WATER INSTITUTE

FINAL PROJECT

ON

DESIGN OF GRAVITY SEWER SYSTEM AT PONGWE IN TANGA CITY.

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2022/2023, NTA LEVEL: 8 - 4YRS.

NAME; BUHARI M. JUMA

REG NO; BD/2019/WRIE167

DEPARTMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

BACHELOR DEGREE IN WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION ENGINEERING.

A Project Submitted in Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of Bachelor Degree
in water resource and irrigation Engineering, water institute.

Submitted By: Buhari M. Juma.

June, 2023.
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 CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certify that he has read and hereby recommend for acceptance by the Water
institute a project titled: Design of Gravity Sewer System: Case study pongwe ward in partial
fulfillment for the requirement of the Bachelor degree in Water Resource and Irrigation
Engineering at Water institute

Student Name Signature Date

Buhari M. Juma …………… ………………

Supervisor Name Signature Date

Dr Edmund Mutayoba ……………. ……………

Name of Head of Department Signature Date

……………………………….. ……………. ……………..

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 DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT
I, Buhari M. Juma, declare that this project is my own original work and that it has not been
presented and will not be presented to any other University/Institute for a similar or any other
degree award.

Buhari M. Juma

Signature …………

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 DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to my beloved parents, for their immeasurable encouragement, patients,
willing to cooperate, kindness and understanding towards my studies. Obviously, I will
remember them for their tireless prayers meant for my success. My Almighty God continuing
blessing them.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My special thanks are due to the Almighty God who gave me strength health and understanding
to undertake this project. This project has been completed through assistance, advice and
encouragements from many different persons and professionals who have generously sacrificed
their valuable time in this work. I shall be failing in my work if I do not avail this opportunity for
thinking all those well wishers mine. I am glad now to present what deeply is in my heart to
those who have been part of my project in one way or other. I wish to extend lots of thanks to my
supervisor Dr Edmund Mutayoba for their advice, encouragement, tireless support, valuable
comments, suggestion in shaping the outlook of this project. This project would not appear as it
is without the crucial assistance of these people some of whom I am indebted to mention. First, I
wish to convey my sincere gratitude to all the Water supply and Irrigation Engineering
Department members who have enlightened me during my studies. The facilities and co-
operation received from the technical staff of Water supply and Irrigation Engineering
Department is thankfully acknowledged. I am equally indebted to extend my heartfelt gratitude
to Tanga City Council, Mr. Juma Mkombozi for the facilities and cooperation received and other
assistance I requested. Last but not the least would like to thank my fellow colleagues who
assisted me in one way or another during the time of preparing this project. My many thanks to
all the people mentioned above for your help. Any misconception, deficiencies or errors are mine
alone.

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 ABSTRACT
The pongwe ward, currently lack of proper sewer system is the major problem that still threatens
the health of people living around this area since shallow bore sewage and septic systems, pit
toilets are used to collect wastewater. Given its high importance and the severity of its need,
wastewater management has become a concern for the Tanzanian government. For this reason,
local authorities are placing increasing efforts in the management of wastewater across the
country. As new planned community of Tanga city, Pongwe ward faces rapid growth in
population, construction of residential buildings as well as constructed schools and yet there is
lack of proper collection, treatment and disposal of waste water. poor management of waste
water causes environmental problems and endanger the health of people living at Pongwe ward.
Hence to eliminate the problem, waste water should be properly managed in order to reduce the
negative impacts. So far there is no proper sewerage services because a sewerage infrastructure
has not been installed. So, there is a need to design a gravity sewer system at Pongwe ward. The
aim of this project is to minimize environmental problem at Pongwe ward. The design work is
based on data collected from site and that collected from different government officials. The
researcher worked closely with pongwe ward Tanga City Council in order to get an idea of how
waste water is being managed at the township level. These data were collected through the
following methods conducting land survey so as to know the topographic characteristics for line
propose for trunk sewer and also to locate the existing ground and underground infrastructures,
contours for the purpose of defining the areas with slopes for completing design of sewer line.
Determination of the flow rate as discharge, to determine Slope, calculating minimum cleansing
velocity and suggesting the diameter of sewer pipe and the materials to be used in sewer
constructions.

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Land surveys were conducted so as to know the topographic characteristics for line propose for
trunk sewer and also to locate the existing ground and underground infrastructures, contours for
the purpose of defining the areas with slopes for completing design of sewer line. Design flow
calculated by future density population, water consumption for domestic use, commercial use
and industrial use. The diameter of the pipes to be used to facilitate smooth flow during the peak
discharge since the pipe section is designed as an open channel. Some of the sections required
cutting of the existing ground and filling up the depressions so as to attain the required slope
which will provide minimum cleansing velocity.
Sewers were designed to provide a minimum velocity for smooth flow without allowing
deposition of solid waste materials Although this cleansing velocity is obtained at steeper slope,
it requires an excessive excavation that expenses higher cost and may reach the ground water
table.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER ONE. ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 11
1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND ........................................................................................... 11
1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................. 13
1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY. ................................................................................... 13
1.3.1. Main Objective. .......................................................................................................... 13
1.3.2. Specific objectives ...................................................................................................... 13
1.4. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT ........................................................................................... 13
1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT........................................................................... 14
1.6. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT. ........................................................................ 14
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 15
2.1 History of Gravity Sanitary Sewers ................................................................................. 15
2.2 Sewer Design Assumptions ............................................................................................... 15
2.3. Flow Calculation Using Manning’s Equation................................................................ 16
2.4. Gravity Sewer Design. ..................................................................................................... 16
2.5. Roughness Coefficient. ..................................................................................................... 17
2.6. Design Procedure.............................................................................................................. 18
2.7. Hydraulic Profile. ............................................................................................................. 18
2.8. Design Standards. ............................................................................................................. 19
2.9. Hydraulic flows................................................................................................................. 21
2.10. Domestic (Sanitary) Waste Water and Industrial Waste Water Projection. ........... 22
2.11. Infiltration and Storm Water Inflow. ........................................................................... 23
2.12. Peak Flow Factor ............................................................................................................ 23
2.13. Design Capacity and Calculations. ............................................................................... 24
CHAPTER THREE. ................................................................................................................... 25
3.0. METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 25
3.1. Study Area. ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.2. Methodology of Specific Objectives. ............................................................................... 26
3.2.1. To determine wastewater flow.................................................................................. 26
3.2.2. To compute Hydraulics of sewers ............................................................................ 26

