about the approaches and techniques used in administering a
research project. It refers to the choice and use of particular strategies, methods and tools
for data gathering and analysis. Thus methodology is the grand strategy employed to
conduct research. Methods are the tools within this grand strategy. A research project is
designed and conducted to gather data that can be converted into information that helps to
solve a problem.

Activity 4.1
1. Distinguish between research methodology and methods.

4.3 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is about collecting numerical data to explain a particular
phenomenon. Particular questions seem immediately suited to being answered using

23
quantitative methods. How many people are living below the poverty datum line in our
country? What percentage of community leaders belong to women? These are examples
of questions we can look at quantitatively, as the data we need to collect are already
available to us in numerical form.

In development studies research, quantitative data are ideally suited for responding to
who, what, when, and where questions. The questions must be direct and easily
quantifiable in ways that allow computation of reliable statistical analysis. Thus, the
benefit of quantitative research lies in the researcher’s ability to summarise results in
statistically meaningful ways, allowing findings to be generalised to other populations of
similar characteristics.

Blaikie, captured in McCandless (2007) describes quantitative data as data that normally
begins with words but is then transformed, sorted, and classified into numbers. Such data
are subjected to different levels of statistical manipulation using a set of rules or formulae
or strict procedures that then make their definition and interpretation unambiguous and
independent of individual judgements. By means of some coding process, quantitative
data is transformed into numerical form.

4.4 Qualitative Research

Bolarinwa (2006) observes that qualitative research describes or tells what is done or
what has been done. It tells the story around events, occurrences and practices. In
qualitative designs, theory arises from the investigation. Theory and conceptual insights
derive from data collection rather than prior to it. Such approaches generate hypotheses,
as opposed to testing them (McCandless, et al, 2007): Qualitative methods are more
interpretative, historical, and ethnographic than are quantitative approaches.

According to Hancock (1998), qualitative research is concerned with developing

explanations of social phenomena. Its aim is to help us understand the world in which we
live and why things are the way they are. It is concerned with the social aspects of our
world and seeks to answer questions about:

 why people behave the way they do;

 how opinions and attitudes are formed;
 how people are affected by the events that go on around them;
 how and why cultures have developed in the way they have; and
 the differences between social groups (Hancock, 1998).

4.5 Mixed Research

The above two approaches to research have been found to be complementary as each
caters for the weaknesses of the other when used in combination. This leads us to the
rationale for mixed research design. The idea of complementary strengths here means
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The mixed approach helps improve the

24
quality of research because the different research approaches have different strengths and
different weaknesses.

In mixed research design, the researcher uses a mixture or combination of quantitative

and qualitative methods, approaches, or concepts in a single research study or in a set of
related studies. The qualitative and quantitative parts of a research study might be
conducted concurrently (conducting both parts at roughly the same time) or sequentially
(conducting one part first and the other second) to address a research question or a set of
related questions.

Activity 4.2
1. Distinguish between quantitative, qualitative and mixed research approaches?
2. What is the strength of mixed research over the other two approaches to research?
3. Among the three approaches to research design which one do you think is more
appropriate for development studies research? Why do you think that?

4.6 Sampling
Creswell (1994) defines sampling as the process of selecting participants for a study from
the total population. A sample is easy to manage and is economic in terms of time and
financial resources. Sampling is done using two basic approaches- probability and non-
probability.

4.6.1 Population
A population is the group consisting of all people and / or objects to whom we (as
researchers) wish to apply our findings. It consists of all the subjects / participants you
want to study. All individuals or objects within a certain population usually have a
common, binding characteristic or trait. Usually, the description of the population and the
common binding characteristic of its members are the same. For example, government
officials is a well-defined group of individuals which can be considered as a population
and all the members of this population are indeed officials of the government.

There are two types of population: target population and accessible population. Target
population refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to which researchers are
interested in generalising the conclusions. It is the actual population to whom the
researcher wishes to apply his or her findings. Often the target population is not available.
In that case the research must use an accessible population. In this case, the researcher
can only apply (generalise) his or her findings to that group. This accessible population is
a subset of the target population and is also known as the study population. It is from the
accessible population that researchers draw their samples (Explorable.com, 2009). Thus,
the accessible population is that group of research units from which the researcher can
actually sample.

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4.6.2 Sample
A sample is a subset of the population that is intended to represent the whole population
(Tull and Hawkins, 1993). When dealing with people, a sample can be defined as a set of
respondents (people) selected from a larger population for the purpose of study. In fact,
one will not be able to get data from every one of the selected research units or
population. The researcher may not be able to find all of the intended participants, some
may elect not to participate, some may start but not finish the research, some may give
bad data, and so on. The actual sample is the group of research units from which you are
actually able to get data.

4.6.3 Sampling frame

When all the members of the population are explicitly identified, the resulting list is
called a sampling frame. Thus a sampling frame is a list of all of the members of the
accessible population.

4.7 Sampling in Quantitative Research

Quantitative research can be conducted through either probability or non-probability
sampling. Probability sampling can be simple random sampling, systematic random
sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling
include convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snow ball sampling, quota sampling.

4.8 Sampling in Qualitative Research

Since the objective of qualitative research is to understand and give meaning to a social
process, rather than quantify and generalise to a wider population, it is inappropriate to
use random sampling or apply statistical tests. Sample sizes used in qualitative research
are usually very small and the application of statistical tests would be neither appropriate
nor feasible. In fact, in qualitative research, we are also sampling to represent the
population. However, we do not want to represent the population numerically or in a way
that you can predict numbers or proportions. We want to represent the sample
behaviourally, or in a way that we can describe or understand the population. While
quantitative research typically involves large samples so we can make accurate
predictions mathematically (little information about a lot of people), qualitative research
typically involves small samples that we study in-depth (a lot of information about a few
people). Qualitative researchers frequently also use convenience, snowball and network
sampling, but they also use other types of sampling methods.

