Lecture 1 - Introduction and Definitions

MACHINE TOOLS
Definition: A machine tool is a machine for

making articles of a given shape, size and
accuracy (according to the blueprints) by
removing metal from workpieces.
Classification: all batch-produced
machine tools are divided into nine
groups. Each group, in turn, includes
several types (Table 1-1).1
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MACHINE TOOLS (Contd.)
Machine tools can be divided according to their
specialization into the following categories:
1. General-purpose or universal machines used to work a
wide range of parts. (Machines used for a particularly
wide. range of work are known as multipurpose.
Example, Lathe, Milling, etc.)
2. Specialized machines used for articles similar in shape
'but different in size. (Example, Gear Shaping, Gear
hobbing machine)

3. Limited purpose machines capable of a narrow
range of operations on a wide variety of
workpieces. (Example, Jig boring machine,
Drilling machine)
4. Special-purpose machines for making parts of
one type and size. (Example, Hand tube well
boring machine)

Machine tools are divided into five classes
according to accuracy:
1. Class N - machines of normal accuracy,
covering the majority of general-purpose
machines;
2. Class P- machines of higher accuracy, built
on the basis of class N machines but with
finer tolerances in the machining of essential
parts and more accurate assembly and
adjustment;
3 Class B - precision machines with specially
designed individual assemblies manufactured
with close tolerances in the machining of their
parts;
4 Class A- high precision machines, built
according to even more rigorous standards of
accuracy than Class B machines;
5 Class C - super-high precision machines, or
master machine tools, used for machining the
essential parts determining the precision of
Class A and B machine tools.
To ensure the necessary accuracy in
operation, machine tools of Classes - B, A
and C are installed in environmental
enclosures with automatically controlled
(constant) temperature and humidity.

As to weight, machine tools are classed
as:
1. light (up to one ton),
2. medium (one to ten tons) and
3. heavy (over ten tons). Heavy machines,

in turn, fall into three weights: 10-30
tons, 30-100 tons, and over 100 tons.

Motions in Machine Tools
To obtain a part of the required shape and

size on a machine tool, certain, sometimes
quite elaborate complex of coordinated
motions must be imparted to its working
members. These motions are:
◼ either primary (working) or auxiliary.

Primary motions include the principal, or
cutting, movement and the feed movement.
They serve the purpose of removing metal
(chips) from the workpiece.
Auxiliary motions are those required to
prepare the process of - cutting and ensure the
successive machining of several surfaces of
one workpiece or similar surfaces of different
workpieces. They include the following:
(a) motions for adjusting the machine tool to
the given cutting speeds and feeds;
(b) setting-up motions according to the
workpiece shape and size;
(c) control motions in the process of
operation;
(d) Motions of appropriate operating members
to feed and clamp bar stock.

(e) Motions to fix or release certain
machine members.
Auxiliary motions may be performed
manually or automatically.

PRIMARY MOTIONS
Primary motions are classified as:

◼ Principal motions and
◼ Feed motions

Types of Principal Movements
Principal movement in machine tools is most
commonly of two types:
◼ rotating and
◼ straight reciprocating.
In some machines the principal movement

may be more complex and it is defined as a
combination of rotating and reciprocating
movements.

Types of Principal Movements
The principal movement may be imparted
either to the workpiece being machined or to
the cutting tool.
◼ On lathes, for instance, the principal movement is
the rotation of the workpiece;
◼ On milling, grinding and drilling machines, it is the
rotation of the cutting tool;
◼ On broaching, slotting, some gear-cutting machines
and others-the principal movement is the
reciprocating motion of the cutting tool.
Types of Feed Movements
Feed movement may be continuous or
intermittent, elementary or compound;
It may be a combination of several
independent movements; or else there may
be no feed movement at all.
On lathes, milling, drilling, and some other
machines, the feed movement is continuous,
and
On planers and shapers, for example, it is
intermittent.
Gearing Diagrams of
Machine Tools
The gearing or kinematic diagram of a
machine tool is conventional representation
of interconnections of its, separate
mechanisms and elements transmitting
motions to various machine members.
Some principal conventional symbols used
in gearing diagrams are presented in Table
1-2.

SYMBOLS USED IN GEARING
DIAGRAMS

DIAGRAMS

DIAGRAMS

DETERMINATION OF
TRANSMISSION RATIOS
The relatio between the speed of rotation

(rpm) n2 of the driven shaft and the speed of
rotation n1 of the driving shaft is called they
transmission ratio is:
i = n2 / n1
Belt drive, The-ratio minus belt slip (Fig. la)
is:
i = n2 / n1= d1/d2 , Hence n2= n1 x d1/d2

TRANSMISSION RATIOS
Figure 1:
Transmissions in
Machine Tools:
(a) belt drive; (b) chain
drive; (c) gear trans-
mission; (d) worm gear;
z (e) rack-and pinion
drive; (f) lead screw-
(g) and-nut transmission;
(g) kinematic chain.
23
TRANSMISSION RATIOS
Chain drive. The ratio (Fig. l b) is:

i = n2 / n1= z1/z2 , Hence, n2= n1 x z1/z2
where zi and z2 are, respectively, the numbers of teeth on the
driving and driven sprockets.
Gear.- transmission (Fig. 1c) employing cylindrical or
bevel gears has a ratio:
i = n2 / n1= z1/z2 , Hence, n2= n1 x z1/z2
where zi and z2 are, respectively, the numbers of teeth on the
driving and driven gear wheels.