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 3.2.3. To Prepare Hydraulic network. ............................................................................... 27
3.2.4. To estimate the costs of constructions...................................................................... 27
3.3. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. .......................................................................... 27
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................... 28
Design flow................................................................................................................................... 29
Table 4.5 Showing the population calculation for sewage flow .......................................... 30
4.2.3 Hydraulic design of sewer ................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 36
5.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 36
5.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 36
5.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 36
References .................................................................................................................................... 37
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………30

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Satellite Imagery of Pongwe area in Tanga region, Tanzania………………………16

Figure 4.1: Hydraulic network…………....…………...…………………………………………35

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Hydraulic Design Values……………………………………………………………..24
Table 4.1: Current Population at Pongwe………………………………………………………..28
Table 4.2: Residential Population Projection…………………………………………………….29
Table 4.3: Demand for Different Non-Residential Population…………………………………..30
Table 4.4: Population Calculations for Sewage Flow……………………………………………30
Table 4.5: Full Flow Discharge Values………………………………………………………….31
Table 4.6: Hydraulic Design of Sewer…………………………………………………………...32
Table 4.7: Sewer Diameters and their Corresponding Peak Values…………………………......33
Table 4.8: Population and the Corresponding Peak Values……………………………………..35

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 CHAPTER ONE.

1.0 INTRODUCTION.
1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND
Sewer design in practice is of fundamental significance because the dimensions of sewer systems
are specified. Two particular discharges are considered, namely, the minimum and the maximum
discharges. The minimum discharge influences the channel slope and therefore the depositional
behavior, whereas the maximum discharge establishes the sewer dimensions. A design is flexible
if the minimum and the maximum discharges are close. The circumstances however become
more difficult for large differences between the two extreme discharges. (Hager, 2010)

The implementation of wastewater treatment plants has been so far a challenge for most
countries. Economical resources, political will, institutional strength and cultural background are
important elements defining the trajectory of pollution control in many countries. Technological
aspects are sometimes mentioned as being one of the reasons hindering further developments.
However, as shown in this series of books, the vast array of available processes for the treatment
of wastewater should be seen as an incentive, allowing the selection of the most appropriate
solution in technical and economic terms for each community or catchment area. For almost all
combinations of requirements in terms of effluent quality, land availability, construction and
running costs, mechanization level and operational simplicity there will be one or more suitable
treatment processes. Biological wastewater treatment is very much influenced by climate.
Temperature plays a decisive role in some treatment processes, especially the natural-based and
non-mechanized ones. Warm temperatures decrease land requirements, enhance conversion
processes, increase removal efficiencies and make the utilization of some treatment processes
feasible. Some treatment processes, such as anaerobic reactors, may be utilized for diluted
wastewater, such as domestic sewage, only in warm climate areas. Other processes, such as
stabilization ponds, may be applied in lower temperature regions, but occupying much larger
areas and being subjected to a decrease in performance during winter. Other processes, such as
activated sludge and aerobic biofilm reactors, are less dependent on temperature, as a result of
the higher technological input and mechanization level. The main purpose of this series of books
is to present the technologies for urban wastewater treatment as applied to the specific condition
of warm temperature, with the related implications in terms of design and operation. There is no

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strict definition for the range of temperatures that fall into this category, since the books always
present how to correct parameters, rates and coefficients for different temperatures. In this sense,
subtropical and even temperate climate are also indirectly covered, although most of the focus
lies on the tropical climate. Another important point is that most warm climate regions are
situated in developing countries. Therefore, the books cast a special view on the reality of these
countries, in which simple, economical and sustainable solutions are strongly demanded. All
technologies presented in the books may be applied in developing countries, but of course they
imply different requirements in terms of energy, equipment and operational skills. Whenever
possible, simple solutions, approaches and technologies are presented and recommended.
(Sperling, 2007)

Waste water is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence.
It needs to be treated to minimize the effects on human’s health and environment. Although there
are many methods used there are numerous concerns raised regarding the presence of
constituents including heavy metal, pathogens and other toxic substances. This requires the
selection of the correct disposal method focusing on efficient and environmentally safe disposal.
New technologies are being produced to assist in treatment and disposal of sewage sludge,
conforming to strict environmental regulations. The degree of environmental impacts of waste
water as a results of increasing population in urban areas is matter of concern of particular
concern is the disposal of solid and liquid wastes which can have negative environmental
impacts such as pollution and diseases (UNCHS, 1996a).Waste water products in general have
negatives on natural resources and environment at large and may constitute health hazards
(Moningka, 2000)

Given its high importance and the severity of its need, waste water management has become a
concern for the Tanzania government. For this reason, local authorities are placing increasing
efforts in the management of waste water across the country. To ensure urban sustainability in
the towns of Tanzania, various measures need to be in place in response to the challenges posed
by environmental threats, one of which is the increasing waste water volume. In the view of
development, the following elements are considered as being of essence in the development
approaches, use of policies and legal frameworks, stakeholder involvement as well as all relevant

