CHAPTER 4 : VECTOR SPACES

4.2 SUBSPACES
A subspace is a smaller set within a vector space that is itself a vector space.

𝑢 𝒗

𝑆 is a subspace of 𝑉 if 𝑆 :
i. closed under vector addition

If 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑆 then 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑆
ii. closed under scalar multiplication

If 𝑢 ∈ 𝑆 and 𝛼 is any scalar, then 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑆

EXAMPLE 1
Determine whether the set S is a subspace of R2 .
a) 𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)| 𝑎 = 2𝑏}

b) 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 1)| 𝑥 any real number }

SOLUTION:

a) 𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)| 𝑎 = 2𝑏}

Define Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑆.
elements
𝑢 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) ; 𝑢1 = 2𝑢2 … (1)
of the set
𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) ; 𝑣1 = 2𝑣2 … (2)

1st 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )

condition
= (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
Check the condition:

𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 2𝑢2 + 2𝑣2
= 2(𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 1

 ∴ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑆 is closed under vector addition.

2nd 𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 )
condition
= (𝛼𝑢1 , 𝛼𝑢2 )
Check the condition:
𝛼𝑢1 = 𝛼(2𝑢2 )
= 2𝛼𝑢2

∴ 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑆 is closed under scalar multiplication.

Conclusion Since both conditions are satisfied, therefore 𝑆 is a subspace of R2

b) 𝑆 = {(𝑥, 1)| 𝑥 any real number }

Define Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑆.
elements
𝑢 = (𝑢1 , 1)
of the set
𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 1)

1st 𝑢 + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 1) + (𝑣1 , 1)

condition
= (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 2)

∴ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∉ 𝑆. 𝑆 is not closed under vector addition.

Conclusion Since S is not closed under vector addition, therefore 𝑆 is not a

subspace of R2.

EXAMPLE 2
𝑎 𝑏
Let 𝑊 be a set of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries of the form ( ) where 𝑎𝑑 = 0.
𝑐 𝑑
Determine whether 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑀2×2 .

SOLUTION:

Define Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑊.
elements
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2
of the set Let 𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎4 ) where 𝑎1 𝑎4 = 0 and 𝐵 = (𝑏3 ) where 𝑏1 𝑏4 = 0
3 𝑏4

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 2

 1st 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑏2
𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝑎 𝑎4 ) + (𝑏3 )
condition 3 𝑏4
𝑎 + 𝑏1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
=( 1 )
𝑎3 + 𝑏3 𝑎4 + 𝑏4
Check the condition:
(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )(𝑎4 + 𝑏4 ) = 𝑎1 𝑎4 + 𝑎1 𝑏4 + 𝑏1 𝑎4 + 𝑏1 𝑏4

= 0 + 𝑎1 𝑏4 + 𝑏1 𝑎4 + 0
= 𝑎1 𝑏4 + 𝑏1 𝑎4 ≠ 0

𝐴 + 𝐵 ∉ 𝑊. 𝑊 is not closed under vector addition.

Conclusion Therefore 𝑊 is not a subspace of 𝑀2×2

EXAMPLE 3

Determine whether the set 𝑆 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 ; 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏} is a subspace of 𝑃2 , where 𝑃2 is

the set of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to two.
SOLUTION:

Define Let 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑆.
elements
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 2 ; 𝑎3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
of the set
𝑞(𝑥 ) = 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑥 2 ; 𝑏3 = 𝑏1 + 𝑏2

1st 𝑝(𝑥 ) + 𝑞 (𝑥 ) = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 2 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑥 2 )

condition
= (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 2
Check the condition:

𝑎3 + 𝑏3 = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 )
= (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )
∴ 𝑝 + 𝑞 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑆 is closed under vector addition.

2nd 𝑘𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑘(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 2 ) ,𝑘∈ℝ

condition
= 𝑘𝑎1 + 𝑘𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑎3 𝑥 2
Check the condition:

𝑘𝑎3 = 𝑘(𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )
= 𝑘𝑎1 + 𝑘𝑎2
∴ 𝑘𝑝 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑆 is closed under scalar multiplication.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 3

 Conclusion Since 𝑆 is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication ,
then 𝑆 is a subspace of 𝑃2 .

Template for subspace:

Define
elements of
the set

1st condition
(vector
addition)

2nd condition
(scalar
multiplication)

Conclusion

#If one of the conditions is not satisfied, no need to check the other condition.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 4

TUTORIAL 5: SUBSPACES

1. Determine whether the set 𝑊 = {(𝑎, 𝑏); 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0; 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℜ} is a subspace of ℜ2 .

Solution:

Define 𝑢
⃗ ,𝑣 ∈ 𝑊
elements of
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ); 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 0; 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ ℜ
𝑢
the set
𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ); 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 0; 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ∈ ℜ

1st condition ⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )

𝑢
(vector = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
addition)
Check the condition:
(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) + (𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )

=0+0=0

⃗ + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊. 𝑊 is closed under vector addition.

∴𝑢

2nd condition ⃗ = 𝑘 (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 )

𝑘𝑢
(scalar = (𝑘𝑢1 , 𝑘𝑢2 )
multiplication)
Check the condition:

𝑘𝑢1 + 𝑘𝑢2 = 𝑘(𝑢1 + 𝑢2 )

= 𝑘(0) = 0
⃗ ∈ 𝑊. 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication.
∴ 𝑘𝑢

Conclusion Since 𝑆 is closed under vector addition and scalar

multiplication , then 𝑆 is a subspace of ℜ2 .