TRANSMISSION RATIOS
Worm gears: The ratio (Fig. 1d) is:
i = n2 / n1= k/z , Hence, n2= n1 x k/z
where where k = number of worm threads z = number
of worm wheel teeth.

TRANSMISSION RATIOS
Rack-and-pinion drive. Rectilinear travel of the rack
per revolution of the pinion (Fig. 1e) is:
l = zt = zm mm,
where t = m = rack pitch, mm
z = number of pinion teeth
m =pinion module, mm
Lead screw and nut. Travel of the nut per revolution of
the lead screw (Fig. 1f) is:
l= k is mm
where k = number of lead screw
threads threads, is = lead screw
pitch, mm
Calculation of Compound Transmission
Ratio, Speed of Rotation and Torque
The total transmission ratio of a kinematic

chain (Fig. 1g) is the product of component
transmission ratios.
◼ it= 32/64 x 23/46 x 23/46 x 30/30 x 28/28 x
23/23 x 26/52 = 1/16
◼ The speed of spindle rotation is equal to the
speed of the driving shaft multiplied by the total
transmission ratio of the kinematic chain .
◼ n = 950 x it rpm = 950 x 1/16 = 59.4 rpm

Calculation of Spindle Torque

Ranges of Spindle Speeds,
Double Strokes and Feeds



The intermediate speeds within the limits of
nmin and nmax may be distributed in various
ways;
The most rational for use in machine tools
is a geometric progression where each
successive step differs from the previous
one by a factor of  ( being the common
ratio).
Ranges of Spindle Speeds
The main advantage of geometric progression is that
the maximum relative loss of cutting speed remains
equal for every step of the range.
Loss = (nz - nz-1)/ nz = [(nz-1)φ - nz-1)]/φ nz-1
= (φ – 1)/φ
It ensures stability of the maximum relative loss of
the rate of cutting output compared to other speed
distribution, hence it gives economic advantage.

A geometric progression speed range with
the common ratio  will take the following
form:


The values of  are standardized, which
makes it possible to standardize speed and
feed ranges, thereby simplifying the
kinematic design of machine tools.
The values of  for normal spindle speed
ranges have been adopted from the
following considerations:

1. Variable speed, three-phase motors with a speed
ratio of 2 are often used as principal drive
motors. To obtain a geometric progression of the
spindle speeds at different speeds of these
motors, it is therefore necessary that:
where E1 is an integer.

2. "Preferred Numbers and Series of Preferred
Numbers" must be taken into account.
These series of preferred numbers are
arranged as geometric progressions with
common ratios
where E2 is an integer.

Therefore, the standard values of  for
spindle speed ranges can be derived from
the equation:

Therefore,
(1/E1) log 2 = (1/E2) log 10
Or: (1/E1) 0.3 = (1/E2) 1
Or: (1/E1) 3/10 = (1/E2)
Or: E1/E2 =3/10
Or: E1/E2 =3E'/10E'
hence, E1= 3E' and E2 = l0E'
where E' is a random integer.

The standard specifies four values for E2
=40, 20, 10, and 5, hence

which give the following values for  :
These four values alone proved to be

inadequate in engineering practice and were
supplemented by :

Given next are the values of the cutting-

speed relative loss Amax (%) between two
adjacent speed steps for the respective
values of 
Table l-3 presents the standard speed ranges.

Cutting Speed Equation Diagrams
To simplify the determination of one of the
three (v, n and d) machine tool parameters,
where any two of them are known, prepared
diagrams are used.
There are two kinds of diagrams: a ray
diagram and a logarithmic diagram.

Ray diagram.
It is evident from the equation,
that cutting speed is directly proportional to
the workpiece diameter d, with speed of
rotation n being constant.
This relationship is expressed graphically by
a straight line passing through the origin of
the coordinates, because cutting speed v =0
if d = 0.
The number of straight lines (or rays) for a
given cutting speed range will be equal to
the number of steps in this range.


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MACHINE TOOLS

Definition: A machine tool is a machine for

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2. medium (one to ten tons) and

3. heavy (over ten tons). Heavy machines,

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To obtain a part of the required shape and

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Primary motions are classified as:

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In some machines the principal movement

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The relatio between the speed of rotation

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Chain drive. The ratio (Fig. l b) is:

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The total transmission ratio of a kinematic

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which give the following values for  :

These four values alone proved to be

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Given next are the values of the cutting-

Table l-3 presents the standard speed ranges.

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