General Physics III - PHS203

Waves II

Dr. C. Eid

NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 1 / 33

Outline

1 Sound Waves

2 Beats

3 Doppler effect

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 2 / 33

 Sound Waves

outline

1 Sound Waves

2 Beats

3 Doppler effect

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 3 / 33

 Sound Waves

Sound waves

The sound speed in air is ∼343 m/s.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 4 / 33

 Sound Waves

Sound waves : compression and rarefaction

PS :If the pipe is open at both ends, there are displacement antinodes at both ends
and an integer number of half-wavelengths fit into the length of the pipe.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 5 / 33

 Sound Waves

Sound waves

The wavefronts and rays indicate the direction of travel and the spread of the sound
waves starting from the point source. Rays are directed lines perpendicular to the
wavefronts.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 6 / 33

 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

The speed of any mechanical wave, transverse or longitudinal, depends on both an

inertial property of the medium (to store kinetic energy) and an elastic property of the
medium (to store potential energy). Using the velocity of the string (see previous
sections), we can write
r
elastic property
r
τ
v= =
µ inertial property

In case of the air we can guess that µ will correspond to the volume density ρ of air. But
what about the elastic property ?
As a sound wave passes through air, potential energy is associated with periodic
compressions and expansions of small volume elements of the air. the property that
determines the extent to which an element of a medium changes in volume when the
pressure on it change is the bulk modulus B, defined :

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 7 / 33

 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

∆P
B=−
∆V /V

Here ∆V /V is the fractional change in volume produced by a change in pressure ∆P.

The SI unit for pressure is newton per square meter, which is the pascal (Pa). Thus the
unit of B is also Pa. When we increase the pressure of an element, its volume
decreases =⇒ ∆V /V and ∆P have opposite signs.
r
B
v=
ρ

In table 17.1 of the text book, you find the speed of the sound in various media.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 8 / 33

 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

Let the pressure of the undisturbed air be p and the pressure inside the pulse be
p + ∆p, where ∆p is positive due to the compression. Consider an element of air
thickness ∆x and face area A, moving toward the pulse at speed v . As this element
enters the pulse, the leading face of the element encounters a region of higher
pressure, which slows the element to speed v + ∆v , in which ∆v is negative. This
slowing is complete when the face of the element reaches the pulse, which requires
time interval :

∆x
∆t =
v
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 9 / 33
 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

During ∆t, the average force on the element’s trailing face is pA toward the right, and
teh average force on the leading face is (p + ∆p)A toward the left. The net force on the
element during ∆t is :

F = pA − (p + ∆p)A = −∆pA
The minus sign indicates that the net force on the air element is directed to the left.
The volume of the element is A∆x, so we can write its mass as :
∆m = ρ∆V = ρA∆x = ρAv ∆t
∆v
The average acceleration of the element during ∆t is a =
∆t
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 10 / 33
 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

Thus from the second law of Newton, we have (F = ma) :

∆v
−∆pA = (ρAv ∆t)
∆t
which can be written as :
∆p
ρv 2 = −
∆v /v

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 11 / 33

 Sound Waves

The speed of sound

The air that occupies a volume V (=Av ∆t) outside the pulse is compressed by an
amount ∆V (=A∆v ∆t) as it enters the pulse. Thus,
∆V A∆v ∆t ∆v
= =
V Av ∆t v
The previous equation can now be written :
∆p ∆p
ρv 2 = − =− =B
∆v /v ∆V /V
s
B
v=
ρ
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 12 / 33
 Sound Waves

Travelling Sound waves

We want to examine the displacements and pressure variations associated with a

sinusoidal wave travelling through air.

Consider the displacement of the sound wave in air as s(x,t)

s(x, t) = sm cos(kx − ωt)

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 13 / 33

 Sound Waves

Travelling Sound waves

Consider the displacement of the sound wave in air as s(x,t)

s(x, t) = sm cos(kx − ωt)

sm is the displacement amplitude. the angular wave number k, angular frequency ω,

frequency f wavelength λ, speed v , and period T for a sound (longitudinal) wave are
defined exactly as for a transverse wave, except that λ is now a distance in which the
pattern of compression and expansion due to the wave begins to repeat itself.
As the wave moves, the air pressure at any position x varies sinusoidally :

∆p(x, t) = ∆pm sin(kx − ωt)

with ∆pm the pressure amplitude given by :

∆pm = (v ρω)sm

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 14 / 33

 Sound Waves

Travelling Sound waves

∆P
B=−
∆V /V

∆V
∆P = −B
V
V = A∆x

∆V = A∆s
∆s ∂s
∆P = −B = −B
∆x ∂x
∂s ∂
= [sm cos(kx − ωt)] = −ksm sin(kx − ωt)
∂x ∂x
∆P = Bksm sin(kx − ωt)