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prinnciples.Such elements involve actions needed to reduce the most serious problems, for
example the handling of hazardous wastewater from dangerous sites(UNCHS,1996a).It is
important to note that the environmental problems resulting from specific towns do not only
impact those towns alone, they also affect other areas at different level

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

Pongwe is the among Largest upgrowing wards in Tanga region. In term of population the area is
characterized by rapid growth in population, urbanization and industrial activities. Due to lack of
proper collection, treatments and disposal of waste water at Tanga city council, environmental
problems arise leading to more severe problems such as soil pollution, ground water pollution
and surface water pollution (river and stream) which are main source of water supply in Tanga
city. Most wastewater systems in Pongwe area are traditional and outdated wastewater systems
with old pipes, meanwhile other areas do not have wastewater systems at all. Therefore,
establishment of the Installation of Gravity sanitary sewers in the area will be the most
appropriate solution for the inhabitants of Pongwe area. Gravity sanitary sewers will enable the
elimination of the problems stated earlier and encourage good practices to protect the
environment from harm’s way caused by poor waste disposal.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.

1.3.1. Main Objective.
To design gravity sewer system that will be durable, economically and location of treatments
Area & disposal

1.3.2. Specific objectives

i. To determine waste water flow
ii. To compute hydraulics of sewers.
iii. To prepare hydraulic network
iv. To prepare Bill of Quantity BOQ

1.4. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scope of the project is limited to the determination of the yield of the wastewater, diameter
of the trunk sewer, appropriate slope, propose treatments plant area and sea outfall.

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1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT.
If well-constructed and maintained, Conventional Gravity Sewers are a safe and hygienic means
of transporting wastewater. This technology will provide a high level of hygiene and comfort for
the user. However, because the waste is conveyed to an offsite location for treatment, the
ultimate health and environmental impacts are determined by the treatment provided by the
downstream facility.

1.6. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT.

Apart from the immediate benefits obtained from gravity sanitary sewers furthermore, High
Capacity gravity Sewer systems are usually built to withstand large amounts of sewage output
and can better accommodate periods of heavy precipitation or storm surges. Removes the risk of
a septic system backup on your property. Reduced occurrence of foul/septic odors. Elimination
of dampness and/or seepage. Property becomes more marketable to a wider percentage of the
population, which can result in an increased property value

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Gravity Sanitary Sewers
Gravity sanitary sewers have been employed by civilizations for millennia. Early sewers, such as
the Cloaca Maxima of Rome, were designed primarily to remove storm water and floodwaters
that threatened cities (Metcalfe, 1981). Sewer design remained essentially unchanged until the
middle of the 19th century. A turning point in sewer design occurred in 1842 when a devastating
fire provided the city of Hamburg, Germany, the opportunity to design a complete wastewater
system that incorporated modern hydraulic understanding and considered topographic conditions
(Metcalf & Eddy 1981). By the late 19th century, engineers in the United States generally
recognized topography, population density, and future growth as key components in sewer
design (Burian, et al. 2000). Modern gravity sanitary sewers are designed by considering peak
and average flows from various sources, infiltration, topography and slope, pipe material and
roughness, pipe size, minimum velocity, maximum velocity, and other factors (ASCE, 2007).
These various design choices and data are input to hydraulic equations to calculate flow and
ensure compliance with design criteria (ASCE, 2007).

2.2 Sewer Design Assumptions

Several simplifying assumptions can be made about the characteristics of flow in a properly
designed gravity sanitary sewer. Gravity sanitary sewer flow is considered to be 9 open-channel
flow because the surface of the flow is at atmospheric pressure (ASCE, 2007). Additionally,
although sewer flow is in reality an unsteady flow, varying both spatially and temporally, these
variations are considered to be negligible as long as capacity and self-cleansing of the sewer are
properly addressed (ASCE 2007). Thus, the traditional approach assumes steady, uniform flow
in which the flow does not vary spatially or temporally (ASCE 2007). Incompressible, one-
dimensional flow is also assumed (ASCE 2007). Several practical constraints guide gravity
sanitary sewer design. Among these constraints are a design minimum self-cleansing velocity, a
design maximum velocity, and a design maximum depth of flow. As the depth of flow increases
and the ratio of depth of flow to pipe diameter (y/D) approaches 1.0, slugging can occur as the
depth of flow varies intermittently between full pipe flow and non-full pipe flow (Sturm 2001).

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Slugging can damage pipe joints and/or cause discharge fluctuations. To avoid slugging, the
design maximum depth of flow is selected to be 0.8 of the pipe diameters.

2.3. Flow Calculation Using Manning’s Equation

As open-channel flow, gravity sanitary sewer flow is commonly calculated using Manning’s
equation. Manning’s Equation can be written as follows:

Q =K/N (AR 2/3 S 1/2)

Equation 2.2

Where:

Q = flow or discharge;

k = conversion coefficient for English units;

n = Manning’s roughness value;

A = cross-sectional area of flow;

R = hydraulic radius (ft),

where R = A/P and P is the wetted perimeter;

and S = slope (ft/ft).

