Worm and Worm Wheel Efficiency and Analysis.

Overview.
This experiment analyzes the mechanics and efficiency of the worm and worm gear system - a
pivotal mechanism for transmitting motion between non-parallel shafts. Its threaded shaft
(worm) meshes with a helical gear (worm gear), enabling motion transfer and speed reduction
across perpendicular axes.
The worm's helical threading engaging the worm gear's teeth allows significant speed reduction,
converting low torque/high speed input to high torque/low speed output. As the worm rotates, its
circumferential threads mesh with the worm gear's teeth, causing the gear to turn a fraction of a
revolution - reducing speed. Velocity ratio depends on worm thread starts and gear tooth count.
Crucially, the worm's helix angle and tight meshing create a self-locking feature, preventing
reverse motion transmission. This feature, combined with its ability to act as an inclined plane,
provides mechanical advantage for safe and precise lifting and lowering of loads, making it
highly efficient for such applications.

Objective.
This experiment aimed to:
1. Determine the efficiency of the screw thread.
2. Determine the velocity ratio of the worm and worm wheel.
3. Find the coefficient of friction acting in the system.
4. Plot a graph of applied load (weight) versus effort required to lift the load.
5. Find the values of constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the equation of the machine, E = aW + b.

Theory.
The worm and worm wheel operates on principles of simple machines - the inclined plane and
screw threads.
The worm component resembles a screw thread wrapped helically around a cylindrical shaft.
This worm thread has a lead angle (α) that forms an inclined plane when engaged with the teeth
of the worm wheel gear. The relationship between the lead angle, pitch, and outer diameter
follows:
Tan(α) = Pitch/(π*Outer Diameter)
When effort or torque is applied to rotate the worm, it acts along this inclined plane represented
by the lead angle. This allows a smaller input force to move a larger load, providing a
mechanical advantage determined by:
MA = tan(λ) = 1/tan(α)
Where λ is the helix angle of the worm wheel teeth.
Additionally, the velocity ratio and gear reduction results from the worm thread (starts) engaging
successively with the worm wheel teeth as it rotates. This relationship is given by:
V.R. = Number of teeth on worm gear / Number of starts on worm
Lower velocity ratios yield higher torque multiplication from the input worm rotation to the
output worm wheel rotation.
The tight mesh between threads, combined with the helix angles (α > λ), creates friction and self-
locking - preventing back-driving and enabling load holding capability.
Overall, the worm gear mechanism leverages the inclined plane, screw threads, and friction
principles to achieve efficient speed reduction, torque amplification, and controlled motion
transmission

Advantages.
1. They provide significant speed reduction and torque amplification while preventing
reverse motion through a self-locking mechanism, making them powerful yet safe for
lifting heavy objects.
2. Mechanical advantage simplifies lifting/lowering loads
3. They are versatile and can be adapted to a wide range of applications such as material
handling equipment, positioning systems, valve actuators etc.
4. Quiet operation with minimal noise
5. Durability and long lifespan
Disadvantages .
1. Low efficiency (30-50%) due to sliding friction losses.
2. Wear, backlash and imprecise motion from thread contact.
3. High friction generating heat requiring dissipation measures.
4. Axial thrust loads on worm shaft bearings.
5. Irreversibility limitation in some applications.
6. Noise from sliding motion, especially at high speeds.
7. Suited for low speeds, not high-speed operations.

Application.
The worm and worm wheel is used in the following areas,
1. Precision lifting: Elevators, hoists, controlled lifting platforms
2. Steering systems: Automotive steering mechanisms
3. Sporting equipment: Fishing rods for gear reduction and angled motion transfer
4. Material handling: Overhead cranes, conveyors for load positioning
5. Musical instruments: Tuning mechanisms requiring fine adjustments
6. Industrial machinery: Indexing, valve actuators, transmissions needing compact gear
reduction
7. Robotics/Automation: Robotic systems, CNC, assembly lines requiring controlled
motion.

Experimental Procedures.
1. Set up the apparatus securely on a level surface.
2. Determine the efforts needed to raise the load at zero weight.
3. Gradually place loads of known weight on the load hanger.
4. Find the effort that will produce a smooth lowering of the load suspended on the load
hanger.
Apparatus.
1. The effort pulley
2. The mounting bracket.
3. The web support for the mounting brackets.
4. The base.
5. The worm.
6. The worm wheel.
7. The load hanger.