4.9 Data Collection Methods

Data collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data
collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

In quantitative research we use the following data collection methods:

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  questionnaires;
 interviews; and
 observation.

In qualitative research we use the following data collection methods:

 focus group discussion;

 narratives, discourse and document analysis;
 observation and ethnography; and
 photography, film and video;

Activity 4.3
1. What is sampling in the research process?
2. Why do we sample in the research process?
3. How do you sample participants in qualitative research?

4.10 Research ethics

Research ethics are moral obligations and principles that researchers should adhere to in
carrying out and reporting their studies (Punch, 2005). There are many ethical issues to
be taken into consideration in research. Researchers need to be aware of having the
responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the
study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be a
certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to
protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The
confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their
anonymity and privacy secure.

Ethical issues should be considered at all stages of the research process, beginning with
the researcher’s choice of topic. Punch (2005) summarises the main ethical
considerations as harm, consent, deception, privacy and confidentiality of data. Miles and
Huberman (1994:290) provide a comprehensive list of eleven ethical issues that need
attention before, during and after qualitative studies. Most of the ethical issues listed
below apply to both qualitative and quantitative studies:

 worthiness of the project;

 competence boundaries;
 informed consent;
 benefits, costs and reciprocity
 harm and risk;
 honesty, integrity and trust;
 privacy, confidentiality and anonymity;
 intervention and advocacy;

27
  research integrity and quality;
 ownership of data and conclusions (authorship); and
 use and misuse of results

Activity 4.4
1. How important are ethical considerations I development studies research?

4.11 Summary
In this unit we took you through research methodology concepts and processes. We
defined research methodology as approaches and techniques used in administering a
research project. It is about the choice and use of particular strategies, methods and tools
for data gathering and analysis. We said the major research approaches are quantitative
and qualitative designs which can be mixed to come up with a mixed research design
depending on the nature of the study. We also outlined sampling techniques, data
collection tools and ethical considerations in the research process. In the next unit we
focus on chapter four of your research project report.

References
Bolarinwa, J.O. (2006). PCR 702: Research Methods in Peace and Conflict Resolution.
Lagos. National Open University of Nigeria.
Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hancock, B. (1998). Trent Focus for Research and Development in Primary Health
Care: An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Trent Focus.
McCandless, E., Bangura, A.K., King, M.E. and Sall, E. (editors) 2007. Peace Research
for Africa: Critical Essays on Methodology. Addis Ababa. University for Peace,
Africa Programme
McCandless, E. (2007). Selected Research Perspectives and Paradigms. In McCandless,
E., Bangura, A.K., King, M.E. and Sall, E. (editors) 2007. Peace Research for
Africa: Critical Essays on Methodology. Addis Ababa. University for Peace,
Africa Programme.
Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded
sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Punch, K.F. (2005). Introduction to Social Research–Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. London: Sage
Tull, D. S., Hawkins, D. I. (1993). Marketing Research: Measurement and Method. 6th
edition. London: Prentice Hall International.

28
UNIT 5 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

5.0 Introduction
Chapter four of your research project report focuses on data presentation and analysis.

Analysis of data in a research project involves summarising the mass of data collected
and presenting the results in a way that communicates the most important features. In
qualitative research we are not only interested in discovering the big picture but we are
also interested in using the data to describe a phenomenon, to articulate what it means
and to understand it. The basic process of analysing quantitative and qualitative data is
the same. We start by labelling or coding every item of information so that we can
recognise differences and similarities between all the different items.

In this unit, we provide you with steps required to efficiently organise and manipulate
both quantitative and qualitative data to bring forward the findings of the research
project. In addition, the unit discusses data presentation techniques.

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data analysis;

 describe the process involved in data analysis;
 describe the editing and coding process of data;
 discuss data analysis methods; and
 discuss data presentation techniques.

5.2 Data analysis

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modelling data with
the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting
decision making.

Two important ways of data analysis are editing and coding (Adegoke, 2010). Editing
consists of detailed examination of gathered data. Proper editing would expose any
incorrect entries, omissions, irregularities and other errors. This also enhances the ease of
coding and the quality of data. Editing provides qualities that aid analysis and these
include:

 accuracy;
 completeness;
 clarity and legibility; and
 consistencies (Adegoke, 2010).

29
Proper editing would help to detect and rectify bias arising from false responses and
editing can help eliminate and reduce obvious errors. It would further ensure that all
information sought has been obtained especially on those critical ones germane to the
research goals.

Coding refers to the process of organising responses into categories and number so as to
aid tabulations and analysis of the data. The main reason for coding is to make the data
amenable to quantifiable analysis. All types of data have to be coded. Coding can be done
before data collection (pre-coding) and after field work (post coding). For most
qualitative data, a system of classification and categorisation is used to assign codes to
the data before analysis. However, the coding classification and categories must be
guided by three basic principles, namely:

 all categories must be exhaustive and should cover all areas or range of responses
for a given question;
 code categories must not overlap; and
 code categories must be one-dimensional, i.e must be derived from a single
variable (Ahonsi, 1996).

For Bolarinwa (2006), quantitative researcher arranges measures of variables, which are
in the form for statistical analysis. Coding data has a different meaning and role in
qualitative research. A researcher organises the raw data into conceptual categories, and
creates themes or concepts which she then uses to analyse data.

