Chapter 4.

Vector Space
Vector spaces with real scalars are called real vector spaces and those with complex
scalars are called complex vector spaces. For now, we will be concerned exclusively
with real vector spaces.
4.1 Real Vector Spaces
Let V be a nonempty set of objects, on which two operations are defined:

a) Addition
b) Multiplication by scalars

With the following properties:

1. If 𝑢
⃗ and 𝑣 are elements in V, then 𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣 is in V. (V is closed under addition)
2. 𝑢
⃗ +𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢 ⃗ , for all 𝑢
⃗ , 𝑣 in V. (holds Commutative Law)
⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤
3. 𝑢 ⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ (holds Associative Law)
4. There is an object ⃗0 in V, called the zero vector for V such that 𝑂 + 𝑢 ⃗ =𝑢 ⃗ +
𝑂=𝑢 ⃗ , for each 𝑢 ⃗ in V. (have Additive Identity)
5. For each 𝑢 ⃗ in V, there is an object −𝑢⃗ in V, called a negative of 𝑢
⃗ , such that
⃗ + (−𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ ) = −𝑢 ⃗ +𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑂. (have Additive Inverse)
6. If 𝑘 is any scalar and 𝑢 ⃗ is any object in V, then 𝑘𝑢⃗ is in V. (Closed under
Scalar Multiplication).
7. 𝑘(𝑢⃗ + 𝑣) = 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑘𝑣
8. (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑚𝑢 ⃗
9. 𝑘(𝑚𝑢 ⃗ ) = (𝑘𝑚)𝑢 ⃗
10.1𝑢⃗ =𝑢 ⃗ (have Multiplicative Identity)

then V is called a vector space and the objects in V are vectors.

Example 1: Let 𝑉 = 𝑅2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦); 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}, prove that V is a vector space under
the usual operations of addition and scalar multiplication defined by:

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢

𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 )

𝑘𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢
⃗ 2)

Solution:
1. V is closed under addition. (as defined)
⃗ = (𝑢
2. Let 𝑢 ⃗ 2 ), 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )
⃗ 1, 𝑢

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )
⃗ 1, 𝑢

= (𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 )
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢

= (𝑣1 + 𝑢 ⃗ 2)
⃗ 1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑢

= (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) + (𝑢 ⃗ 2)
⃗ 1, 𝑢

=𝑣+𝑢
⃗

⃗ = (𝑢
3. Let 𝑢 ⃗ 2 ), 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ), 𝑤
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗⃗ = (𝑤 ⃗⃗ 2 )
⃗⃗ 1 , 𝑤
(𝑢⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ = (𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 ) + (𝑤 ⃗⃗ 2 )
⃗⃗ 1 , 𝑤
= (𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ 1 , 𝑢
⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ 2 )
= (𝑢
⃗ 1 + (𝑣1 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ 1 ), 𝑢⃗ 2 + (𝑣2 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ 2 ))
= (𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑤
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗⃗ 2 )
⃗⃗ 1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑤
=𝑢 ⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ )
⃗ = (𝑢
4. Let 𝑢 ⃗ 2 ), ⃗0 = (0,0)
⃗ 1, 𝑢

⃗ + ⃗0 = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (0, 0) = (𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 2) = 𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗

⃗ = (𝑢
5. Let 𝑢 ⃗ 2 ), then there exist −𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ = (−𝑢 ⃗ 2 ),
⃗ 1 , −𝑢

⃗ + (−𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ ) = (𝑢
⃗ 1 + (−𝑢
⃗ 1 ), 𝑢
⃗ 2 + (−𝑢
⃗ 2 )) = (𝑢
⃗1 −𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = (0, 0) = ⃗0
⃗2−𝑢

6. V is closed under scalar multiplication. (as defined).

7. 𝑘(𝑢⃗ + 𝑣) = 𝑘((𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ))
= 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 )
= (𝑘𝑢⃗ 1 + 𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑘𝑣2 )
= (𝑘𝑢⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (𝑘𝑣1 , 𝑘𝑣2 )
= 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2 ) + 𝑘(𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )
= 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑘𝑣
8. (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑢 ⃗ = (𝑘 + 𝑚)(𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2)
= (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑚𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢⃗ 2 + 𝑚𝑢 ⃗ 2)
= (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢⃗ 2 ) + (𝑚𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑚𝑢⃗ 2)
= 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2 ) + 𝑚(𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2)
=𝑘𝑢⃗ + 𝑚𝑢 ⃗
 9. 𝑘(𝑚𝑢
⃗ ) = 𝑘(𝑚(𝑢 ⃗ 2 )) = (𝑘𝑚𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑚𝑢⃗ 2)
= 𝑘𝑚(𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = 𝑘𝑚(𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗)
10. 1𝑢⃗ = 1(𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = (𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 2) = 𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗

As the set V satisfies all the properties, so 𝑉 is vector space.