Safety Precautions.
1. I wore appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
2. I ensured the worm shaft and worm wheel are properly aligned and meshed.
3. I securely mounted the equipment on a stable and flat surfaces to prevent tipping.
4. Use proper lifting techniques when handling heavy loads.
5. I ensured I applied a light lubrication (machine oil) to the worm threads and wheel teeth
to reduce friction.

Table of values for lowering the load

on a worm and worm wheel.
Actual load (N) Effort (N) Velocity ratio

0.00 0.98 40

10.30 1.96 40

20.11 2.94 40

29.92 2.94 40
Calculations.
Parameters:
Number of teeth on worm gear = 40.
Number of starts on worm = single start
V.R. = Number of teeth on worm gear / Number of starts on worm
V.R. = 40 / 1
V.R. = 40
Weight of load hanger = 0.05 kg

Questions.
Plot a graph of load against effort. Find the coefficient of friction μ and the intercept b.
1. Compare and contrast the mechanical advantage of a screw jack and a worm and worm
wheel.
2. Explain how the helix angle influence the mechanical advantage of the worm and worm
wheel.
3. Outline five limitations of the worm and worm wheel.

Answers.
1.

Parameters Screw Jack Worm and Worm Wheel

Mechanical advantage is calculated Lead / Pitch Number of Teeth / Number of

using Starts

Efficiency Potentially higher Lower

Mechanical Advantage Lower Higher due to gear ratio

effect
 Speed Reduction None, i.e. Input= Significant gear reduction
Output speed from worm to wheel

Reversibility Reversible depending Inherent self-locking,

on lead angle irreversible

Inherent self-locking, irreversible Inclined plane (screw Inclined plane + Gear ratio
thread)

2. The helix angle refers to the angle between the helical thread of the worm and the
axis of the worm shaft.The helix angle in a worm and worm wheel setup
influences its mechanical advantage by determining the balance between
efficiency and torque amplification. A larger helix angle offers less friction and
potentially higher efficiency but reduces mechanical advantage, requiring more
input force for the same output. Conversely, a smaller helix angle increases
mechanical advantage due to better engagement between the worm and wheel,
enhancing torque amplification at the cost of increased friction and reduced
efficiency.
3.
a. Low efficiency (30-50%) due to sliding friction losses.
b. Wear, backlash and imprecise motion from thread contact.
c. High friction generating heat requiring dissipation measures.
d. Axial thrust loads on worm shaft bearings.
e. Irreversibility limitation in some applications.

Summary and Conclusion.

The worm and worm wheel offers efficient torque amplification well-suited for controlled lifting
and positioning requiring high mechanical advantage. Though less efficient than screw jacks,
worm gears provide self-locking safety and high gear reduction ratios compounding mechanical
advantage for heavy loads.
However, limitations like increased friction, heat generation, and unsuitability for high speeds
must be accounted for. Proper material selection, lubrication, and cooling provisions mitigate
wear and overheating. Worm gear specifications should be carefully selected based on the
specific torque, speed, and precision needs - leveraging the performance benefits of high
mechanical advantage while accommodating constraints like low efficiency and speed limits.
Experimental Analysis of the Drum Brake.

Overview.
This experiment simulates car braking by applying controlled forces on a rotating drum brake
setup to investigate the relationship between braking force and friction. The key aims are:
1) Establish the correlation between applied braking load and resulting stopping force generated
by friction,
2) Calculate the coefficient of friction between brake lining and drum surface, and
3) Understand how friction impacts braking efficiency in drum brakes and identify influencing
factors.
Through systematic testing, varying brake loads, and measuring tangential friction forces,
insights into drum brake operating principles, performance, material choices, and design
considerations are provided. The study covers components, advantages, limitations, and practical
applications of this widely-used automotive braking technology.

Objective.
This experiment aimed to:
1. To obtain by experiment, the relationship between the tangential force and the braking
load.
2. To determine the coefficient of friction between the brake linen and the aluminium-alloy
wheel drum.
Theory.
Drum brakes operate on the principle of converting a vehicle's kinetic energy (KE) into thermal
energy (heat) through friction. When the brake pedal is pressed, hydraulic pressure from the
master cylinder activates the wheel cylinder pistons, pushing the brake shoes against the rotating
drum's inner surface. This contact generates friction, opposing the drum's motion and ultimately
bringing the car to a halt.