Activity .1
1. Define data analysis.
2. Discuss the preliminary activities in the data analysis process.
3. Distinguish between editing and coding.

5.4 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

According to Adegoke (2010)s, some of the data analysis methods for qualitative
research include:

 Typology: This is a classification system, taken from patterns, themes, or other

kinds of group of data.
 Taxonomy: This can also be referred to as domain analysis and it is often used to
develop a sophisticated typology with multiple levels of concepts.
 Constant comparison: It looks at document, such as field notes, indicators of
categories in events and behaviour, name them and code them on document and
then compare codes to find consistencies and differences.
 Analytic induction: This is one of the oldest methods that looks at event and
develops a hypothetical statement of what happened. Then, it looks at another
similar event and sees if it fits the hypothesis. If it does not, then the hypothesis is
revised. It looks for exceptions to hypothesis, when it finds it, then it revise the

30
 hypothesis to fit all examples encountered. If not, it eventually develops
hypotheses that account for all observed cases.
 Logical analysis/Matrix analysis: This consists of an outline of generalised
causation, logical reasoning process, etc. Use flow charts, diagrams, etc. to
pictorially represent these, as well as written descriptions.
 Quasi-statistics: This involves counting the number of times something is
mentioned in field notes as very rough estimate of frequency.
 Domain analysis: Consists of the analysis of language of people in a cultural
context. It describes social situation and the cultural patterns within it,
emphasising on the meanings of the social situation to participants. There are
three different kinds of domains, namely folk domains, mixed domains, and
analytic domains.
 Discourse analysis: This consists of linguistic analysis of ongoing flow of
communication which involves the use of tapes so that they can be played and
replayed to analyse discussion of several people, not individual person
specifically. It finds patterns of questions, who dominates time and how, and
other patterns of interaction.
 Content analysis: Looks at documents, text, or speech to see what themes
emerge. What do people talk about the most? How do themes relate to each other?
Find latent emphases, political view of newspaper writer, which is implicit or look
at surface level - overt emphasis.
 Narrative analysis: This overlaps with other types of analysis and it refers to
analysing individual's speech or the story a person shares about self, then
compares ideas with them, but avoiding negatives about self. It includes study of
autobiographies. Narrative analysis could further involve study of literature or
diaries or folklore.

Activity 5.2
1. Discuss methods of data analysis in qualitative research.
2. How applicable is content analysis in development studies research?
3. How would you use tape in qualitative data analysis?

5.5 Presenting the Results of Qualitative Research

Qualitative data has several features to take into consideration when planning the
presentation of findings. A good starting point is to look at the themes and categories
which have emerged. The themes are then presented in sections with the categories as sub
sections. Further ‘evidence’ to support the findings is provided by using direct quotations
from respondents.

Some qualitative data can be dealt with in a quantitative way. If an idea appears in the
data frequently it may be feasible to measure how often it appears.

31
Activity 5.3
1. How would you present results in qualitative research?
2. Some qualitative data can be dealt with in a quantitative way. Discuss.
3. Using both qualitative and quantitative techniques for analysis of data can
strengthen the analysis. Comment

5.6 Quantitative Data Measurement and Analysis

Blaikie, captured in McCandless (2007) describes quantitative data as data that normally
begins with words but is then transformed, sorted, and classified into numbers. Such data
are subjected to different levels of statistical manipulation using a set of rules or formulae
or strict procedures that then make their definition and interpretation unambiguous and
independent of individual judgements. By means of some coding process, quantitative
data is transformed into numerical form.

Data for analysis in quantitative research result from the measurement of one or more
variables. Depending upon the variables, and the way in which they are measured,
different kinds of data result, representing different scales of measurement. In
quantitative research, there are four types of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio. It is important to know which type of scale is represented by the data
collected because different statistics are appropriate for different scales of measurement.
Refer to Modules BSDS 204 and BSDS 208 for full explanation of these measurement
scales.

Blaikie, captured in McCandless (2007) identifies four main categories of quantitative

data analysis, namely description, association, causation, and inference. Again refer to
Modules BSDS 204 and BSDS 208 for full explanation of these forms of analysis.

Data is usually presented in form of tables, graphs, pictures and narratives.

Activity 5.4
1. Giving practical illustrations in development studies research, discuss the
usefulness of the four quantitative research measurement scales.
2. Examine quantitative data analysis techniques.
3. With the aid of examples distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics

5.7 Summary
In this unit, we have seen that most forms of qualitative data analysis involve coding and
writing analytic memos. Both are labour-intensive efforts by the researcher to read over
data carefully and think about them seriously. In addition, you learned about methods that
researchers have used for the analysis of qualitative data. They are a sample of the many

32
methods of qualitative data analysis. We have also shown that quantitative research data
is analysed and presented in numerical and graphical forms. Quantitative data is analysed
using mathematically based methods. In the next unit, we discuss ethics in research with
special focus on developing economies.

References
Adegoke, T.A. 2010. CSS231: Methods of social research. Lagos. National Open
University of Nigeria
Ahonsi, B.A. 1996. ‘Social Research Types and their Applications.’ In Ahonsi, B. and
Soyombo, O. (eds.). Readings in Social Research Methods and Applications.
Ibadan: Caltop. pp 81-149
Bolarinwa, J.O. 2006. PCR 702: Research Methods in Peace and Conflict Resolution.
Lagos. National Open University of Nigeria
Hancock, B. 1998. Trent Focus for Research and Development in Primary Health Care:
An Introduction to Qualitative Research. Trent Focus.
McCandless, E. (2007). Selected Research Perspectives and Paradigms. In McCandless,
E., Bangura, A.K., King, M.E. and Sall, E. (editors) 2007. Peace Research for
Africa: Critical Essays on Methodology. Addis Ababa. University for Peace,
Africa Programme.