2. Determine whether set 𝑃 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 ; 𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 1; 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℜ} is a subspace

of 𝑃2 .
Solution:

Define Let 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑃.
elements of
𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 2 ; 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 − 1 ; 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ∈ ℜ
the set
𝑞(𝑥 ) = 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑥 2 ; 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 + 𝑏3 − 1 ; 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ∈ ℜ

1st condition 𝑝(𝑥 ) + 𝑞 (𝑥 ) = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎3 𝑥 2 ) + (𝑏1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑏3 𝑥 2 )

(vector = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )𝑥 2
addition)
Check the condition:

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 5

 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 = (𝑎2 + 𝑎3 − 1 ) + (𝑏2 + 𝑏3 − 1 )
= (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ) + (𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ) − 2
∴ 𝑝(𝑥) + 𝑞(𝑥) ∉ 𝑃. 𝑃 is not closed under vector addition

Conclusion Since 𝑃 is not closed under vector addition , then 𝑃 is not a

subspace of 𝑃2 .

3. Determine whether the set 𝑊 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ); 𝑐 = 2𝑏, 𝑑 = 𝑎 − 𝑏} form a subspace of

𝑅4 .

Solution:

Define
elements of
the set

1st condition
(vector
addition)

2nd condition
(scalar
multiplication)

Conclusion

2
4. Let 𝑆 = {(𝑎 𝑎 ) , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℜ}. Determine whether 𝑆 is a subspace of 𝑀2×2 , the set
0 𝑏
of all 2 × 2 matrices
Solution:

Define
elements of
the set

1st condition
(vector
addition)

2nd condition

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 6

(scalar
multiplication)

Conclusion

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 7

4.3 LINEAR COMBINATIONS

DEFINITION:

Let 𝑆 = {𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , … , 𝒖𝒏 } be a nonempty subset of a vector space 𝑉 . A vector 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 is a

linear combination of the vectors in 𝑆 if it can be written in the form

𝒗 = 𝑐1 𝒖𝟏 + 𝑐2 𝒖𝟐 + … + 𝑐𝑛 𝒖𝒏
where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are scalars.

u1 , u2 ,…, un

???
𝒗=
ฎ 𝒄𝟏 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝒖𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒏 𝒖𝒏

𝒗 ∈𝑉

REMARK
❖ If the question asks to express a given vector as linear combination

 Find the value of constants c1, c2, c3, …, cn

❖ If the question asks to determine whether a given vector is a linear

combination

 It is sufficient to check whether the system is consistent or not without

finding the values of the scalars.

• If the system is consistent  there exist a linear combination.

• If the system is inconsistent (no solution)  not a linear combination.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 8

EXAMPLE 4

Given 𝒖1 = (1, 0, 2), 𝒖𝟐 = (1, − 1, 0), 𝒖𝟑 = (−1, 0, 1) and 𝒗 = (2, − 4, 6). Express 𝒗 as
a linear combination of 𝒖1 , 𝒖𝟐 and 𝒖𝟑 .

SOLUTION:

Write 𝒗 as form of : 𝒗 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3

(2, − 4, 6) = 𝑐1 (1, 0, 2) + 𝑐2 (1, − 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (−1, 0, 1)

(2, − 4, 6) = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 𝑐3 , −𝑐2 , 2𝑐1 + 𝑐3 )

Equating the components 2 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 𝑐3

yield the system of linear −4 = −𝑐2
equations: 6 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐3

Find values of 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 𝑐3 = 2

by solving the system of 0𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 0𝑐3 = −4
linear equations: 2𝑐1 + 0𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 6

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵: 1 1 −1 𝑐1 2
(0 𝑐
−1 0 ) ( 2 ) = (−4)
2 0 1 𝑐3 6

Augmented matrix: 1 1 −1 2
(0 −1 0 |−4)
2 0 1 6

−2𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 1 −1 2
(0 −1 0 |−4)
0 −2 3 2

−𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 1 −1 2
(0 1 0 |4)
0 −2 3 2

2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 1 −1 2
(0 1 0 |4)
0 0 3 10

1 1 1 −1 2
𝑅 → 𝑅3
3 3 (0 1 0 |4)
10
0 0 1 3

10 4
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 − 𝑐3 = 2 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 2 − 4 + =
3 3
𝑐2 = 4
10
𝑐3 =
3
4 10
∴ (2, − 4, 6) = (1, 0, 2) + 4(1, − 1, 0) + (−1, 0, 1)
3 3

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 9

EXAMPLE 5

Consider the following vectors in 𝑃2

𝒓 = 2 + 𝑥, 𝒔 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 𝒕 = 4 + 2𝑥 2

Express 𝒖 = 2 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 as a linear combination of 𝒓, 𝒔 and 𝒕.

SOLUTION:

Write 𝒗 as form of : 𝒖 = 𝑐1 𝒓 + 𝑐2 𝒔 + 𝑐3 𝒕

2 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 = 𝑐1 (2 + 𝑥 ) + 𝑐2 (𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 ) + 𝑐3 (4 + 2𝑥 2 )

2 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 2𝑐2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑐3 + 2𝑐3 𝑥 2

2 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 = 2𝑐1 + 4𝑐3 + (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 )𝑥 + (2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 )𝑥 2

Equating the coefficients Constant : 2𝑐1 + 4𝑐3 = 2

yield the system of linear Coefficient 𝑥 : 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 1
equations: Coefficient 𝑥 2 : 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 = 6

Find values of 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 2𝑐1 + 0𝑐2 + 4𝑐3 = 2

by solving the system of 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 0𝑐3 = 1
linear equations: 0𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 = 6

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵: 2 0 4 𝑐1 2
(1 1 0 ) ( 𝑐2 ) = ( 1)
0 2 2 𝑐3 6

Augmented matrix: 2 0 42
(1 1 0|1)
0 2 26

1 1 0 21
𝑅 → 𝑅1 (1 1 0|1)
2 1
0 2 26

−𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 0 2 1
(0 1 −2|0)
0 2 2 6

−2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 2 1
(0 1 −2|0)
0 0 6 6

𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 2 1
(0 1 −2|0)
0 0 1 1

𝑐1 + 2𝑐3 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 1 − 2 = −1
𝑐2 − 2𝑐3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐2 = 2
𝑐3 = 1
∴ 2 + 𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 = −(2 + 𝑥 ) + 2(𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 ) + (4 + 2𝑥 2 )