Example 2: Let 𝑉 = 𝑅3 , prove that V is a vector space under the usual operations
of addition and scalar multiplication defined by:

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 3 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) = (𝑢
⃗ 2, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢
⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 , 𝑢
⃗ 3 + 𝑣3 )

𝑘𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘(𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 3 ) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 2, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ 3)
⃗ 2 , 𝑘𝑢

Example 3: Let 𝑉 = 𝑅 2 , under the usual operations of addition defined by:

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢
⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 )

And if k is any scalar number, then define

𝑘𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0)

The addition operation is standard one on 𝑅2 , but the scalar multiplication is not.

Check whether V is vector space or not?

Solution:

All properties of addition are satisfied. (Check it by yourself)

Let’s check the properties of scalar multiplication.

⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) in V, then 𝑘𝑢
6. Let 𝑢 ⃗ = 𝑘(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) = (𝑘𝑢1 , 0) ∈ 𝑉.
⃗ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ), 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )
7. Let 𝑢
𝑘(𝑢⃗ + 𝑣) = 𝑘((𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ))
= 𝑘(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
= (𝑘𝑢1 + 𝑘𝑣1 , 0)
= (𝑘𝑢⃗ 1 , 0) + (𝑘𝑣1 , 0)
= 𝑘(𝑢⃗ 1 , 0) + 𝑘(𝑣1 , 0)
≠ 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑘𝑣

As the 7th property does not satisfied So it’s not a vector space.
Example 4:

Check whether V is vector space or not?

𝑉 =The set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (𝑥, 0). i.e. {(𝑥, 0); 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅}

with the standard operations on 𝑅2 .

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢
⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 )

𝑘𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘𝑢
⃗ 2)

Solution:

1. ⃗ = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0), 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 0) ∈ 𝑉

(𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) = (𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 0) ∈ 𝑉

V is closed under addition.

2. (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) = (𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + (𝑣1 , 0)
= (𝑢⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 0)
= (𝑣1 + 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0)
= (𝑣1 , 0) + (𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0)
=𝑣+𝑢 ⃗

3. ⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤
𝑢 ⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + ((𝑣1 , 0) + (𝑤
⃗⃗ 1 , 0))

= (𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + (𝑣1 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ 1 , 0)

= (𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 + 𝑤
⃗⃗ 1 , 0)

= (𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 0) + (𝑤
⃗⃗ 1 , 0)

= (𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤
⃗⃗

⃗ + ⃗0 = (𝑢
4. 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) + (0,0) = (𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) = 𝑢
⃗
⃗ + (−𝑢
5. 𝑢 ⃗ ) = (𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) + (−𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0)

= (𝑢 ⃗
⃗ 1 , 0) = (0,0) = 0
⃗1 −𝑢

⃗ = (𝑢
6. 𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) ∈ 𝑉
 ⃗ = (𝑘𝑢
Then 𝑘𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 𝑘0) = (𝑘𝑢1 , 0) ∈ 𝑉

7. ⃗ + 𝑣) = 𝑘((𝑢1 , 0) + (𝑣1 , 0)) = 𝑘(𝑢

𝑘(𝑢 ⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 0) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑘𝑣1 , 0)

= (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + (𝑘𝑣1 , 0) = 𝑘(𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + 𝑘(𝑣1 , 0)

= (𝑘𝑢
⃗ + 𝑘𝑣)

8. (𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑢
⃗ = (𝑘 + 𝑚)(𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0)

= ((𝑘 + 𝑚)𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) = (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑚𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0)

= (𝑘𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + (𝑚𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0)

= 𝑘(𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) + 𝑚(𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) = 𝑘𝑢
⃗ + 𝑚𝑢
⃗

9. ⃗ ) = 𝑘(𝑚𝑢
𝑘(𝑚𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) = (𝑘𝑚𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0)

= 𝑘𝑚(𝑢
⃗ 1 , 0) = (𝑘𝑚)𝑢
⃗

10. 1𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) = (𝑢
⃗ = 1(𝑢 ⃗ 1 , 0) = 𝑢
⃗

So V is a vector space.

Example 5: Check whether V is a vector space or not.

V = set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 ≥ 0, i.e.

𝑉 = {(𝑥, 𝑦); 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}

With standard operations on 𝑅2 .

Solution:

As
𝑉 = {(𝑥, 𝑦); 𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}

1. Let ⃗ = (𝑢
𝑢 ⃗ 2 ),
⃗ 1, 𝑢 𝑣 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) ∈ 𝑉

(𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣) = (𝑢 ⃗ 2 + 𝑣2 ) ∈ 𝑉
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢

Because 𝑢
⃗ 1 + 𝑣1 ≥ 0. So, V is closed under addition.

2. 𝑢
⃗ +𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢
⃗ (Easy to verify)
 3. 𝑢⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤⃗⃗ ) (Easy to verify)
4. Let 𝑢 ⃗ = (𝑢⃗ 1, 𝑢⃗ 2 ), 𝑢⃗ + ⃗0 = (𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) + (0,0) = (𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ 2) = 𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗
5. Let 𝑢 ⃗ = (𝑢 ⃗ 2 ), Then there doesn’t exist −𝑢
⃗ 1, 𝑢 ⃗ = (−𝑢 ⃗ 2 ) because
⃗ 1 , −𝑢
𝑢
⃗ 1 should be positive.
5th property fails, So V is not vector space.