∆Pm = Bksm = (v 2 ρk )sm

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 15 / 33

 Sound Waves

Interference

Let us consider in particular, the interference between two identical sound waves
travelling in the same direction. Two point sources S1 and S2 emit sound waves that are
in phase and of identical wavelength λ. Thus, the sources themselves are said to be in
phase. We are interested in the waves that travel through p. The distance to P is much
greater than the distance between the sources so that we can approximate the waves
as travelling in the same direction at P.
If the waves traveled along paths with identical lengths to reach point P, they would be
in phase there. As with transverse waves, this means that they would undergo fully
constructive interference there (see slide 33 of chapter Waves I). However, path L2 is
longer than L1 . The difference in path lengths means that the waves may not be in
phase at point P. Their phase difference φ at P depends on their path length
difference ∆L = |L2 − L1 |
A phase difference of 2π corresponds to one wavelength, thus we can write the
proportion :
φ ∆L
=
2π λ
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 16 / 33
 Sound Waves

Interference

∆L
φ= 2π
λ
Fully constructive interference occurs when φ is zero, 2π, or any integer multiple of 2π
φ = n(2π), for n=0,1,2,3,...

∆L
= 0, 1, 2, ... (fully constructive interference)
λ
v ∆L
and f = n and λ=
∆L n

Fully destructive interference occurs when φ is an odd multiple of π, a condition we can

write as
φ = (2n + 1)π, for n=0,1,2,3,... (fully destructive interference)

∆L
= 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... (fully destructive interference)
λ
v ∆L
and f = (2n + 1) and λ=2
2∆L (2n + 1)

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 17 / 33

 Sound Waves

Intensity and sound level

Sound is more that frequency, wavelength and speed. There is also intensity. The
intensity I of a sound wave at a surface is the average rate per unit area at which
energy is transferred by the wave through or onto the surface. We can write this as :
P
I=
A
Where P is the time rate energy transfer (power) of the sound wave and A is the area
of the surface intercepting the sound. The intensity is then given by :

I = 21 ρv ω 2 sm
2

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 18 / 33

 Sound Waves

Intensity and sound level

Derivation :
1
dK = dmvs2
2
1
dK = (ρAdx)(−ωsm )2 sin2 (kx − ωt)
2
dK 1
= ρAv ω 2 sm2
sin2 (kx − ωt)
dt 2
The average rate at which the kinetic energy is transported is :
dK 1 1
( )avg = ρAv ω 2 sm
2
[sin2 (kx − ωt)]avg = ρAv ω 2 sm
2
dt 2 4
We assume that the potential energy is carried along with the wave at this same
average rate. The wave intensity I, which is the average rate per unit area at which
energy of both kinds is transmitted by the wave, is then
dK
2( )avg 1
I= dt = ρv ω 2 sm
2
A 2
This equation is similar to the one derived in chapter Waves I : the average rate at
which the energy of both kinds is transmitted by the wave
Pavg = 21 µv ω 2 ym2
with ρ ∝ µ/A
Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 19 / 33
 Sound Waves

Variation of Intensity with distance

In some situations, we can ignore echoes and assume that the sound source is a point
source that emits the sound isotropically. That is, with equal intensity in all directions.
Lets us center an imaginary sphere of radius r and the power of the source is PS , the
intensity I at the sphere must then be :
PS
I=
4πr 2
where 4πr 2 is the area of the sphere.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 20 / 33

 Sound Waves

The Decibel Scale : sound level

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 21 / 33

 Sound Waves

Resonance

If the pipe is open at two ends :

v nv
f = =
λ 2L
nλ
L=
2
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
If the pipe is open at one end :
v nv
f = =
λ 4L
nλ
L=
4
n = 1, 3, 5, ...

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 22 / 33

 Beats

outline

1 Sound Waves

2 Beats

3 Doppler effect

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 23 / 33

 Beats

Beats

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 24 / 33

 Beats

Beats

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 Beats

Beats

The beat frequency is fbeat = f1 − f2 and ωbeat = ∆ω = ω1 − ω2

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 26 / 33

 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

λ t t tv
because λ = vT =⇒ T = =⇒ = =
v T λ/v λ

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 27 / 33

 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

+ if the detector is moving toward the source

− if the detector is moving in the opposite way
f 0 = f (1 ± VD /v )

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 28 / 33

 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 29 / 33

 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

If a source is moving toward a stationary detector at

the speed of sound vs , the previous equation
predicts that the detected frequency f 0 will be
infinitely great. This means that the source is
moving so fast that it keeps pace (rhythm) with its
own spherical wavefronts.
For supersonic speeds, the source exceeds the
limits of the sphere (it is moving faster than the
sound). The bunching of the wavefronts in 3D form
a cone called the Mach cone.

Eid (NDU) Gen. Physics III 30 / 33

 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

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 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

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 Doppler effect

Doppler effect

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