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 10

EXAMPLE 6
5 4
Determine whether matrix 𝐹 = ( ) is a linear combination of matrices 𝐴, 𝐵 and
−6 0
𝐶 if
1 2 −1 1 2 1
𝐴=( ), 𝐵 = ( ) and 𝐶 = ( ).
0 −1 3 2 −3 4
SOLUTION:

Write 𝐹 as form of : 𝑭 = 𝑐1 𝑨 + 𝑐2 𝑩 + 𝑐3 𝑪

5 4 1 2 −1 1 2 1
( ) = 𝑐1 ( ) + 𝑐2 ( ) + 𝑐3 ( )
−6 0 0 −1 3 2 −3 4

5 4 𝑐 − 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3
( )=( 1 )
−6 0 3𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 −𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐3

Equating the entries yield 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 = 5

the system of linear 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 4
equations: 3𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 = −6
−𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐3 = 0

Find values of 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 = 5

by solving the system of 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 4
linear equations: 3𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 = −6
−𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐3 = 0
𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵: 1 −1 2 𝑐1 5
2 1 1 4
( ) (𝑐2 ) = ( )
0 3 −3 𝑐3 −6
−1 2 4 0

Augmented matrix: 1 −1 2 5
2 1 1 4
( | )
0 3 −3 −6
−1 2 4 0

−2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 −1 2 5
0 3 −3 −6
( | )
0 3 −3 −6
−1 2 4 0

𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 −1 2 5
0 3 −3 −6
( | )
0 3 −3 −6
0 1 6 5

𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅4 1 −1 2 5
0 1 6 5
( | )
0 3 −3 −6
0 3 −3 −6

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 11

 −𝑅3 + 𝑅4 → 𝑅4 1 −1 2 5
0 1 6 5
( | )
0 3 −3 −6
0 0 0 0

−3𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 −1 2 5
0 1 6 5
( | )
0 0 −21 −21
0 0 0 0

1 1 −1 25
− 𝑅 → 𝑅3
21 3 (
0 1 65
| )
0 0 11
0 0 00

𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 = 5 ⇒ 𝑐3 = 2
𝑐2 + 6𝑐3 = 5 ⇒ 𝑐2 = −1
𝑐3 = 1
Since there exist constants 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 and 𝑐3 , therefore 𝐹 is a linear combination of A, B
and C.
EXAMPLE 7
If possible, write the vector 𝒘 = (1, −2, 2) as a linear combination of vectors in the set
𝑆 = {(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), (−1, 0, 1)}.

SOLUTION:
Write 𝒘 as form of : 𝒘 = 𝑐1 (1, 2, 3) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 2) + 𝑐3 (−1, 0, 1)

(1, −2, 2) = 𝑐1 (1, 2, 3) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 2) + 𝑐3 (−1, 0, 1)

(1, −2, 2) = (𝑐1 − 𝑐3 , 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 , 3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 )

Equating the components 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 1

yield the system of linear 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = −2
equations: 3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 2

Check whether the system 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 1

consistent or not 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = −2
3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 2

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵: 1 0 −1 𝑐1 1
(2 1 0 ) (𝑐2 ) = (−2)
3 2 1 𝑐3 2

Augmented matrix: 1 0 −1 1
(2 1 0 |−2)
3 2 1 2

−2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 0 −1 1
(0 1 2 |−4)
3 2 1 2

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 12

 −3𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 −1 1
(0 1 2 |−4)
0 2 4 −1

−2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 −1 1
(0 1 2 |−4)
0 0 0 7

From the third row, we can conclude that the system of equations is inconsistent,
which means there is no solution. Consequently, 𝒘 cannot be written as a linear
combinations of vectors in set 𝑆.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 13

4.4 SPANNING SET

• Let 𝑆 = {𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , … , 𝒖𝒏 } be a subset vector space V. Then the subspace W of V

consisting of all linear combination of vectors in S is called the space spanned
by S.

• We say
S spans W or 𝑊 = span (S) or 𝑊= span{𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , … , 𝒖𝒏 }

S spans W 𝑊
u1 , u2 ,…, un
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , …

𝑊 = span (S)

Step 1 : Write the linear combination

𝑐1 𝒖1 + 𝑐2 𝒖𝟐 + … + 𝑐𝑛 𝒖𝑛 = 𝒗

(Standard form of vector in W)

Step 2 : Obtain the linear system from the linear combination

Step 3 : Solve the linear system. Determine whether 𝒗 is linear combination of

vectors in S. If it is, then S spans W, else does not.

For a square matrix  if |A|  0  Span

 if |A| = 0  Does not span

For a non-square matrix  if the system is consistent  Span

 if the system is inconsistent  Does not span

EXAMPLE 8

Determine whether the vectors given below span 𝑅3

𝑣1 = (3, 1, 1), 𝑣2 = (2, −2, 0), 𝑣3 = (1, 0, 1), 𝑣4 = (1, 4, −1)

SOLUTION:
Write the linear 𝑐1 𝒗1 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑐3 𝒗𝟑 + 𝑐4 𝒗𝟒 = 𝒗
combination
𝑐1 (3, 1, 1)+ 𝑐2 (2, −2, 0) + 𝑐3 (1, 0, 1) + 𝑐4 (1, 4, −1) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

(3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 , 𝑐1 − 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐4 , 𝑐1 + 𝑐3 − 𝑐4 ) = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 14

 Obtain the linear 3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 = 𝑎
system from the 𝑐1 − 2𝑐2 + 4𝑐4 = 𝑏
linear combination 𝑐1 + 𝑐3 − 𝑐4 = 𝑐

Solve the linear system. Determine whether 𝒗 is linear combination of vectors in

S
3 2 1 1 𝑎
(1 −2 0 4 |𝑏 )
1 0 1 −1 𝑐

1 0 1 −1 𝑐
𝑅1 ⟷ 𝑅3 (1 −2 0 4 |𝑏 )
3 2 1 1 𝑎

−3𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 1 −1 𝑐
(0 −2 −1 5 | 𝑏 − 𝑐)
−𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 0 2 −2 4 𝑎 − 3𝑐

𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 𝑐
1 0 1 −1 1
1
− 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 5 − (𝑏 − 𝑐 )
2 (0 1 − | 2 )
1 2 2 1
− 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 0 0 1 −3 − 3 (𝑎 + 𝑏 − 4𝑐 )
3

Conclusion: The system is consistent. Thus, the vectors span 𝑅3 .