33
UNIT 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0 Introduction
Chapter five of your research project report presents the summary, conclusions and
recommendations of your study. In this unit we take you through these subsections of
your research project report.

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 outline the structure of chapter five of your research project report;

 draw conclusions from study findings; and
 make recommendations as determined by findings and conclusions of your study.

6.2 Summary
In the summary section in chapter five of your research project report you summarise
your study right from chapter one to the findings in chapter four. You clearly outline the
objectives of your study; your study methodology; overview of your literature review
conclusions; and summary of findings as discussed in chapter four of your research
project report. The summary should smoothly flow into your conclusions section.

6.3 Conclusions
In your conclusions section you summarise your findings and conclusions as per your
discussion and conclusions in chapter four. Your conclusions should address your
research questions, objectives and central argument / hypothesis as outlined and / or
argued in chapter one. Make sure that you arrange your conclusions thematically under
appropriate subheadings. Your conclusions should flow well into your recommendations.

6.4 Recommendations
As determined by findings and study conclusions, you now make your recommendations.
Your recommendations should be sound and derived from your study. It is recommended
that you arrange them in the same order you addressed your conclusions in the previous
section. You may end your recommendations by making recommendations for further
studies to address weaknesses of your study or related dimensions that were not
addressed in your study. In the next unit we take you through how you should reference
your research project.

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UNIT 7 REFERENCING

7.0 Introduction
Having looked at the five chapters of your research project report in the preceding five
units, we now turn to referencing in unit 7. Referencing is very important as most of your
argument is based on information got from other authorities. Using other people’s ideas
without acknowledgement is plagiarism. Plagiarism kills your academic integrity and
may end up blocking your career prospects.

7.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 avoid plagiarism;
 reference your academic work; and
 cite authorities properly.

7.2 Plagiarism and Citation

To plagiarise is to pass off the thoughts, writings, and work of another as one’s own. For
example, inserting extracts from a textbook into one’s essay, without acknowledging the
source; buying an essay from the internet and submitting it as your own. For more detail
refer to 3.6 above.

All citations should include a reference in the body of the text to the author as well as an
entry in the reference list. The project should consistently use a single citation style as
specified by the department in this guide. All source materials, primary or secondary,
published or unpublished must be credited and correctly cited in full, including
illustrations, charts, tables, etc. Even your own previous work should be cited if used in
the present academic work. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism and will result
automatically in a failing grade.

The use of quotations and references in the text is followed up by a list of references,
alphabetically presented at the end of the work. There are specific guidelines that you
must follow for referencing in the text and in the references section. The referencing
system adopted by the Department of Development Studies is the American
Psychological Association Style, or APA Style. What follows is a summary outline of
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th Edition. An
outline tutorial can be found at: http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm.

Source material should be quoted where the precise wording is specifically relevant or
significant, and the quotation always clearly marked as required by the citation style,
including page numbers. Sources may be paraphrased or summarised where exact
wording is not essential, but care should be taken not to change the original meaning
35
through paraphrase, and all paraphrased and summarised sources must be fully cited,
including page numbers. Where a quotation has been changed (for example,
capitalisation, punctuation, emphasis changed or a pronoun replaced by a noun), the
changes should be clearly indicated according to the citation style used.

Although interaction with existing research in the field is a requirement for all academic
writing, no part of the project should normally consist purely of summarising the work of
others. Summarised or quoted source material should not be left to stand on its own, but
should be introduced, explained, analysed and the purpose of its use made clear. Where
different sources are compared or contrasted, it should be made explicit to the reader both
that this is being done and why.

7.3 Referencing format (in the text)

After a summary of an author’s work, or a reference to your work you must insert the
author’s surname and the date of publication as follows (Murphy, 2010). In the case of
two authors, both are written down: (Wilson and Thomas, 2009). In the case of three or
more authors, all authors should be listed the first time the work is cited: (O’Brien, Smith,
Horgan, White and Dunphy, 2009). As listing five authors would become quite
cumbersome, after the first citation you need only name the first author, followed by et
al. (from the Latin, meaning ‘and others’): (O’Brien et al., 2009).

If you are including the author’s name as part of your sentence you can put the date in
brackets after it as follows: Murphy (2010) has argued that … When citing an author who
has published two or more works in the same year, use lower case letters (a, b, c, etc)
with the year to distinguish them: The Department of Education and Science (2007a) has
reported that … When you are summarising someone else’s ideas: Murphy (2010) has
argued that it is not just Ireland that has experienced such difficulties; other countries
including Finland have also faced similar economic problems. If you are citing a number
of works to support an argument or position, they should be listed alphabetically,
separated by a semi-colon: A considerable number of researchers have reported similar
findings (Barry, 2006; Doyle, 2008; Zacchus, 2004). A straight forward quotation:
However, it has been noted that “this is a phenomenon which is not unique to Ireland”
(Murphy, 2010, p. 12).

Say you are reading a book by Smith, and in Smith’s book there is a quote from another
book by Jones. You decide that you would like to include the quote by Jones in your
essay, but you have not read Jones’ original source. You present this kind of material as
follows: More evidence to support this assertion has been presented by research in North
America, which concluded that 23% of women are likely to choose not to have children
for a variety of reasons (Jones, as cited in Smith, 2005, pp. 254-256). The page number
given is the page number from the book by Smith from where you got the quotation from
Jones. Your references will contain the book by Smith.