For English units, k = 1.486. Manning’s n is a material-dependent, empirically derived

roughness value. Manning’s n is a property of the material and does not vary with depth of flow
in typical channel flow circumstances. For concrete sewer pipes, an average value of Manning’s
n is 0.015 (Chow 1959). The remaining values needed to calculate Q are A, R, and S. Slope is
user-selected, leaving only A and R, which depends on the 15 geometry of the user-selected pipe
and the depth of flow

2.4. Gravity Sewer Design.

Sewers will be designed to discharge the wastewater flows as required. Generally, it is not
desirable to design sewers for full flow, even at peak rates. Flows above 90 to 95 percent of full
depths are considered unstable, and may result in a sudden loss of carrying capacity with
surcharging at manholes. In addition, large trunk and interceptor sewers laid on flat slopes are
less subject to wide fluctuations in flow, and if designed to flow full may lack sufficient air space
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above the liquid to assure proper ventilation. Adequate sewer ventilation is a desirable method of
preventing the accumulation of explosive, corrosive or odorous gases, and of reducing the
generation of hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, trunk and interceptor sewers will be designed to flow
at depths not 28 exceeding 90 percent of full depth; laterals and main sewers, 80 percent; and
building connections, 70 percent. However, regardless of flow and depth the minimum sizes to
be used are 150 millimeters (6-inch) for building connections and 200 millimeters (8- inch) for
all other sewers. Building connections that do not carry sanitary waste and will transport liquids
with little or no solids, such as condensate lines, can be smaller than 150 millimeters (6 inches),
but no smaller than 100 millimeters (4 inches) is recommended for most situations. Industrial
applications will use the same design criteria as sanitary sewers except pipe material that is
resistant to the waste will be specified. The following formula, charts, procedures and criteria
will be used for design (Guyer, 2010).

In various countries a separate sewerage system is adopted, which separates storm water from
sewage, both being transported by independent pipeline systems. In this case, in principle, storm
water does not contribute to the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). In other countries,
however, a combined (unitary) sewerage system is adopted, which directs sewage and storm
water together into the same system. In this case, the pipelines have a larger diameter, to
transport not only the sewage flow, but mainly rainwater, and the design of the WWTP has to
take into consideration the corresponding fraction of rainwater that is allowed to enter the
treatment works. In countries with a warm climate, during the dry season, sewage flows slowly
in these large diameter pipes, leading to long detention times which allow decomposition and
generation of malodours. In this book, focus is given to the separate sewerage system, analyzing
only the three components listed above. However, the principles for the design of a combined
sewerage system, based on dry-weather flow, are the same. (Sperling, 2007)
2.5. Roughness Coefficient.
Values of n to be used in the formula range from 0.013 to 0.015. The lowest n values apply to
new or relatively new pipe (in sections greater than 1.5 m (5 feet)) with smooth interior surfaces,
smooth bore, even joints, in excellent to good condition and well-constructed. Higher n values
are required for older pipe with rough interior surfaces, open or protruding joints, in fair to bad
condition and poorly constructed. Values up to 0.017 are often justified for very old pipe (such as
brick or block sewers) in extreme deterioration, or pipe very poorly constructed with improper

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alignment, sags and bellies, cracked or offset joints, broken wall sections or internal corrosion.
Some manufacturers of plastic and asbestos cement pipe report n values of 0.009 to 0.011.
However, due to uncertainties in design and construction, plus a desire to provide a margin of
safety, n values smaller than 0.013 will not normally be permitted. Variation of n with depth of
flow has been shown experimentally, and may be considered in designing sewers to flow
partially full. A solution to the Manning formula for full pipe flow is shown in figure 1 below
(Guyer, 2010)

2.6. Design Procedure.

After a preliminary layout has been made, a tabulation should be prepared in convenient form
setting forth the following information for each sewer section (Guyer, 2010): • Designation of
manholes by numerals or letters. • Contributing populations - resident and nonresident. • Design
flows - average, daily peak, and extreme peak

. • Length of sewer.

• Invert elevations.

• Invert slope or gradient.

• Pipe diameter and roughness coefficient.

• Flow depths at design flows.

• Velocities at design flows.

• Depths of cover on the pipe - maximum and minimum.

2.7. Hydraulic Profile.

In most situations where small to medium sized gravity sewers are installed in long runs, it will
be safe to assume uniform flow throughout the entire length of conduit. However, in cases where
larger sewers, 600-millimeter (24-inch) diameter and above, are constructed in runs of less than
30 meters (100 feet), and with a number of control 34 sections where non uniform flow may
occur, a plot of the hydraulic profile is recommended. For process and plant piping at wastewater
treatment facilities, a hydraulic profile is always required. Methods used to calculate and plot
hydraulic profiles including backwater curves, drawdown curves and hydraulic jumps, will
conform to those presented in standard hydraulics textbooks (Guyer, 2010). Gravity sewers will

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ordinarily be designed to maintain subcritical flow conditions in the pipe throughout the normal
range of design flows. However, there are exceptions in which super critical flow may be
required, and will be justified. Minimum sized sewers (150- and 200-millimeter (6- and 8-inch))
designed to discharge very low flows, must occasionally be placed on slopes steeper than critical
in order to provide minimum velocities. In addition, small to medium sized sewers when
required to discharge unusually large flows, may necessitate super critical slopes. Finally, steep
slopes may be unavoidable due to natural topography and ground conditions. Where super
critical flow will occur, care must be taken in the design to ensure that downstream pipe
conditions do not induce a hydraulic jump or other flow disturbance. Depths of flow within 10 to
15 percent of critical are likely to be unstable and will be avoided where pipes will flow from 50
to 90 percent full. Critical depths for various flows and pipe diameters can be obtained from
standard hydraulics textbooks (Guyer, 2010).

2.8. Design Standards.

Where suitable standard drawings and specifications exist, they will be used for design of
manhole structures, unless a special design is required. The following construction practices will
be required:

• Smooth flow channels will be formed in the manhole bottom. Laying half tile through the
manhole, or full pipe with the top of the pipe being broken out later, are acceptable alternatives.

• For manholes over 3.5 meters (12 feet) in depth, one vertical wall with a fixed side-rail ladder
will be provided.

• Drop connections will be designed as an integral part of the manhole wall and base.

• In areas subject to high groundwater tables, manholes will be constructed of materials resistant
to groundwater infiltration. (Guyer, 2010).