EXAMPLE 9

Show that the vectors 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑥 2 span 𝑃2 .

SOLUTION:
STEP 1: 𝑐1 𝒗1 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + 𝑐3 𝒗𝟑 = 𝒗

𝑐1 (1 − 𝑥 2 )+ 𝑐2 (𝑥 + 2 ) + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2

𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + (𝑐3 − 𝑐1 )𝑥 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2

STEP 2: Constant : 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 = 𝑎

Coefficient 𝑥: 𝑐2 = 𝑏
Coefficient 𝑥 2 : −𝑐1 + 𝑐3 = 𝑐

1 2 0 𝑐1 𝑎
(0 1 0) (𝑐2 ) = (𝑏 )
−1 0 1 𝑐3 𝑐

Coefficient matrix is a square matrix. Check determinant.

STEP 3: 1 2 0
1 2
|0 1 0| = 1 | | = 1 ≠ 0.
0 1
−1 0 1

STEP 4: Thus, the vectors span 𝑃2 .

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 15

EXAMPLE 9a

Show that the set S given below does not span 𝑅3 .

𝑆 = {(1,1,1) , (0, −2,2) , (1,0,2) , (−1,4, −6) }

SOLUTION:
STEP 1: 𝑘1 (1,1,1) + 𝑘2 (0, −2,2) + 𝑘3 (1,0,2) + 𝑘4 (−1,4, −6) = (𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐)

STEP 2: 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 − 𝑘4 = 𝑎
𝑘1 − 2𝑘2 + 4𝑘4 = 𝑏
𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 − 6𝑘4 = 𝑐

STEP 3: 1 0 1 −1 𝑎
(1 −2 0 4 |𝑏 )
1 2 2 −6 𝑐
−𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 0 1 −1 𝑎
(0 −2 −1 5 |𝑏 − 𝑎)
1 2 2 −6 𝑐

−𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 1 −1 𝑎
(0 −2 −1 5 |𝑏 − 𝑎)
0 2 1 −5 𝑐 − 𝑎

𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 1 −1 𝑎
(0 −2 −1 5 | 𝑏−𝑎 )
0 0 0 0 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑎

STEP 4: The last row gives us a false statement unless 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 2𝑎 = 0. This implies
that the system is not always consistent. Hence S does not span the
whole vector space 𝑅 3 .

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 16

4.5 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE

DEFINITION

Let 𝑆 = {𝒖1 , 𝒖𝟐 , … , 𝒖𝒏 } be a set of nonzero vectors, then 𝑆 is said to be linearly

independent if the homogeneous system
𝑐1 𝒖1 + 𝑐2 𝒖𝟐 + … + 𝑐𝑛 𝒖𝑛 = 𝟎

gives only a trivial solution that is 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 = 0.

To determine whether a given set of vectors is linearly independent:

Step 1 : Form the linear combination with the zero vector

Step 2 : Obtain the homogeneous linear system from the linear combination.

Step 3 : Solve the system. Trivial solution  linearly independent.

Nontrivial solution  linearly dependent.

For square matrix → use determinant : if |A| 0  linearly independent

if |A|= 0  linearly dependent

EXAMPLE 10
Determine whether the vectors below are linearly independent.

𝑣⃑1 = (1,1, −1), 𝑣⃑2 = (1,0,1) , 𝑣⃑3 = (2,1,1)

SOLUTION:
STEP 1:

𝑘1 𝑣⃑1 + 𝑘2 𝑣⃑2 + 𝑘3 𝑣⃑3 = ⃗𝟎⃑

𝑘1 (1,1, −1) + 𝑘2 (1,0,1) + 𝑘3 (2,1,1) = (0, 0, 0)

STEP 2: SET UP SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 2𝑘3 = 0
𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 0
−𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 0

1 1 2 𝑘1 0
(1 0 1) (𝑘2 ) = (0)
−1 1 1 𝑘3 0

STEP 3 : IF COEFFICIENT MATRIX IS A SQUARE MATRIX -> DETERMINANT ,

OTHERWISE ->E.R.O

Coefficients matrix is a square matrix.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 17

 1 1 2
𝐴=( 1 0 1)
−1 1 1
1 1 2
|𝐴| = | 1 0 1|
−1 1 1
1 2 1 1
= −1 | | − 1| |
1 1 −1 1
= −1(1 − 2) − (1 − (−1))
= −1(−1) − 2 = 1 − 2
= 1 − 2 = −1 ≠ 0

STEP 4 : CONCLUSION
Thus, the vectors are linearly independent.

# Alternatively, solve the linear system: Trivial or Non-trivial solution (for k)

EXAMPLE 11
Let 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 } where 𝑣1 = (3,1,1), 𝑣2 = (2, −2,0), 𝑣3 = (1, 0, 1) and 𝑣4 = (1,4, − 1).
Show that S is linearly dependent in R3.