36
If referencing from a newspaper, follow the same format as above. If there is no
identifiable author, use the name of the newspaper, the date and page number if required:
(The Irish Times, 19th January, 2010, p. 6).

A short quotation of less than a line may be included in the body of the text in quotation
marks, but if it is longer (typically, 40 words) start a new line and indent it. All direct
quotes must be single spaced and indented. This makes it easier for the reader to establish
what sourced work is and what your own work is. Include the page number if using a
direct quote: Russell’s (1997) work on incest in South Africa confines itself to white
incest survivors. She notes:

A few women have made valiant efforts to bring this problem to public attention
over the past decade, but the handling of this crime [incest] is still in the dark ages
in South Africa compared with most Western nations … [and] no adequate studies
of the prevalence of incestuous abuse have been conducted in South Africa (1997,
p. 9).

7.4 Reference List

‘References’ is a list of all the sources you quoted or paraphrased to prepare your project.
You should arrange entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name or, if there is
no author, by the first main word of the title. References should start on a separate page
at the end of your last chapter.

Examples:
(a) Books

The title of the publication should be italicised. Capitalise only the first word, the first
word after a colon and proper nouns.

Charleton, M. (2007). Ethics for social care in Ireland: Philosophy and practice. Dublin:
Gill & Macmillan.
Kessler, S. and Bayliss, F. (1985). Contemporary British industrial relations. London:
Macmillan.
Where an organisation is the author: Department of Education and Science. (2009). Etc.

(b) Edited books

Where a book has been edited you must insert (ed.) (if there is only one editor) or (eds.)
(for two or more editors) after their names:

O’Connor, T. and Murphy, M. (eds.). (2006). Social care in Ireland: Theory, policy and
practice. Cork: CIT Press.

(c) Contributions in edited books

37
When quoting the work of a contributor to an edited book the following format should be
used:
Kitchen, R. and Bartley, B. (2007). Ireland now and in the future. In B. Bartley and R.
Kitchen (eds.), Understanding contemporary Ireland (pp. 301-07). London:
Pluto Press.

(d) Journal articles

Labbé, J. (2005). Ambroise Tardieu: The man and his work on child maltreatment a
century before Kempe. Child Abuse and Neglect, 29(4), 311-324.

(e) Newspapers

Bloggs, J. (2008, September 1). Government at crossroads. Irish Times, p. 1.

(f) Websites and Online Journals

Online citation
Irish Council for Civil Liberties (2009). ICCL Submission on the (Retention of Data) Bill
Nov 2009. Dublin: Irish Council for Civil Liberties (http://www.iccl.ie/Justice-
publications.html).

Online Journals

Tobin, C. (2006). Tips to remember about allergy, asthma and immunology [Online].
American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 24, 225-229. doi:
10.1037/0728-6133.24.2.225.
Hemingway, E. (2007). The future of Irish social policy. Irish Journal of Social Policy,
99, 423-455. Retrieved from http://www.makeyupeywebsite.ie

(g) Theses / Dissertation

Ajax, J. (2004). The marketing of tulips in 17th Century Holland. Masters Dissertation.
Harare. University of Zimbabwe.

7.5 Summary
In this unit we have shown you the importance of properly referencing your academic
work. We have also shown you how to reference your work as required by the
Department of Development Studies. In the next unit we outline the structure of your
research project report.

38
UNIT 8 STRUCTURE OF THE FINAL RESEARCH PROJECT
REPORT

8.0 Introduction
Having looked at referencing in unit 7, in this last unit of the Module we take you through
the departmental expectations as far as the presentation of your final research project
report is concerned.

8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 write your research project report as per department requirements.

8.2 The Preliminary Pages

The preliminary pages refer to all the pages that come before chapter 1 of the report. In
the preliminary or front pages of the report the following sections are found:

The Title Page

This is considered as the first page of the project i.e. page (i) but it is not numbered. The
title should be single spaced and written in upper case throughout. Where the title itself
occupies more than 1 line, the breaking should be such that it is logical and makes for
easy reading. The title page should show:

 the institution granting the degree;

 the title of the project;
 the writer’s name;
 the purpose of the project i.e. qualification for which the project was done;
 the name of the department;
 name of supervisor; and
 year of award.

See appendix 1 for illustration.

The Release Form

This is a form that grants the university permission to reproduce and/or use copies of the
project for academic purposes. It also reserves the author’s publication rights. See
appendix 2.

39
Signed Approval Form

This form is the official acknowledgement by the supervisor and Regional Programme
Coordinator that they recommend the project for examination by the university. See
appendix 3.

Dedications

This serves as a form of tribute and/or recognition of specific individual(s) by the author.

The Abstract

The abstract is a brief explanation of the whole project. It should be precise, succinct and
should be a well written summary of the project. It should consist of a statement of the
problem and objective of the study, methodology, the data collection process and
delimitations, the data analysis technique(s), major findings and their significance,
conclusions and recommendations. Include sufficient details to convince the reader that
your findings are interesting and your project is worth reading. The abstract should be
single-spaced. It should not include any reference to the literature. The abstract should be
at most a page.