The design of sewers is of paramount importance. Usually the design procedure to be formulated
must be simple and explicit. Calculations must include at least the extreme discharges. For the
maximum discharge, the conveyance capacity of a particular sewer reach for uniform flow must
be ascertained. Then, the numerical calculation for the flowing full condition becomes simple.
Normally, the circular cross-section is considered. Because the design does not account for the
flow types, uniform flow is taken into consideration for the selection of the sewer, and abrupt

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changes of bottom slope, sewer diameter and discharge are avoided. Computations of backwater
and drawdown curves involving a significant flow acceleration or flow deceleration indicate that
the capacity of a sewer reach is guaranteed. For the minimum discharge, problems arise for solid
transport. It must consequently be pointed out that particularly for large ratios of maximum to
minimum discharges, the tractive force necessary for the transport of solids in the sewer is
mobilised. Various procedures are outlined first and two proposals are recommended. Common
to both approaches is the concept of minimum wall shear stress which increases the minimum
velocity as the sewer diameter increases. Sewage is the liquid conveyed by a sewer. It is the
liquid waste produced by humans, their households and from industry. Even today the effects of
sewer abrasion and sewer aging are evaluated only in exceptional cases. Both aspects cannot be
treated in a generalized manner but must be analyzed from local data. Although maximum
allowable velocities up to about 5 ms−1 may be adopted according to Pfeiff (1960), steep sewers
with velocities up to 15 ms−1 are in service without any lasting effect due to abrasion. (Hager,
2010)

Sanitary sewage also known as domestic sewage is that which originates in the sanitary
conveyances or a dwelling, business building, factory or institutions. It typically contains
washing water, faeces, urine, as well as laundry waste and other liquid or semi-liquid wastes
from households. Industrial waste is liquid waste from an industrial process such as dyeing,
brewing etc. It may require pre-treatment on the industrial premises before it is acceptable for
discharging into public sewers. Sewage collection implies the collection of waste water from
occupied areas and conveying them to some points of disposal or treatment. A sewer is a pipe or
conduit, generally closed but normally not flowing full, for carrying sewage. A house sewer is a
pipe conveying sewage from the plumbing system of a building to a common sewer point of
immediate disposal. A lateral sewer has no other common sewer discharging into it. A sub-main
sewer is one that receives the discharge from a number of lateral sewers. A truck or main sewer
receives the discharge of one or more sub-main sewers. A sewer outfall receives the discharge
from the collecting system and conveys it to a treatment plant or point of final disposal. An
intercepting sewer is one that cuts transversely a number of other sewers to intercept dry weather
flow with or without a determined quantity of storm water in case of combined sewer system. A
relief sewer is one that has been built to relieve an existing sewer of inadequate capacity. Sewage
treatment covers any natural or artificial process to which sewage is subjected in order to remove

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or alter its objectionable constituents so as to render it less dangerous or inoffensive. Peak flow is
the maximum flow expected in the sewer.

Closed sewer channels (German: Geschlossener Kanal; French: Canal découvert) as typically
used in sewage engineering are available as prefabricated pipes up to about interal diameters of
D =2 m. Diameters have standard dimensions such as D = 0.25, 0.30, 0.40 m etc. The design
results in a computationally required diameter and a larger diameter is selected, depending on the
accuracy of the design and on constructional simplifications. Often, the selection of a larger
sewer diameter has little effect on cost but there may be problems with the minimum required
velocity for small discharges. For diameters larger than 1.5. (Hager, 2010)
2.9. Hydraulic flows.

Hydraulic flows usually run continuously, i.e. all parameters, including bottom slope, roughness,
flow depth or discharge vary continuously with the streamwise and the transverse coordinates.
Then, the equations of continuum mechanics may successfully be applied since the elementary
considerations of either Euler or Navier-Stokes are based on these suppositions. In other words,
all the elements participating in the fluid motion can be represented by continuous functions
possessing, in particular, continuous derivatives at every point in the domain of their definition.
Beside such domains, other zones exist, which possess discontinuities comparable to water falls
or breaking waves. Here the flow continuity is not guaranteed. Similarly, in channel hydraulics
such domains of discontinuity exist also – although confined locally – which cannot be described
with the usual differential equations because differentials do not exist. The differential forms of
the equations of continuity and of motion are then replaced by integral equations or, for sudden
changes in one-dimensional parameters, by integral relationships over the discontinuous region.
The hydraulic jump (Deutsch; Wassersprung or Wechselsprung; French: Ressaut hydraulique),
which is considered in detail in this chapter, is the classical phenomenon in which the above-
mentioned discontinuity occurs. This phenomenon discussed together with stilling basins. By the
term hydraulic jump, one understands the transition from supercritical to subcritical flow
accompanied by considerable local turbulence production, associated with an energy dissipation.
The hydraulic jump can, for example, occur in a channel whose slope becomes flatter, or for a
supercritical flow in a closed channel impinging suddenly on a pool of standing water
downstream. Depending on the conditions in the up- and downstream reaches, the hydraulic
jump shifts along the channel to the stabilizing position, corresponding to the equations of

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motion. In contrast, the stilling basin (German: Tosbecken; French: Bassin amortisseur) is a
standard structure containing the hydraulic jump under all conditions of flow. By appropriate
design, the lengths of the jump and consequently of the structure are minimized. The purpose of
a stilling basin is therefore to dissipate energy. By energy dissipation one understands, in the
preceding sense, the conversion of mechanical energy principally into thermal energy. The
conversion phenomenon is accompanied by turbulence production, that is, the production of
large-scale vortex formations, which finally die out through viscosity, transforming into heat. In
the following, as in the previous chapter, first the nature of the phenomenon is explained, then
follows the derivation of the basic equations and the computational procedure is finally
introduced. By energy dissipation one understands, in the wider sense, the decrease in
mechanical energy flux of a flow due to fluid viscosity. The dissipative work is confined
principally to the flow boundaries where it stimulates the formation of complex vortex flow
structures. These again can penetrate deeper inside the flow and produce highly turbulent flow.
Both the production of turbulence and its conversion into heat through dissipative work proceed
simultaneously and continue indefinitely. In the narrow sense, energy dissipation is understood
to mean the local concentrated development of macroscopic vortices and their equally
concentrated decay. To induce the production of high turbulence, shear surfaces are developed
close to the boundary surfaces. These develop either unaided as in the classical hydraulic jump
involving large surface flow separation such as surface or bottom rollers, or by inducing
additional separation surfaces by providing appurtenances such as sills or blocks (Hager, 2010).