SOLUTION:
STEP 1:

𝑘1 𝑣1 + 𝑘2 𝑣2 + 𝑘3 𝑣3 + 𝑘4 𝑣4 = ⃗0⃑
𝑘1 (3,1,1) + 𝑘2 (2, −2,0) + 𝑘3 (1, 0, 1) + 𝑘4 (1,4, − 1) = (0, 0, 0)

STEP 2: SET UP SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

3𝑘1 + 2 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 0
𝑘1 − 2 𝑘2 + 0𝑘3 + 4𝑘4 = 0
𝑘1 + 0𝑘2 + 𝑘3 − 𝑘4 = 0

STEP 3 : IF COEFFICIENT MATRIX IS A SQUARE MATRIX -> DETERMINANT ,

OTHERWISE ->E.R.O

3 2 1 1 0
(1 −2 0 4 |0)
1 0 1 −1 0

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 18

 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 1 0 1 −1 0
−𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 (0 −2 −1 5 |0)
−3𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 0 2 −2 4 0
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3
1 1 0 1 −1 0
− 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 5
2 (0 1 − |0)
2 2
1 −3 0
− 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 0 0 1
3

STEP 4 : CONCLUSION

Since 𝑘4 is a free variable, the system will have nontrivial solutions.

Therefore, S is linearly dependent in R3 .

EXAMPLE 12
3 −2 0 1 1 7 1 1
Let 𝐵 = {( ), ( ), ( ), ( )} . Show that B is linearly independent.
4 0 1 −2 3 0 0 1
SOLUTION:
STEP 1:
3 −2 0 1 1 7 1 1 0 0
𝑘1 ( ) + 𝑘2 ( ) + 𝑘3 ( ) + 𝑘4 ( )=( )
4 0 1 −2 3 0 0 1 0 0

STEP 2: SET UP SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

3𝑘 −2𝑘1 0 𝑘2 𝑘 7𝑘3 𝑘 𝑘4 0 0
( 1 )+( )+( 3 )+( 4 )=( )
4𝑘1 0 𝑘2 −2𝑘2 3𝑘3 0 0 𝑘4 0 0

3𝑘1 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 −2𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 7𝑘3 + 𝑘4 0 0

( )=( )
4𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 3𝑘3 −2𝑘2 + 𝑘4 0 0

3𝑘1 + 𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 0
−2𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 7𝑘3 + 𝑘4 = 0
4𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 3𝑘3 = 0
−2𝑘2 + 𝑘4 = 0

3 0 1 1 𝑘1 0
−2 1 7 1 𝑘2 0
( )( ) = ( )
4 1 3 0 𝑘3 0
0 −2 0 1 𝑘4 0

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 19

STEP 3 : IF SQUARE MATRIX -> DETERMINANT , OTHERWISE ->E.R.O
3 0 1 1 = 3 1 1 3 0 1
−2 |−2 | + 1 | 7|
|𝐴| = |−2 1 7 1
|
7 1 −2 1
4 1 3 0 4 3 0 4 1 3
0 −2 0 1
−2 7 3 1 1 7 −2 1
= −2 (1 | | − 1| |) + 1 (3 | | + 1| |)
4 3 4 3 1 3 4 1
= −2(−6 − 28 − (9 − 4)) + 1(3(3 − 7) + 1(−2 − 4))
= −2(−6 − 28 − (9 − 4)) + 1(3(3 − 7) + 1(−2 − 4))
= −2(−39) + 1(−12 − 6)
= 60 ≠ 0

STEP 4 : CONCLUSION

Since |𝐴| ≠ 0, thus B is linearly independent.

THEOREM 4.5.1 (LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND SPANNING)

𝑅𝑛 If S = {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , . . , 𝑢𝑟 } be a set in 𝑅𝑛 . Then

1. 𝑆 is linearly dependent if 𝑟 > 𝑛.

2. 𝑆 does not span 𝑅𝑛 if 𝑟 < 𝑛.

𝑃𝑛 If S = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , . . , 𝑝𝑟 } be a set in 𝑃𝑛 . Then

1. 𝑆 is linearly dependent if 𝑟 > 𝑛 + 1.

2. 𝑆 does not span 𝑃𝑛 if 𝑟 < 𝑛 + 1.

𝑀𝑚×𝑛 If S = {𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , . . , 𝑀𝑟 } be a set in 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 . Then

1. 𝑆 is linearly dependent if 𝑟 > 𝑚𝑛.

2. 𝑆 does not span 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 if 𝑟 < 𝑚𝑛.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 20

4.6 BASIS AND DIMENSION

BASIS
Smallest number of vectors in 𝑉 that represent 𝑉.

The set of vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , . . , 𝑢𝑛 } forms a basis for vector space 𝑉 if and only if :

1. {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , . . , 𝑢𝑛 } is linearly independent.

2. {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , . . , 𝑢𝑛 } spans 𝑉

THEOREM 4.6.1 (UNIQUENESS OF BASIS REPRESENTATION)

If S = {v1, v2, . . . , vn} is a basis for a vector space V, then every vector in 𝑽 can be written in
one and only one way as a linear combination of vectors in S.

THEOREM 4.6.2 (BASES AND LINEAR DEPENDENCE)

If S = {v1, v2, . . . , vn} is a basis for a vector space V, then every set containing more than
𝑛 vectors in V is linearly dependent.

THEOREM 4.6.3 (NUMBER OF VECTORS IN A BASIS)

If a vector space 𝑽 has one basis with n vectors, then every basis for 𝑽 has 𝑛 vectors.

DEFINITION OF THE DIMENSION OF A VECTOR SPACE

If a vector space V has a basis consisting of n vectors, then the number n is the
dimension of V, denoted by dim(V) = n. When V consists of the zero vector alone, the
dimension of V is defined as zero.

1. The dimension of 𝑅𝑛 with the standard operations is n.

2. The dimension of 𝑃𝑛 with the standard operations is n + 1.
3. The dimension of 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 with the standard operations is 𝑚𝑛.

THEOREM 4.6.4 (BASIS TESTS IN AN n-DIMENSIONAL SPACE)

Let V be a vector space of dimension n.
1. If 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } is a linearly independent set of vectors in 𝑉, then 𝑆 is a basis for
𝑉.
2. If 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } spans V, then S is a basis for V.

If the vectors consisting {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } form a square matrix 𝐴, then it will form a basis
if and only if |𝐴| ≠ 0.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 21

BASIS

• The smallest number of vectors in a vector space 𝑉 that represent 𝑉.