The coefficient of friction (μ) is a critical factor in the efficiency of drum brakes. It represents the
ratio of the frictional force (F) between the brake lining and drum surface to the normal force (N)
pressing the surfaces together. A higher coefficient of friction signifies increased frictional force
for a given normal force, enhancing braking efficiency.

This experiment focuses on analyzing the relationship between applied braking force
(contributing to the frictional force) and braking performance. By understanding this relationship
and calculating the coefficient of friction, valuable insights into the braking efficiency of drum
brake systems can be obtained.

Key Concepts in Drum Brake Systems.

1. Friction: Drum brakes utilize friction to halt the drum's rotation, converting kinetic
energy into thermal energy and bringing the vehicle to a stop.
2. Coefficient of Friction (μ): This parameter indicates braking efficiency by representing
the ratio of frictional force to normal force. Higher μ values denote better braking
performance.
3. Braking Load (E): Influenced by the vehicle's weight and speed, braking load signifies
the force required to stop the car. Heavier or faster-moving vehicles necessitate higher
braking loads.
4. Hydraulic Pressure: Generated by the master cylinder, hydraulic pressure pushes brake
shoes against the drum, initiating braking action.
5. Tangential Force: Frictional force acting tangentially to the drum's circumference
opposes rotation and aids in stopping the vehicle.
6. Brake Fade: Decrease in braking efficiency due to excessive heat from friction, often
caused by worn brake linings or overheating.
7. Heat Management: Proper selection of brake lining material and drum design is vital to
manage heat buildup and maintain consistent braking performance.
 8. Brake Lining Materials: Modern materials like non-asbestos organic (NAO) compounds,
ceramics, or semi-metallic materials offer good heat resistance and frictional properties.
9. Drum Design: Vented drum designs enhance heat dissipation, reducing the risk of brake
fade.
10. Maintenance: Regular inspection and replacement of worn brake pads are essential for
optimal braking performance and safety.

Application.
Drum brakes are commonly used in the rear brakes of passenger vehicles and light trucks, as
well as in some industrial and off-road applications where simplicity and durability are important
factors. Drum brakes are commonly found in older vehicles, however, they are gradually being
phased out in favor of disc brakes in modern automotive applications due to superior
performance and reliability.

Experimental Procedures.
1. Attach the load hanger to the brake drum apparatus.
2. Apply varying braking loads to the apparatus using weights.
3. Measure the corresponding tangential force exerted on the brake drum.
4. Record data for analysis.
5. Calculate the coefficient of friction using the obtained measurements.
6. Plot a graph of tangential force against braking load.

Apparatus.
1. Brake drum housing: Encloses the brake components.
2. Brake shoes: Lined with friction material, they press against the drum.
3. Wheel cylinder: Applies hydraulic pressure to actuate the brake shoes.
4. Brake lining: Friction material attached to the brake shoes.
5. Return springs: Return the brake shoes to their original position when the brake is
released.
6. Spring adjuster: Maintains the optimal distance between the brake lining and the drum as
the lining wears.
Results.
Braking Load E (N) Tangential Force PA (N)

4.91 0.49

9.81 2.45

14.72 3.43

19.62 5.89

24.53 8.34

Parameters.
Load hanger = 0.5kg

Calculate your readings and plot a graph of tangential force PA against Braking load E. Use the
effective slope to obtain the coefficient of friction μ.

Safety Precautions.
1. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
2. Ensure that the apparatus is securely mounted and stable.
3. Be cautious when handling heavy weights or applying braking loads.
4. Keep the work area clean and free from obstructions.

Questions.
1. Make recommendations from the graph regarding the efficiency of the braking system
2. Compare and contrast the merits and demerits of drum brakes and disc brakes.
3. Explain how the friction between the brake linen and the wheel drum converts K.E into
thermal energy.