2.10. Domestic (Sanitary) Waste Water and Industrial Waste Water Projection.

Domestic and Industrial waste water, obviously is estimated from water supplied. Studies have
shown that depending on the water consumption pattern, different proportions of the water
supplied is collected as waste water. For design consideration the value of 60 to 85 percent of the
per capital withdrawal (consumption) of water becomes waste water. The lower value (< 60%)
may be adopted / applied to the semiarid region or where water supply is insufficient. the
percentage of wastewater produced in different category. Waste water in which industrial wastes
are predominate. Industrial water use varies widely according to the nature of the manufacturing
processes. In practical design work it is therefore desirable to inspect the plant, (industry)
concerned and make careful estimates of the quantities of wastewater produced. This may as
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well be facilitated through questionnaires. Where the specific type of industry is unknown, (or
3
not easy to get information) an allowance of 50m /ha. d can be used for design purposes.

2.11. Infiltration and Storm Water Inflow.

The extraneous water that enters the sewer system from the ground through sewer service
connection, pipe joints, manholes etc., is termed infiltration. The rate and quantity of infiltration
depend on the length of the sewers, the area to be sewered, the soil, topographic condition,
characteristics and conditions of the sewer material. Normally, infiltration is estimated to vary
3
from 35 to 115 m /km of sewer per day. Higher values can be assumed where the sewers are
passing below the water table or water table is higher. Water which enters the sewer either
deliberately or inadvertently from surface run-off is termed storm water inflow. In sewers
designed for sanitary waste only, this is a most unwelcome inflow. However, it can occur
through such things as vandalism to manhole covers or a failure to ensure they are properly in
place during rainy seasons. It is best prevented by good routine inspection and routine
maintenance.

2.12. Peak Flow Factor

Peak flow factor is the ration of peal flow to average flow. It is derived or established for each
major establishment or for each category of flow in the system. Where no actual measurements
are available, usually the peaking factor of 4.0 is used in lateral sewer design while main sewers
are then designed for a peak factor of 2.5. The normal range is from 1.5 to 4.

In other case, peak flow factors are linked to the pipe sizes and the following peak factors have
been in use.

• For sewers 500mm in diameter or less. 2.00

• For sewers exceeding 500mm in diameter. 1.75

• For final outfall sewer (truck main). 1.50

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2.13. Design Capacity and Calculations.

Sanitary sewers should be designed for a capacity equivalent to double the peak domestic flow
plus the peak industrial flow plus infiltration; that is sewers will take the peak flow when running
half-full. For hydraulic design calculation, different methods have been in use for a long time,
common formula used are the Colebrook Formula and the Crimp and Bruges Formula, which is
an adaptation of the Manning Formula. Whilst design for small systems can be readily
undertaken using a hand held calculator or spread sheet, for larger systems it may be desirable to
use computer software, especially where there is a risk that surface flows may get into the system
due to vandalism to manhole covers or where a dual system is opted for, although this type of
combined storm-water and sanitary sewerage is not recommended.

RELATIVE VELOCITY AND DISCHARGE IN CIRCULAR CONDUITS

TABLE 9.1 – HYDRAULIC DESIGN VALUES

PEAK
DIAME PIPE FULL PIPE
GRADIENT 1 in FLOW
TER FLOW IN 1/sec VELOCITY IN HALF
… FACT
mm m/ sec FULL
OR

mm MAX* MIN MAX MIN MAX MIN

200 20 130 75 30 2.4 0.95 2.00
250 50 212 87 42 1.7 0.85
300 50 250 140 60 1.9 0.85
350 50 333 200 80 2.2 0.85 1.75
400 70 400 250 100 2.0 0.85
450 75 400 340 150 2.1 0.90 2.00
500 100 400 380 190 2.0 0.96
600 100 450 600 300 2.2 1.05
700 100 500 950 420 2.4 1.05
800 100 500 1300 600 2.6 1.15 1.50
900 100 500 1800 800 2.8 1.25

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 CHAPTER THREE.

3.0. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Study Area.

Pongwe is an administrative ward in Tanga district of Tanga region in Tanzania. The ward
covers an area of 77.5 km2 (29.9 sq mi), and has an average elevation of 74 m (243 ft.).
According to the 2012 census, the ward has a total population of 13,513. In Tanga, the wet
season is hot and mostly cloudy; the dry season is warm, windy, and mostly clear; and it is
oppressive year-round. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies
from 70°F to 90°F and is rarely below 68°F or above 93°F. o show variation within the months
and not just the monthly totals. Tanga experiences extreme seasonal variation in monthly
rainfall. Rain falls throughout the year in Tanga. The month with the most rain in Tanga is April,
with an average rainfall of 6.2 inches. The month with the least rain in Tanga is August, with an
average rainfall of 0.5 inches.

The Diagram illustrates the Study Area (Pongwe in Tanga region).

Figure 3.1: Satellite Imagery of Pongwe area in Tanga region, Tanzania.

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3.2. Methodology of Specific Objectives.
3.2.1. To determine wastewater flow.
Current Population.

Population data obtained directly from Tanga City Council revealed that there were 23,466
people as per 2022 National Census.