• 𝑆 = {𝑢
⃗⃑1 , 𝑢 ⃗⃑𝑛 } forms a basis for vector space V if and only if:
⃗⃑2 , … , 𝑢

i. S is linearly independent.

ii. S spans V.

• If coefficient matrix, A is a square matrix and if |𝐴| ≠ 0 then S spans V and S

is linearly independent  S forms a basis for V.
• If coefficient matrix, A is a non-square matrix then check i and ii.

DIMENSION

• Dimension of 𝑉, dim(𝑉) = number of vectors in basis.

• If 𝑉 consists of the zero vector only, then dim(𝑉)= 0.

• Note: If 𝑉 = {𝟎}, then 𝑉 has no basis because 0 is linearly dependent.

Vector Dimension Dimension

(Standard) (Subspace)

𝑅𝑛 𝑛 ≤𝑛

𝑀𝑚×𝑛 𝑚𝑛 ≤ 𝑚𝑛

𝑃𝑛 𝑛+1 ≤𝑛+1

DIMENSION TEST
If the number of vectors in a set S is the same as the dimension of a vector space V

• If 𝑆 is linearly independent in 𝑉, then S is a basis for V.

• If S spans 𝑉, then S is a basis for V.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 22

EXAMPLE 13

Determine whether 𝑣1 = (1, 1, −1), 𝑣2 = (1, 0, 1) and 𝑣3 = (2, 1, 1) is a basis for

R3 .

SOLUTION:
Check for linearly independent:

c1 (1,1, −1) + c2 (1,0,1) + c3 ( 2,1,1) = ( 0,0,0 )

1 1 2 𝑐1 0
(1 0 1) (𝑐2 ) = (0)
−1 1 1 𝑐3 0
1 1 2
|1 0 1| = −1 ≠ 0
−1 1 1
Since the value of determinant is not equal to zero and the number of vectors is 3, by
using dimension test, the vectors are linearly independent and spans R3. Therefore,
the vectors form a basis for R3

EXAMPLE 14

Determine whether the set of vectors {1 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 , 1 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 , 1 − 7𝑥 } forms a basis for

𝑃2 .
SOLUTION

Check whether the vectors span 𝑷𝟐

𝑘1 (1 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 ) + 𝑘2 (1 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 ) + 𝑘3 (1 − 7𝑥 ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2

(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) + (−3𝑘1 + 𝑘2 − 7𝑘3 )𝑥 + (2𝑘1 + 4𝑘2 )𝑥 2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 𝑎
−3𝑘1 + 𝑘2 − 7𝑘3 = 𝑏
2𝑘1 + 4𝑘2 = 𝑐

1 1 1 𝑘1 𝑎
(−3 1 −7 ) ( 𝑘2 ) = ( 𝑏)
2 4 0 𝑘3 𝑐

Coefficient matrix is a square matrix.

1 1 1
𝐴 = (−3 1 −7)
2 4 0
1 1 1
|𝐴| = |−3 1 −7|
2 4 0
1 1 1 1
= 2| | − 4| |
1 −7 −3 −7

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 23

 = 2(−7 − 1) − 4(−7 + 3)
= 2(−8) − 4(−4) = 0

Since |𝐴| = 0, {1 − 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 , 1 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 , 1 − 7𝑥 } does not span 𝑃2 . Hence the set of

vectors does not form a basis of 𝑃2 .

EXAMPLE 15
2𝑎 𝑏
Let 𝐻 = {( ) ; 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ}.
𝑎 𝑐
a) Show 𝐻 is a subspace of 𝑀2×2 .

b) Let S be a subset of H. Explain what is meant by:

i. S spans H
ii. S is linearly independent set

c) Find a set S that spans H.

d) Find a basis of H.
State the dimension of H.

SOLUTION

a) Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐻
2𝑎1 𝑎2
𝐴 = {( ) ; 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ∈ ℝ}
𝑎1 𝑎3
2𝑏1 𝑏2
𝐵 = {( ) ; 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ∈ ℝ}
𝑏1 𝑏3
i) check whether 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∈ 𝐻
2𝑎 𝑎2 2𝑏 𝑏2
𝐴+𝐵 =( 1 )+( 1 )
𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑏3
2𝑎 + 2𝑏1 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
=( 1 )
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑎3 + 𝑏3
2(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 ) 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
=( )
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑎3 + 𝑏3
∴𝐴+𝐵 ∈𝐻

𝐻 is closed under vector addition.

ii) check whether 𝑘𝐴 ∈ 𝐻

2𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑘𝐴 = 𝑘 ( ) ,𝑘 ∈ ℝ
𝑎1 𝑎3
2𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑎2
=( )
𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑎3
∴ 𝑘𝐴 ∈ 𝐻

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 24

𝐻 is closed under scalar multiplication.

Since both conditions are satisfied, 𝐻 is a subspace of 𝑀2×2 .

b) Let S be a subset of H. Explain what is meant by:

i. S spans H

Let 𝑆 = {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , … , 𝒗𝒏 } be a subset of a vector 𝐻. Then 𝑆 spans 𝐻 if every vector in 𝐻

can be expressed as a linear combination of vectors in 𝑆.

ii. S is linearly independent set

Let S = {v1 ,v2, …, vn } is a set of nonzero vectors, then S is said to be linearly
independent if 𝑐1 𝒗1 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝒗𝑛 = 𝟎 implies that the scalars 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 = 0.

c) Find a set S that spans H.

2𝑎 𝑏
Let ( ) ; 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ be any vector in H
𝑎 𝑐
2𝑎 𝑏 2 0 0 1 0 0
( ) = 𝑎( )+𝑏( )+𝑐( )
𝑎 𝑐 1 0 0 0 0 1
Thus;
2 0 0 1 0 0
𝑆 = {( ),( ),( )} spans 𝐻.
1 0 0 0 0 1

c) Find a basis of H.
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
𝑘1 ( ) + 𝑘2 ( ) + 𝑘3 ( )=( )
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
2𝑘 𝑘2 0 0
( 1 )=( )
𝑘1 𝑘3 0 0
𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 = 0
2 0 0 1 0 0
Basis of H = {( ),( ),( )}
1 0 0 0 0 1
d) State the dimension of H.
dim(H) = number of vectors in a basis = 3.