Answers.
 1.
1. ~The relationship between the braking load (E) and the tangential force (Pa) appears to
be linear, which is expected for an efficient braking system operating under ideal
conditions.
2. ~The tangential force (Pa) increases proportionally with the braking load (E), indicating
that the braking system is capable of generating higher stopping forces when subjected to
higher braking loads, as required for effective braking.
3. ~By analyzing the ratio of the tangential force (PA) to the braking load (E), an estimate of
the coefficient of friction (μ) can be obtained. A higher coefficient of friction implies
better braking efficiency.
4. ~If the data deviates significantly from a linear relationship or if the coefficient of friction
is lower than expected for the given materials, it may indicate issues such as brake fade,
excessive wear, or contamination of the friction surfaces, which could compromise
braking efficiency.
5. ~Periodic monitoring of the relationship between braking load and tangential force, as
well as the calculated coefficient of friction, can help identify potential problems with the
braking system and allow for timely maintenance or replacement of components.
Analyze the Slope:

The slope of the tangential force (Pa) vs braking load (E) graph represents the change in tangential force
required for a change in braking load. An ideal braking system would exhibit a **linear relationship**,
indicated by a constant slope. This means that a consistent increase in braking force is needed for a
proportional increase in stopping power (braking load).

Interpret the Data:

1. Linear Relationship: If the table shows a close to linear relationship between tangential force and
braking load, it suggests good braking efficiency. The brakes are responding proportionally to the
applied force.

2. Increasing Slope: An increasing slope (curve going steeper upwards) might indicate:

- Positive factor: The brakes are becoming more efficient as the braking load increases. This could be
due to factors like better contact between the brake shoes and drum at higher pressures.

3. Decreasing Slope: A decreasing slope (curve flattening out or going downwards) might indicate:

- Negative factor: The brakes are becoming less efficient as the braking load increases. This could be a
sign of:
- Brake fade due to overheating
- Worn brake lining reducing friction

Recommendations based on Slope:

* Linear Relationship: If the data suggests a linear relationship, the braking system is likely functioning
efficiently within the tested load range.
* Increasing Slope: An increasing slope might not necessarily be a cause for concern, but it's worth
investigating further to understand the underlying reason.
* Decreasing Slope: This indicates a potential problem with the braking system's efficiency. It's crucial to
identify the cause (e.g., overheating, worn lining) and take corrective measures like brake pad
replacement or improved cooling mechanisms.

Additional Considerations:

* Analyze the range of braking loads tested. Ideally, the test should cover a range relevant to real-world
braking scenarios for the vehicle.
* Look for outliers in the data that might deviate from the overall trend.
By carefully examining the slope of the force vs load graph and considering these additional factors, you
can make informed recommendations regarding the efficiency of the braking system based on the
provided table.

2.

3. Basically, , the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is converted into thermal energy through
this frictional process. When a vehicle is in motion, it possesses kinetic energy due to its mass
and velocity. As the brakes are applied, the brake shoes lined with friction material press against
the rotating drum surface. This contact generates a frictional force that opposes the rotation of
the drum and the motion of the vehicle.

The vehicle must overcome this opposing frictional force, and in doing so, work is done against
the friction force. This work is equal to the force of friction multiplied by the distance traveled.
The work done against friction is dissipated as heat energy due to the rubbing of the brake lining
against the drum surface.
The thermal energy generated by friction is absorbed by the brake components and dissipated
into the surrounding environment through conduction, convection, and radiation.

Summary and Conclusion.

The experimental analysis of drum brakes revealed the critical role of friction in converting
kinetic energy to thermal energy for braking. Understanding the coefficient of friction and its
effect on braking efficiency reveals information about the operation and design considerations
required for effective automotive braking systems.

Experimental Analysis of the Winch Machine

Overview.
The winch machine is a mechanical device that utilizes small gearing to lift heavy loads to
considerable heights. It is commonly used in passenger and goods lifts, as well as in various
applications such as cable laying and tree felling. This experiment aims to study the efficiency,
safety, and performance of the winch machine, comparing it with other machines like the worm
and worm wheel.

Objective.
The objective of this experiment is to determine the efficiency of the winch machine and observe
its safety features. Additionally, the experiment aims to analyze the friction of the ratchet and
pawl mechanism and understand its importance in ensuring safe operation.

Theory.
The winch apparatus operates on the principles of gearing and mechanical advantage. It consists
of two gears in mesh: a smaller gear called the driver gear or pinion, and a larger gear called the
driven gear. The gear ratio is determined by the number of teeth on each gear, with the driven
gear typically having more teeth than the driver gear. This gear ratio facilitates torque
amplification and speed reduction.
The mechanical advantage (M.A.) of the winch is directly proportional to the gear ratio, which is
calculated as the number of teeth on the driven gear divided by the number of teeth on the driver
gear. A higher gear ratio results in a greater mechanical advantage, allowing the winch to lift
heavier loads with a smaller input force.
The efficiency of the winch is influenced by friction within the gear system and is typically
lower than the theoretical mechanical advantage due to energy losses. The efficiency can be
calculated by dividing the mechanical advantage by the velocity ratio (V.R.), which is the
inverse of the gear ratio.
A mechanism called the ratchet & Pawl helps to prevent back driving of the system. It is attached
to the driver gear to prevent runback of the gears in mesh.