Projected Population

The projected population can be obtained by using Geometric Increase method which can be
calculated mathematically by using the following Formula: -

Pn=po (1+ r/100) ^n

Whereby;

Pn- Future population

Po- Present population

r- Assumed growth rate

n- Design period

From the Data collected,

r = 10 years.

Po = 23, 466

3.2.2. To compute Hydraulics of sewers

Hydraulics of sewers will be determined by the Evaluation of contour maps. Site coordinates will
be obtained directly by using Global-positioning system (GPS). The task will be followed by
performing sewer routing to determine and confirm a route for proposed sewer line.

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3.2.3. To Prepare Hydraulic network.
This will be designed by identifying the areas of the sewer network, establishment of the layout
through software such as AutoCAD. Hydraulic calculation will be obtained by using Manning
formula and Hazzan’s William formula. Lastly, a drawing will be obtained in order to prepare
profile through scale.

3.2.4. To estimate the costs of constructions.

The necessary costs of constructions will be determined from the preparation of the Bills of
Quantities (BoQ). A bill of Quantities is a document prepared by a cost consultant such as
Quantity Surveyor that provide project specific measured quantities of the items identified in
drawings and specifications for a built asset such as sewer network.

3.3. MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION.

The primary construction materials to be used for manhole structures are precast concrete rings;
prefabricated PVC, high-density polyethylene, and fiberglass units; and cast-in-place, reinforced
or non-reinforced concrete. In the past, most manholes were 39 built of brick masonry, and are
now frequently the source of significant volumes of groundwater infiltration. More recently in
attempts to alleviate this problem, precast concrete, plastic, and fiberglass manholes have been
utilized. In certain situations, precast units will not be suitable, and cast-in-place reinforced
concrete will be required. Cast-in-place construction permits greater flexibility in the
configuration of elements, and by varying reinforcing the strength of similar sized structures can
be adjusted to meet requirements. In general, materials used should be compatible with local
construction resources, labor experience, and should be cost competitive (Guyer et al, 2010).

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 CHAPTER FOUR.
4.1. INTRODUCTION.

This is the fourth chapter of this project work. The chapter simply deals with data collection and
analysis. All the necessary data values and information obtained from Pongwe in Tanga are
displayed and processed in this chapter.

4.1.1. To determine waste water flow.

Current Population.

Population data obtained directly from Tanga City Council revealed that there were 23,466
people as per 2022 National Census.

TABLE 4.1: Current Population at Pongwe

S/N Ward Growth rate Year Male Female Total

1 Pongwe 1.2 2022 11383 12083 23,466

Population Forecasting

In order to estimate future waste water generation, population forecasting is very essential. In
this project population is forecasted for 20 years to come (From 2022 to 2042). Formula used for
population projection is geometric increase method which is given by:

Pn=Po (1+ r/100) ^n

Whereby;

Pn- Future population

Po- Present population

r- Assumed growth rate

n- Design period

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Data Collected,

From the Data collected,

n = 20 years.

Po = 23,466

r = 1.2%

Design flow
This depends on the available population of an area multiplied by the daily consumption. Values
of daily water consumption are as follows

Domestic use =110l/c/d

Water consumption = Population × domestic use (l/c/d)

Wastewater flow (residual) = 80% of Water consumption

Wastewater flow (non-residual) = 4% of Wastewater flow (residual)

Total wastewater flow = Wastewater flow (residual) + Wastewater flow (non-residual)

Infiltration = 10% of peak wastewater flow

Total flow = Total wastewater flow + Infiltration

(Design Manual volume II 2020)

TABLE 4.2: Residential Population Projection

DEMAND & SEWAGE FLOW ANALYSIS FOR RESIDENTIAL

Initial Year Base Year Mid term Year Ultimate Year
2022 2027 2032 2042
POPULATION 23,466 24,908 26,439 29,789
CONSUMPTION RATE (L/c/day) 110 110 110 110
WATER DEMAND(L.day) 2581260 2739880 2908290 3276790
SEWAGE FLOW (l/day) 2065008 2191904 2326632 2621432

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TABLE 4.3: Non-Residential population projection
NON RESIDENTIAL SEWAGE FLOWANALYSIS
SEWAG
CONSUM WATER
POPULA E
INSTITUTION PTION DEMAN
TION FLOW
RATE D
(l/day)

SCHOOLS-DAY l/std/d 11250 10 112500 90000

SCHOOL-BOARDING l/std/d 6350 70 444500 355600
DISPENSARIES l/visitor/d 375 10 3750 3000
COLLAGE l/std/d 0 60 0 0
ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE l/worker 125 70 8750 7000
CHURCHES l/c/d 1034 10 10340 8272
MOSQUE l/c/d 2423 25 60575 48460
GUEST HOUSE l/visitor/d 400 70 28000 22400
CAR WASH l/vehicle/day 30 10 300 240
TOTAL 534972

TABLE 4.4: Showing the population calculation for sewage flow

Year 2022 2027 2032 2042

Population(residential) 23,466 24,908 26,439 29,789
Residential Sewage flow(l/day) 2065008 2191904 2326632 2621432
Non Residential Sewage(l/day) 534972 534972 534972 534972
Sewage flow Total (l/day) 2599980 2726876 2861604 3156404
Peak factor according to
2.582963378 2.557148775 2.531412529 2.480239332
Harmonic formula
Peak factor Approximated 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5
Total Sewage Peak flow(l/day) 6715653.124 6973027.622 7243900.217 7828637.348
Total Sewage flow(m³/s) 0.077727467 0.080706338 0.083841438 0.090609229
Infiltration rate (m³/s) 0.007772747 0.008070634 0.008384144 0.009060923
Final total Sewarageflow(m³/s) 0.085500213 0.088776972 0.092225581 0.099670151

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Full Flow Discharge Values (Qfull)

TABLE 4.5: Full Flow Discharge Values.