Example 6: Show that the set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (𝑥, 1) with the
operations

(𝑥, 1) + (𝑥 ′ , 1) = (𝑥 + 𝑥 ′ , 1) & 𝑘(𝑥, 1) = (𝑘 2 𝑥, 1) is not a vector space.

Example 7: Determine whether the set of all triples of real numbers with standard
vector addition but with scalar multiplication defined by

𝑘(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑘 2 𝑥, 𝑘 2 𝑦, 𝑘 2 𝑧)

is a vector space or not.

Axiom 8 fails.

Example 8: Determine whether the set of all pairs of real numbers of the form (1, 𝑥)
with the operations

(1, 𝑦) + (1, 𝑦 ′ ) = (1, 𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ )

𝑘(1, 𝑦) = (1, 𝑘𝑦)

is a vector space or not.

Example 9: Determine whether V is a vector space or not.

V= the set of all triples of the form (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with the operations

(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ) = (𝑥 + 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 + 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 + 𝑧 ′ )

& 𝑘(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑘𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Example 10: Determine whether V is a vector space or not.

Let V be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries and take the vector space
operations on V to be usual operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication
i.e.
𝑢11 𝑢12 𝑣11 𝑣12 𝑢11 + 𝑣11 𝑢12 + 𝑣12
𝑢
⃗ + 𝑣 = [𝑢 𝑢22 ] + [ 𝑣21 𝑣22 ] = [ 𝑢21 + 𝑣21 𝑢22 + 𝑣22 ]
21

𝑢11 𝑢12 𝑘𝑢11 𝑘𝑢12

𝑘𝑢
⃗ = 𝑘 [𝑢 𝑢22 ] = [ ]
21 𝑘𝑢21 𝑘𝑢22

Solution:

1. V is closed under addition.

𝑢11 𝑢12 𝑣11 𝑣12
2. 𝑢⃗ + 𝑣 = [𝑢 ] + [ 𝑣21 𝑣22 ]
21 𝑢22
𝑢 +𝑣 𝑢 +𝑣
= [𝑢11 + 𝑣11 𝑢12 + 𝑣12 ]
21 21 22 22
𝑣11 + 𝑢11 𝑣12 + 𝑢12
= [𝑣 + 𝑢 ]
21 21 𝑣22 + 𝑢22
=𝑣+𝑢 ⃗
3. ⃗ + (𝑣 + 𝑤
𝑢 ⃗⃗ ) = (𝑢 ⃗ + 𝑣) + 𝑤 ⃗⃗ )
𝑢11 𝑢12 0 0 𝑢11 𝑢12
4. 𝑢
⃗ + 0 = [𝑢 ] + [ ] = [𝑢21 𝑢22 ] = 𝑢 ⃗
21 𝑢22 0 0
𝑢11 𝑢12 −𝑢11 −𝑢12
⃗ + (−𝑢
5. 𝑢 ⃗ ) = [𝑢 𝑢 ] + [ −𝑢 −𝑢 ]
21 22 21 22
𝑢 + (−𝑢11 ) 𝑢12 + (−𝑢12 )
= [ 11 ]
𝑢21 + (−𝑢21 ) 𝑢22 + (−𝑢22 )
0 0
=[ ] = ⃗0
0 0
Similarly, you can prove all the properties of scalar multiplication. (Prove it by
yourself).

So, V is a vector space.

Example 11: Let 𝑉 = 𝑅𝑛 and define operations on V to be the usual operations of
addition and scalar multiplication.

⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑛 )
𝑢

= (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 )

& 𝑘𝑢
⃗ = (𝑘𝑢1 , 𝑘𝑢2 , 𝑘𝑢3 , … , 𝑘𝑢𝑛 )

Then V is vector space.

Example 12: Let V be the set of polynomials of the form

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑡 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎0 .

Determine whether V is a vector space or not under the usual operations of addition
and scalar multiplication?

THEOREM 4.1.1
Let V be a vector space, u a vector in V, and k a scalar; then:
(a) 0 𝒖 = 0
(b) 𝑘 𝟎 = 0
(c) (−1)𝒖 = −𝒖
(d) If 𝑘 𝒖 = 0, then 𝑘 = 0 or 𝒖 = 𝟎.
 Exercise 4.1

True-False Exercises
In parts (a)–(e) determine whether the statement is true or false, and justify your answer.
(a) A vector is a directed line segment (an arrow).
(b) A vector is an n-tuple of real numbers.
(c) A vector is any element of a vector space.
(d) There is a vector space consisting of exactly two distinct vectors.
(e) The set of polynomials with degree exactly 1 is a vector space under the operations defined in
Exercise 12.