Acknowledgements

This section recognises persons (including institutions) to whom the candidate is indebted
for guidance and assistance during the research and writing. Acknowledgements should
be expressed simply and tactfully. If for any reason there is any use of non-English
words, phrases or sentences these should be highlighted either in bold or through
italicisation

Table of Contents

This section presents an outline of the components of the research project. It contains the
following sections:

 The Release Form (ii);

 Signed Approval Form (iii);
 Dedications (iv);
 The Abstract (v);
 Acknowledgements (vi);
 Table of Contents (vii);
 List of Tables (vii);
 List of Figures (vii);
 List of acronyms; and
 List of Appendices (vii).

40
After the preliminaries described above, you should then list all your five chapters,
chapter headings and sub-headings. For each chapter heading and sub-headings, you
should provide the pages where they are located in the final document. The last sections
under the table of contents are the back page materials that include references and
appendices. When typing the final document, you should make sure that:

 the preliminary page numbers are in Roman numerals;

 the chapter titles are in upper case;
 the chapter number is in Roman numerals;
 sub-headings for each chapter are in lower case and single spaced;
 margins are 3.8cm on the left and 2.5cm at the top; and
 page numbering should be at the centre bottom of the page.

List of Tables

This list consists of the exact titles or captions of all tables in the text and the beginning
page for each. The tables should be numbered in sequence, using Arabic numerals.

List of Figures

All other material that is not in the form of plain text and tables should be considered
under figures. All such material in the research project report should be indicated under
the table of contents. These are listed with the corresponding page numbers. Examples of
figures include graphs and pictures.

List of acronyms

In this section the writer lists acronyms constantly referred to in the project for easy
reference.

8.3 The Research Report Text

This section refers to the presentation of the report’s chapters 1 to 5 which constitute the
main research report. Each of the chapters should be clearly split into meaningful,
coherent logical sub-headings.

8.3.1 Text formatting

This sub-section focuses on the presentation specifications to be followed in the research
project report.

Margins

All pages should have top, bottom, left and right hand margins that conform to the
following specifications:

41
  3.8 cm on the left margin to leave adequate space for binding.
 2.5 cm at the top and bottom.
 2.5 cm on the right hand.

Typing

 Always use A4 paper.

 Typing should be done on 1 side of the page only and should be one and half
spaced.
 All chapter numbers should be clearly numbered in Roman numerals and centred.
The chapter numbering should be in bold.
 All chapter titles should be centred directly below the chapter number. The
chapter title should be in bold.
 For all sub-headings, use sentence formatting; i.e. only the first letter in the first
word of the sub-heading should be in upper case with all the other words in lower
case. All sub-headings should be in bold.
 If a sub-heading takes more than 1 line, it should be single spaced.
 Each chapter begins on a separate fresh page.
 Use Times New Roman, Font size 12.
 Use one and half spacing with adequate margins.
 Page numbers begin on first page of text. Title page is not numbered.
 Where possible graphs and diagrams should be printed in colour.
 Abbreviations and Acronyms. Abbreviations such as “e.g.”, “etc.”, “i.e.” are not
acceptable. One must write in full “for example”, “and so on” and “that is.”
Acronyms are acceptable if one has previously indicated the full meaning of the
acronym. Thus, to use “ZOU”, one must have initially used Zimbabwe Open
University (ZOU).

All headings should be left-aligned, except chapter headings, which may be centred. A
heading at the bottom of the page must have at least two full lines of text below it.
Otherwise, the heading should begin on the next page. Captions related to visual material
(graphs, tables, maps) should appear on the same page as the material itself. Chapter and
section headings should be consistently numbered. It should not normally be necessary to
go beyond three levels of sections. When in doubt, students should consult their
supervisor.

All tables and figures should also be numbered, sequentially within each chapter e.g. 1.1,
1.2 and then restarted sequentially in the next chapter e.g. 2.1, 2.2.

Text Spacing

Begin writing 1 space below the last line of the title. Paragraphs should be divided by just
one line (press enter just once between paragraphs). This should also apply when
beginning a new sub-division. Your typing and printing should also be consistent i.e. if
using a laser jet printer use the same printer for the whole document.

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Quotations

Quotations of 40 words or less should be typed within the general text and enclosed in
quotation marks where necessary. All quotations of more than 40 words should be
indented. Such long quotations should be:

 single spaced;
 be indented on both left and right side;
 not enclosed in quotation marks; and
 begin 1 space below general text.

Pagination

Religiously observe the following specifications when paginating your report:

 All front page (preliminary page) ,material should be numbered in lower case
Roman numerals, centred at the bottom of the page.
 All the main text beginning from Chapter I of the report should be in Arabic
numerals, centred at the bottom of the page. This numbering should be used up to
the appendices.
 Remember to centre all your numbering at the bottom of the page.

References

 Your references follow immediately after the last page of your Chapter V.
 Remember to start your references on a fresh page.
 The references list should only include work that you actually consulted, used and
is appearing in the main text of your report.
 The references should always be arranged alphabetically using the author
surname as reference point for the arrangement.
 Titles of books, journals, periodicals, newsletters, newspapers should be italicised
 If the reference details for any source occupy more than one line, they should be
single spaced
 Reference occupying more than one line should be spaced in such a manner that
nothing except the author name(s) should appear to the left of the year of
publication.

References should never be numbered

8.4 Back Page Materials

Back page materials refer to your appendices.

The appendices should be paginated as a continuation from chapter V. The appendices

section should among other documents include the following:

43
  copies of all research instruments used in the research;
 a copy of the research supervision audit sheet;
 letter(s) of confirmation/authorisation from case study organisations showing that
they have agreed to their being part of your study;
 copies of the informed consent form where necessary; and
 the university letter of introduction for your research.