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 25

EXAMPLE 16

Given a set 𝑆 = {(1, 𝑡, 𝑡 2 ), (2, 1 + 𝑡, 0), (0, 0, 1)}. Find all value(s) of 𝑡 such that 𝑆 is a basis
for 𝑅3 .

SOLUTION

𝑘1 (1, 𝑡, 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑘2 (2, 1 + 𝑡, 0) + 𝑘3 (0, 0, 1) = (0,0,0)

𝑘1 + 2𝑘2 = 0

𝑡𝑘1 + (1 + 𝑡)𝑘2 = 0

𝑡 2 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 0

1 2 0 𝑘1 0
(𝑡 1+𝑡 0) (𝑘2 ) = (0)
𝑡2 0 1 𝑘3 0

1 2 0
𝐴=(𝑡 1+𝑡 0)
𝑡2 0 1
|𝐴| ≠ 0
1 2 0
|𝑡 1+𝑡 0| ≠ 0
𝑡2 0 1
1 2
1| |≠0
𝑡 1+𝑡
1(1 + 𝑡) − 2𝑡 ≠ 0
1 + 𝑡 − 2𝑡 ≠ 0
𝑡≠1

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 26

EXERCISE

Find the value(s) of 𝑡 such that 𝑆 = {(1, 𝑡, 1), (0, 1 − 𝑡, 1 − 𝑡 2 ), (1 + 𝑡 , 2 , 1 + 𝑡)} is linearly
independent in 𝑅3 .

SOLUTION:

𝑘1 (1, 𝑡, 1) + 𝑘2 (0, 1 − 𝑡, 1 − 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑘3 (1 + 𝑡 , 2 , 1 + 𝑡) = (0,0,0)

(𝑘1 + 𝑘3 (1 + 𝑡), 𝑡𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (1 − 𝑡) + 2𝑘3 , 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (1 − 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑘3 (1 + 𝑡)) = (0,0,0)

𝑘1 + 𝑘3 (1 + 𝑡) = 0

𝑡𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (1 − 𝑡) + 2𝑘3 = 0

𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (1 − 𝑡 2 ) + 𝑘3 (1 + 𝑡) = 0

1 0 1 + 𝑡 𝑘1 0
(𝑡 1−𝑡 2 ) (𝑘2 ) = (0)
1 1 − 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡 𝑘3 0
Coefficient matrix (A) is a square matrix, S is linearly independent IF |𝐴| ≠ 0.
1 0 1+𝑡
|𝑡 1−𝑡 2 |≠0
1 1 − 𝑡2 1+𝑡
1−𝑡 2 𝑡 1−𝑡
1| | + (1 + 𝑡) | |≠0
1 − 𝑡2 1+𝑡 1 1 − 𝑡2
1 − 𝑡 2 − 2(1 − 𝑡 2 ) + (1 + 𝑡)(𝑡(1 − 𝑡 2 ) − (1 − 𝑡)) ≠ 0

1 − 𝑡 2 − 2 + 2𝑡 2 + (1 + 𝑡)(𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 1 + 𝑡) ≠ 0

𝑡 2 − 1 + (1 + 𝑡)(2𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 1) ≠ 0
(𝑡 − 1)(𝑡 + 1) + (1 + 𝑡)(2𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 1) ≠ 0

(1 + 𝑡)(𝑡 − 1 + 2𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 1) ≠ 0

(1 + 𝑡)(3𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 2) ≠ 0
𝑡 ≠ −1, 1, −2

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 27

4.7 ROW SPACE & COLUMN SPACE

DEFINITION: (ROW & COLUMN SPACE)

If A is an mxn matrix, then the subspace of Rn spanned by the row vectors of A is
called the row space of A, and the subspace of Rm spanned by the column vectors of A
is called the column space of A.

THEOREM 1 (BASIS FOR ROW & COLUMN SPACE)

If 𝐵 is a row echelon matrix, then the row vectors with leading 1 form a basis for the
row space of 𝐵, and the column vectors of B with leading 1 form a basis for the column
space of B.

THEOREM 2 (BASIS FOR ROW & COLUMN SPACE)

If A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the row space and the column space of A will have the
same dimension.

RANK OF A MATRIX, RANK(A)

The dimension of the row space or column space of a matrix A.

rank (A) = dim of row space of A = dim for column space of A

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 28

To find basis of row space, basis of column space, dimension row/column space
and rank(A).

1. Reduce matrix A to row echelon matrix ( let say B)  A ~ B (~ row

equivalent)

2. To find row space  nonzero rows B form a basis for the row space of A.

(rows leading 1 /pivot)

3. To find column space  basis for column space of A is columns in A

corresponding to columns in B that contain leading 1 (pivot).
4. Dimension of row space = number of nonzero rows of B or number of
columns B that contains the leading 1 (pivot) = dimension of column
space.

5. Dimension of row space/column space of matrix A = rank of A = rank(A).

If the matrix is already row echelon matrix (the given matrix is row echelon form) then

1. To find row space  row leading 1

2. To find column space  column leading 1

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 29

EXAMPLE 17

 1 0 1 −1
 
A = 0 1 0 2 
0 0 0 1 
 

Row echelon matrix

Basis for row space : {(1, 0,1, −1), (0, 1, 0, 2), (0, 0, 0, 1)}

Basis for column space : 1 0 −1

{(0) , (1) , ( 2 )}
0 0 1

Rank(A) : 3

EXAMPLE 18
Let A and B be two equivalent matrices, where

3 2 5 1   1 −3 −2 4 
   
A =  1 −3 −2 4  B =  0 1 1 −1
 4 5 9 −1 0 0 0 0 
   

𝐴~𝐵

Basis for row space : {(1, −3, −2,4), (0, 1, 1, −1)}

Basis for column space : 3 2

{(1) , (−3)}
4 5

Rank(A) : 2

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 30

4.8 NULLSPACE & NULLITY

What is Nullspace?