Applications.
The winch machine finds applications in passenger and goods lifts, cable laying, tree felling, and
other scenarios where heavy loads need to be lifted to significant heights.

Experimental Procedures.
1. Set up the winch apparatus securely.
2. Attach the load hanger to the winch rope using chain slings.
3. Apply varying loads to the load tray.
4. Measure the total load and total effort exerted.
5. Record the data for analysis.

Apparatus (Parts and Functions).

1. Effort pulley: Initiates motion in the winch machine.
2. Driver gear/pinion: Transfers motion from the effort pulley to the driven gear.
3. Driven gear: Amplifies torque and transfers it to the winding drum.
4. Winding drum: Where the nylon rope is attached for lifting the load.
5. Winch stand: Provides stability and support for the winch apparatus.
6. Load tray: Holds the weights to be lifted.
7. Load spreader beam: Distributes the load evenly on the chain slings.
8. Chain slings: Attach the load hanger to the winch rope.

Table of Values and Calculations.

Parameters;
● Driven gear equals 60 teeth
● Driver gear equals 10 teeth
● The apparatus for this experiment consists of a 300 kg winch.
● The winch handle has been replaced with an effort pulley of diameter 215 mm.
 ● The winch cable is a heavy duty nylon rope.
● A loading tray capable of carrying 160 kg dead weight is provided.

Added Load (kg) Total load (kg) Total effort (kg) Remark

0 16.5 2.5

2 18.5 2.7

4 20.5 3.0

6 22.5 3.3

8 24.5 3.5

Graph.
A graph of total load against total effort is plotted to analyze the relationship between the two
variables.

Safety Precautions.
1. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE).
2. Ensure the winch apparatus is securely mounted and stable.
3. Use caution when handling heavy loads or applying effort to the winch.
4. Follow proper lifting techniques to prevent injuries.

Questions.
Plot a graph of total load against total effort and draw the line if best fit and calculate the
gradient (MA).
1. The efficiency of the winch using the M.A. η = M.A / V.R
2. Comment on the Friction of the ratchet and pawl and explain it's safety importance.
3. What are the merits and demerits of the winch as compared to the worm and worm
wheel.
4. Explain how the different sizes of gears in mesh affect the following;
I. M.A
II. Gear ratio
III. Efficiency

Answers.
1. {}
2. The friction between the pawl and ratchet teeth is crucial for effectively locking the
ratchet wheel and holding the load securely in place when the input force is removed or
interrupted. Sufficient friction allows the pawl to grip the teeth, preventing load slippage.
The ratchet and pawl mechanism provides:
1. Load control and precise positioning capability.
2. Operator safety by avoiding uncontrolled load runback.
3. Protection of equipment and load from potential damage due to sudden load
release.
3.

Aspect Winch Machine Worm and Worm Wheel

Efficiency Higher efficiency Lower eff6

Load Capacity Can handle heavier loads Lower load capacity

Load Control Precise load control with Inherent self locking

ratchet and pawl capability

Reversibility Can easily reverse direction Inherently irreversible

Lifting Height Limited be cable length Can provide continuous

rotation

4. Different sizes of gears in mesh affect the following:

I. M.A: Larger gears have a higher mechanical advantage, generating more output
force for a given input force.
 II. Gear ratio: The ratio of the number of teeth or diameters determines the gear
ratio. More teeth on the driving gear result in a gear ratio greater than 1,
increasing speed and decreasing torque. More teeth on the driven gear result in a
gear ratio less than 1, decreasing speed and increasing torque.
III. Efficiency: Larger gears generally have higher efficiency due to a larger
contact area, reducing sliding friction. Smaller gears have a smaller contact area,
leading to higher sliding friction and lower efficiency. Other factors like gear
quality, lubrication, and alignment also affect efficiency.

Summary and Conclusion.

The experimental analysis of the winch machine provides insights into its efficiency, safety, and
performance. The findings can be used to optimize the design and operation of winch machines
for various applications, considering factors such as mechanical advantage, friction, and gear
sizes.