Each appendix should have a title and should appear on its own page

8.5 Binding
Upon completion of the research report, you should have two soft/spiral bound copies
that you should submit together with a soft copy of the whole project report on compact
disc (CD). After marking and having made the necessary corrections, you should then
make 3 executive/book/gum bound copies that you submit for clearance to your region.

Cover Page

The cover page should be a replication of the title page.

The spine
When you make the final executive bound copies, the following information should
appear on the spine of the bound project:

 The title.
 Your name.

The project binding colour

The project should be in blue with golden inscriptions on both spine and cover.

8.6 Language
Write in clear, concise English prose. Avoid unnecessary detail and irrelevancies. Avoid
repetition of arguments and evidence. Avoid the use of technical jargon for its own sake
(this is different from the careful use of specific terms and concepts necessary in a
theoretical argument or explanation). Avoid sweeping statements that you cannot support.
Always write in a tone that is objective and persuasive.

Colloquialisms and slang should also be avoided. There is a difference between written
and spoken English and you should observe the distinction between language suitable in
conversation and language suitable in a written document.

The following points should also be noted:

44
  Adopt British/Zimbabwean forms of spelling (e.g. ‘colour’ not ‘color’, ‘centre’
not ‘center’), unless quoting directly from a publication in which the American
form is used.
 -ize/-ise: Generally use of the suffix -ise is preferable in British/Zimbabwe usage
for words which have an alternate -ize spelling. If you choose one or the other; be
consistent in your use of them for the same word as well as for any other forms of
the words. (e.g. institutionalise - institutionalising – institutionalisation; realise -
realising – realisation)
 Avoid excessive capitalisation of words and phrases.
 Avoid abbreviations and contractions: e.g. don’t = do not, can’t = cannot, it’s = it
is.
 There is a difference between it’s and its. The former is a contraction of it is or it
has; while the latter is an absolute possessive (like hers, his, theirs, ours), which
does not require an apostrophe.
 Spell out figures up to ten—use numbers for larger figures. Always spell out a
number that begins a sentence.
 Be consistent and unambiguous when referring to dates (10 June 1981 rather than
10.6.81).
 Do not use acronyms (words made from initial letters) without spelling them out
first, unless they are conventionally very familiar.

In other cases, when in doubt, consult your supervisor. Aim for a simple, clear style, but
always spell out what you mean rather than leave things ambiguous in the mind of the
reader.

8.7 Common Abbreviations

“ibid.” an abbreviation of the Latin word ibidem (“in the same place”)
“op. cit.” an abbreviation of the Latin phrase, opere citato (“in the work cited”)
“et al.” an abbreviation of the Latin expression, et alii (“and others”)
“ed.” abbreviation for “editor” (requires a full stop)
“eds” abbreviation for “editors” (no full stop)
“2nd ed.” second edition
“rev. ed.” revised edition

8.8 Quotation marks - single v. double

The normal rule is to use one style for “first level” and the other for “second level” (i.e.
quotes within quotes). The Americans tend to use double quotes for first level and singles
for second level, and the British use single, then double. There is no right or wrong way,
but do be consistent with whichever style you choose. If a complete sentence is within the
quotation marks the full stop is placed inside the closing quotation marks; if only partial,
the punctuation is placed after the quotation mark.

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8.9 Ellipsis
In writing, an ellipsis is the name for the three dots (…) used to mark:

 A section omitted from a quotation: The Constitution says “The President shall …
be elected by the members”.
 An invitation to the reader to construct outcomes, particularly in comic or
melodramatic situations: All eyes were on the judge. Slowly, he placed on his
head a black cap...
 An interrupted line of dialogue: “But I think…,” said Philomena.

If the ellipsis represents an omission from a quotation as in example (a), the dots
represent the words removed, so that a space should appear before and after the dots. In
other cases the dots should follow straight on from the last word of the text. For
punctuation purposes, the ellipsis is treated exactly as if it were a word, so that any
inverted commas, question and exclamation marks and full stops should appear unspaced
immediately after the ellipsis. However, in example (b) the intention is not to close off
the thought, so the ellipsis can itself be regarded as the terminal punctuation.

8.10 Summary
In this unit we have outlined the structure of your research project report. We hope you
will find these guidelines useful in your research process. We end these guidelines with
sample cover page, release form and approval form in the Appendices below.

46
APPENDICES: Appendix I: Research proposal structure
checklist

Proposal Outline
Your proposal should be divided into the following subsections:
 working title;
 background to the study;
 Research problem;
 Statement of purpose;
 research question, objectives, and hypothesis / central theoretical statement;
 justification and statement of contribution of the research;
 proposed research methodology;
 theoretical framework and /or conceptual framework
 ethical considerations;
 delimitations of the research;
 limitations of the study;
 definition of terms; and
 list of references used in preparing the proposal

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Appendix II: Research project structure format checklist