• The solution space for the homogeneous system 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎

• Denoted as 𝑁(𝐴)

• A basis for nullspace of A = set of vectors that spans the solution space

What is Nullity?

• The number of vectors in a basis for nullspace of A (dimension of N(A))

• Nullity of A = nullity(A)
= number of vectors in basis for nullspace A
= number of free variables

= number of columns NOT leading 1 (pivot) in row echelon matrix

Let A is an mn matrix and rank(A) = r, then

FUNDAMENTAL SPACES DIMENSION

Row space of A r
Column space of A r
Nullspace of A n–r
Nullspace of AT m–r

THEOREM 3 (RANK & NULLITY)

If A is an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then

(i) rank(A) + nullity(A) = 𝑛

(ii) rank(AT) + nullity(AT) = 𝑚

(iii) rank(AT) = rank(A)

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 31

EXAMPLE 19
1 2 0 −1
Given 𝐴 = (2 6 −3 −3) . Find
3 10 −6 −5
(a) the nullspace or the solution space of A
(b) a basis for nullspace of A

(c) nullity of A

SOLUTION:

(a) the nullspace or the solution space of A

1 2 0 −1 0
(2 6 −3 −3|0)
3 10 −6 −5 0

−2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 2 0 −1 0
−3𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 (0 2 −3 −1|0)
0 4 −6 −2 0

1 2 0 −1 0
−2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 (0 2 −3 −1|0)
0 0 0 0 0
1 1 2 0 −1 0
𝑅 → 𝑅2 3 1
2 2 (0 1 − − |0)
2 2
0 0 0 0 0

𝑥3 and 𝑥4 are free variables.

3 1
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = −2 ( 𝑡 + 𝑠) + 𝑠 = −3𝑡
2 2
𝑥1 −3𝑡
3 1 3 1 3 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥3 − 𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = 𝑡 + 𝑠 𝑥2 𝑡+ 𝑠
2 2 2 2 (𝑥 ) = 2 2
3
𝑥4 𝑡
𝑥3 = 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ ℝ ( 𝑠 )

𝑥4 = 𝑠, 𝑠∈ℝ

𝑥1 −3 0
3 1
𝑥2
∴ Nullspace of A, 𝑁(𝐴) = (𝑥 ) = 𝑡 ( ) + 𝑠 ( 2 ) , 𝑡, 𝑠 ∈ ℝ
2
3 1 0
𝑥
{ 4 0 1 }

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 32

b) a basis for nullspace of A
−3 0
3 1
Basis for nullspace A = ( 2 ) , (2)
1 0
{ 0 1 }

c) nullity of A

nullity(A)= 2

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 33

EXAMPLE 19
1 0 3
Given 𝐵 = (−1 1 2) . Find
2 2 0
(a) the solution space of B
(b) a basis for nullspace of B

(c) nullity of B

SOLUTION:
(a) the solution space of B
1 0 30
(−1 1 2|0)
2 2 00
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 1 0 30
(0 1 5|0)
2 2 00
−2𝑅1 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 3 0
(0 1 5 |0)
0 2 −6 0
−2𝑅2 + 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 1 0 3 0
(0 1 5 |0 )
0 0 −16 0
1 1 0 30
− 𝑅 → 𝑅3 (0 1 5|0)
16 3
0 0 10

𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥1 + 3𝑥3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 0
𝑥1 0
𝑥
( 2 ) = (0)
𝑥3 0
𝑥1 0
𝑥
∴ Nullspace of 𝐵 = {( 2 ) = (0)}
𝑥3 0

b) a basis for nullspace of B

basis for nullspace of B = { }

c) nullity of B

Nullity(B) = 0

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 34

EXAMPLE 20
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 1
Let 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = ( ) where A and B are two equivalent
0 2 2 2 2 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 0
matrices. Find
(a) a basis for the row space of A
(b) a basis for the column space of A

(c) a basis for the nullspace of A

(d) the rank of A

(e) the nullity of A

SOLUTION:
a) a basis for the row space of A
basis for the row space of A = {(1,0,1,0,1), (0,1,0,0,1), (0,0,1,1,0)(0,0,0,2,0)}

b) a basis for the column space of A

1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
basis for the column space of A = {( ) , ( ) , ( ) , ( )}
0 2 2 2
1 0 0 1
c) a basis for the nullspace of A

𝑥5 is a free variable.

𝑥5 = 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ ℝ
2𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥4 = 0
𝑥3 + 𝑥4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥3 = 0
𝑥2 + 𝑥5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = −𝑡
𝑥1 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = −𝑡
𝑥1 −1
𝑥2 d) the rank of A
−1
Nullspace(𝐴) = 𝑥3 = 𝑡 0 , 𝑡∈ℝ Rank(A) = 4
𝑥4 0
{(𝑥5 ) (1) }
e) the nullity of A

−1 Nullity(A) = 1
−1
basis for nullspace of A = 0 .
0
{( 1 )}

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 35

EXAMPLE 21

If A is an 8 × 10 matrix with rank(A) = 4, find the following:

a) nullity(A)

b) The number of nonzero rows in the reduced matrix A

c) The number of free variables for the solution of 𝐴𝑋 = 0

d) Nullity(AT)
SOLUTION:

a) nullity(A) + rank(A) = 𝑛

nullity(A) = 10 − 4 = 6

b) The number of nonzero rows in the reduced matrix A = rank(A) = 4

c) The number of free variables for the nullspace of A = nullity(A) = 6

d) nullity(AT) + rank(AT) = 𝑚

rank(AT) = rank(A)

nullity(AT) = 8 – 4 = 4

VECTOR SPACES YUZAIMI YUNUS 36