S/N CALCULATION RESULTS

Qdesign/Qfull = ½ The discharge when

the flow is full is
Q full=2Qdesign
0.1993404 m3/sec.
Qfull = 0.0996702×2

= 0.1993404

The discharge when the flow is full is 0.1993404

m3/sec.

4.2.3 Hydraulic design of sewer

TABLE 4.6: Hydraulic Design of Sewer

3. DESIGN OF VELOCITY AND SIZE OF THE
SEWER SEWER Sewage should flow at all times
with sufficient velocity to prevent the
settlement of solid matter in the sewer. Self-
Cleansing Velocity is the minimum velocity
that ensures non-settlement of suspended
matter in the sewer.

• Velocity in Sanitary sewer = 0.6 m/s

to 2.4m/s (Design Manual volume II
2020) Adopted
Continuity equation is used when the size of minimum
the sewer is to be determined by adopting velocity=0.6m/s
the lowest or minimum sanitary sewer the diameter of
velocity 0.6m/s sewer=600 mm

31 | P a g e
 Q=AV

Whereby;

Q= Peak full flow

V = velocity

A= cross section area of the pipe

0.1993404 m3/s = 0.6m/s *Area

Area = (0.1993404 /0.6) m2

= 0.332234 m2

By using the formula for an area of

the circle the diameter of the pipe

may be determined

A= πr2

Where by

A =an area

r= radius of pipe

0.332234 m2= πr2

r=√0.332234/3.14

r = 0.325197 m

the diameter of sewer will be 0.650394m

650.4mm

Adopted 600mm

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 4. SLOPE OF The slope of pipe is determined from the
THE PIPE manning’s formula when the sewer flow
under gravity

V = 1/n * R2/3 S½

Where V = Velocity of flow in m/sec

R = Hydraulic mean depth (A/P) = D/4

when pipe is flowing full or half full

S = Slope of the sewer n = Coefficient of

roughness for pipes (0.013)

0.6=1/0.013(0.6/4)2/3 S1/2

S=0.00052 The slope of

The slope of the pipe is 0.000763 the pipe is

0.000763

TABLE 4.7: Sewer Diameters and their Peak Values

SEWERS IN DIAMETER PEAK VALUE

Less than 500mm 2.0

For sewer exceeding 500mm 1.75

For final outfall sewer (trunk main) 1.5

Source: Design manual for water supply and wastewater of 2009.

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TABLE 4.8: Population and corresponding peak value

POPULATION PEAK VALUE

0-20,000 4.0

20,000-60,000 3.5

Above 60,000 3.0

City center and industrial 2.0

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Manhole Space

According to WASA Design Criteria for Sewer Size 900mm to 1500mm spacing not more
than 150m, but also space of man hole will depend on the change of the sewer direction but also
change of the ground slope

4.1.3. To prepare hydraulic Network.

Figure 4.1: Hydraulic network

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions
The study proposed a conceptual design of a gravity sewer system for the Pongwe ward. The
report investigated waste water flow requirement, wastewater collection and transport,
possible wastewater treatments plant location and operation. The results of the analysis
concluded that the gravity system would be appropriate.
As a result of the feasibility study, it is recommended that the Pongwe ward pursue
construction of gravity sewer system. This appears to be the best fit solution for the
community, the construction wastewater collection facilities will allow Pongwe ward to
minimize the impact of wastewater on public health and environmental resources. in order to
preserve the health of environment and human by managing wastewater generated. Then
depending on the population of the area then the following value has to be considered in
construction.
5.2 Recommendations

➢ Frequent inspection of the sewer system to avoid clogging

➢ Due to the topography of the area Fan pattern is a suitable layout at pongwe area.

➢ Provision of education on the use of off-site sanitation to avoid ground water

contamination.
➢ Recommended Minimum Diameter of a sewer is 150mm. However, there are other
available diameters such as 200mm.and higher at Increments of 100mm. Hence
Maximum Diameter of sewer is 300mm taking Manning’s Roughness coefficient as
0.013.
➢ Service Laterals shall have a minimum slope of 1/8 inch per foot(1.04 percent). In
General service Lateral shall not be allowed to discharge into Sanitary Manholes.
➢ The flow in Gravity sewers varies widely from hours, minutes and seconds. In that case,
The Velocities in Gravity sewer systems are recommended not to exceed 3.0 mps

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REFERENCES.
ASCE. (2007). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures. In A. S. Engineers,
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures. (p. 253). United States:
ASCE/SEI Publishing.

Environment., M. o. (2008). Design Guidekines for Sewage Works. In M. o. Environment.,

Design Guidekines for Sewage Works. Ontario, Canada: ENE Pulishers.

Guyer, J. P. (2010). Introduction to Hydraulic design of sewers. In J. P. Guyer, Introduction to

Hydraulic design of sewers. Newyork: Stony Poin Publishing.

Hager, W. M. (2010). Wastewater Hydraulics, Second Edition. In W. M. Hager, Theory and

Practice of Wasewater Hydraulics, second Edition. (p. 664). Switzerland: Springer.

Metcalfe, E. (1981). Agriculture, Water and The Environment. In E. Metcalfe, Agriculture,

Water and The Environment. Jacksonville.: Metkalfe & Edgar.

Pitt, R. (2013). Sanitary Sewer Design. In S. Clark, Module 7: Saniyary Sewer Design. Penn
state, Harrisburg.

Sperling, M. V. (2007). Wastewater Characteristics, treatment and Disposal. In M. V. Sperling,

Volume I: Wastewater Characteristics, treatment and Disposal. (p. 300). London: IWA
Publishing.

Standards, W. A. (2004). Gravity Sewers pipeline Standards. In W. A. Standards, Gravity Sewers

pipeline Standards. SDWAS.

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