Item for consideration in the Research Project Document

Cover Page: Students are encouraged to write the name of their region and pin number.
1. Research Topic: not more than 18 words
 Clear and concise
 Precise statement of the problem
2. Abstract: Clear and concise summary of the whole project (1 page 250-300words)
3. Chapter One (Past tense and final draft to be written on completion of the report)
The Problem and its Setting
1.0 Introduction: state what the chapter is all about
1.1 Background to the study: Past and current developments showing the knowledge
gap the study seeks to address; preliminary literature review.
1.2 Statement of the problem: The problem should be clear and showing the knowledge
gap to the study
1.3 Statement of purpose
1.4 Objectives of the study (3 to 5 specific objectives)
1.5 Research Questions (3 to 5 questions tallying with research objectives)
1.6 Hypothesis / Central theoretical statement
1.7 Significance of the study
 Intended beneficiaries to the study should be clear and concise
 Relevance of the current study should be clear
1.8 Assumptions of the study
1.9 Delimitations of the study clearly indicated
1.10 Definition of key terms: These should be contextually based to the study, not
the aspect of citing other authorities.
1.11 Summary: Highlight what the chapter was about
4. Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature
2.0 Introduction: state what the chapter is all about
2.1 Theoretical Framework: Theory underpinning your study.
2.2 Conceptual Framework: (Optional. One can opt for theoretical or conceptual
framework or both)
2.3 Conceptual discussion as determined by research questions and the subject under
study
2.4 Empirical evidence addressing the research problem
2.5 Summary: Highlight what the chapter was about
5. Chapter Three: Research Methodology
3.0 Introduction: state what the chapter is all about
3.1 Research paradigm (Either positivism, post-positivism or pragmatism).
3.2 Research design
48
 3.3 Population and sampling
3.4 Research instruments
3.5 Data collection procedure
3.6 Data presentation procedure
3.7 Validity and reliability / Trustworthiness and credibility
3.8 Ethical considerations
3.9 Summary: Highlight what the chapter was about
6. Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis.
4.0 Introduction: state what the chapter is all about.
4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents
4.2 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.3 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.4 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.5 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.6 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.7 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.8 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.9 Thematic topic drawn from research objectives
4.10 Summary: Highlight what the chapter was about
7. Chapter Five
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
5.0 Introduction: state what the chapter is all about.
5.1 Summary
5.2 Conclusions
5.3 Recommendations
5.4 Limitations of the study and recommendations for further studies
8. Overall Presentation of the Research Project: The research project should be
presented in a clear logical manner that is easy to follow.
9. References
 References should come at the end of Chapter 5 under the list of references
section which should also be on new separate page.
 References cited in the references list at the end should be found in the
preceding Chapters as having been cited.
10. Student- Supervisor Audit Sheet
 This is a document that you will be given at your region by the coordinator.
 This document should be signed by your allocated supervisor each time you
meet and discuss anything pertaining to your research study. The supervisor
will also append the date, month and year.
 Each time your supervisor signs this document, the student should also sign
under the student section.
 After completion of the research study, you should attach this document at the
end of the research project. This will be evidence of a student who was under
supervision for the whole year.
11. Size of the research project
 A Masters research project should not be less than 20 000 words in length
 Font size should be 12, Times New Roman and size of spacing will be 1.5.

49
Also, take note of the following:

 the dissertation is registered for 2 semesters;

 you are supposed to make effort to see the supervisor;
 you need to make appointments with your supervisor;
 make sure that all the time you visit the supervisor you take with you the project
audit sheet;
 the dissertation format to be followed is the one attached here;
 you are supposed to submit a spiral bound copy of your final proposal the
programme coordinator for marking and record keeping (proposal contributes
20% 0f the final mark);
 you must attend a compulsory proposal writing workshop at your regional
campus.

These guidelines should be adhered to by all students and their supervisors as these will
be taken into consideration when the final assessment of the research project will be
made by the examiner.
Yours
................................................................................
Chairperson, Department of Development Studies

50
Appendix II: Title Page
ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AS VEHICLES OF THE

ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM IN ZIMBABWE: THE CASE OF
SAVE THE CHILDREN (UK) OPERATIONS IN BINGA DISTRICT

By
MAIDEI MUCHINERIPI
P1537986 X

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF APPLIED SOCIAL

SCIENCES, DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, ZIMBABWE OPEN
UNIVERSITY, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

SUPERVISOR: PROF M. RUZIVO

MASVINGO, ZIMBABWE

APRIL, 2020

51
Appendix III: Release Form
ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY
RELEASE FORM

NAME OF AUTHOR: Maidei Muchineripi

TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT: Non-Governmental Organisations as Vehicles of

the Alternative Development Paradigm in Zimbabwe: The Case of Save the Children
(UK) Operations in Binga District

DEGREE FOR WHICH RESEARCH PROJECT WAS PRESENTED: Master of

Social Science in Development Studies

YEAR THIS DEGREE WAS GRANTED: 2020

Permission is hereby granted to the Zimbabwe Open University Library to produce single
copies of this research project and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or
scientific research purposes only. The author reserves other publication rights and neither
the dissertation nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced
without the author’s written permission.

SIGNED……………………

PERMANENT ADDRESS: 89 Jairiranai St

Chesvingo
MASVINGO

DATE: April 2020

52
Appendix IV: Approval Form

ZIMBABWE OPEN UNIVERSITY

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read and recommended to the Zimbabwe Open
University for acceptance; a research project entitled “Non-Governmental Organisations
as Vehicles of the Alternative Development Paradigm in Zimbabwe: The Case of Save
the Children (UK) Operations in Binga District”, submitted by Maidei Muchineripi in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Social Science in Development
Studies.

……………………………..

SUPERVISOR(S)

…………………………….

…………………………………………………………………

PROGRAMME/ SUBJECT COORDINATOR

…………………………………………

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DATE: …………..

53
Appendix V: Research project structure format

FACULTY OF APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

SUPERVISOR—STUDENT AUDIT SHEET

SUPERVISORS’ NAME________________________
STUDENT AME_____________________

DATE ACTIVITY SUPERVISOR STUDENT

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

PROGRAMME CO-ORDINATORS’ SIGNATURE_________________________________________

DATE_______________________________________________

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