Lecture 2-3 Machine Tools Drive Systems

Drive Systems of Machine Tools
◼ A drive system is the source of motion of the

operative members of the machine tool.
◼ It must provide the required speeds to the machine
operative members.
◼ Drives can be either stepped or stepless.
◼ The former include step pulley drives, gear-box
drives and multi speed induction motor drives.
1
Drive Systems of Machine Tools (Contd.)
◼ The stepless drives can be represented by
mechanical infinitely variable-speed drives, variable-
speed direct current drive motors, hydraulic drives,
etc.
◼ Modern machine tools are equipped with self-
contained motor drives and the source of motion is
normally an electric motor.
◼ The electric motor can be located beside the machine
(Fig. 5a), inside it (Fig. 5b), on top (Fig. 5c), or it
can be built into the headstock (Fig. 5d, e), etc.
2
Figure 5. Arrangement of self-contained

electric motors.
3
◼ In some machine tools, individual drive motors are
used for the principal movement, feed movements,
infeed, auxiliary movements; etc.
◼ The gearbox drive is mainly used in machine tools
as the drive for the principal movement.
◼ It is compact, easy to handle and reliable; however,
it does not provide infinite speed variation and has a
comparatively low mechanical efficiency at high
speeds.
4
◼ There is a great variety of gearbox designs.
◼ They are distinguished by the mode of speed change
and the constructional arrangement.
◼ As to the mode of speed change, the gearboxes may
utilize:
◼ sliding gears,
◼ claw clutches,
◼ friction clutches,
◼ magnetic clutches,
◼ composite gear change, and
◼ pick-off gears.
5
◼ Figure 6 shows,
schematically the
speed-change
mechanisms most
widely used in
gearboxes:
◼ in 2-speed (a), 3-
speed (b).
6
Figure 6. Speed-change mechanisms used in

gearboxes with 4 speeds c).
7
◼ The gearbox shown in Fig. 9 allows for obtaining
three different spindle speeds. If sliding gear z1 is
engaged with claw clutch 2, spindle 3 is driven
directly by pulley 1 with the gear transmission out of
action.
◼ In this case the spindle speed is equal to the drive
pulley speed.
8
Figure 9:
Diagram of a 3-
speed gearbox.
1- driven pulley
2- clutch
3- spindle
9
◼ Pick-off gears are used in machine tools for mass and
batch production (automatic and semiautomatic
machines, special-purpose when change over from job to
job is comparatively rare).
◼ The required spindle speed is obtained by setting change
gear wheels A and B (Fig. 7) on the adjacent shafts.
◼ With the centre distance between the wheels being
constant, correct mesh will be obtained only if the sum of
their teeth numbers remains the same (A+B = const).
◼ The pick-off gears are sometimes used in the principal
movement drive in combination with gearboxes.
10
Figure 7:
Pick-off gears
11
◼ According to the layout, gearboxes can either be built
into the spindle head (headstock), or can have a
separate drive.
◼ Figure 8 represents a diagram of a speed gearbox
built into the spindle head.
◼ This gearbox provides different spindle speeds.
12
◼ Fig. 8: Diagram of
speed gearbox built
into spindle head.
13
◼ Figure 10 shows the speed gearbox of an upright
drill press. It employs sliding gear clusters for spindle
speed change. A drive motor, which is installed on
cover 3 of gear case 1, is connected by means of
coupling 6 with the first driven shaft of the gearbox,.
◼ Clusters 7 and 8 serve to transmit six different speeds
(with a single speed motor) to sleeve 2.
◼ Sleeve 2 is made as a multiple-splined hub to rotate
the spindle. Clear wheels 4 and 5 are interchangeable.
◼ The spindle speed of rotation is:
nsp= nm it rpm
14
Fig. 10. Speed gearbox of upright drill press 15

Separate units for the Drive Systems:
◼ With some models of lathes, turret lathes, and millers, the
spindle head (headstock) and the speed gearbox are arranged
as separate units connected by a belt transmission (Fig. 11).
◼ When higher spindle speeds are needed, clutch 3 is engaged
with the pulley through gear wheel zl fixed on it,
◼ Sliding gear cluster z2-z3 is disengaged from gears zl and z4,
so that rotation is transmitted to spindle 4 directly from speed
gearbox 1 through belt transmission 2.
◼ When lower spindle speeds are required the clutch is
disengaged, the cluster meshes with gear wheels zl and z4;
transmitting the rotation from the gearbox and belt
transmission to the spindle. 16
Fig. 11. Separate Drive

Unit.
◼ The use of a separate

drive in combination with
spindle relieved of belt
tension provides smooth
spindle rotation and is
more common in
precision machine tools.
17
◼ The advantage of sliding-gear transmissions
are:
◼ capacity to transmit high torque.
◼ comparatively small in radial dimensions.
◼ Less wear and tear of gears since only the gears

in mesh rotate during operation.
◼ The disadvantage of sliding-gear transmissions
are:
◼ impossibility of changing speeds on the run
◼ the necessity of blocking to prevent engagement

of improper wheels.
◼ relatively large axial dimensions
18
◼ Claw-clutch gearboxes feature
◼ small axial displacement needed for speed
changing,
◼ less engagement force as compared with sliding
gear mechanisms;
◼ helical and herringbone gears can be used in such
gearboxes.
◼ Drawbacks of Claw-clutch gearboxes:
◼ Do not allow change-over of highly contrasting
speeds on the run;
◼ inherent power losses and wear due to the rotation
of idle gears.
19
◼ Friction and magnetic clutches have the
following advantages:
◼ Provide quick and smooth engagement of gears on the run
and under load.
◼ Their disadvantages are:
◼ power losses and wear due to the rotation of idle gears,
◼ large axial and radial dimensions in the transmission of high
torques,
◼ reduction of mechanical efficiency because of friction in
clutches when disengaged,
◼ generation of heat and its effect on the spindle unit,
◼ the need for frequent adjustment
20
Kinematic Calculation of Speed Gearboxes
◼ There are two methods of kinematic calculation for
design of machine-tool speed gearboxes:
◼ analytical and
◼ semi-graphical.
◼ Both methods help to determine gearbox
transmission ratios;
◼ however, the semi-graphical method is generally
used.
◼ This method is more simple and helps to evaluate
different design options.
◼ It involves successive construction of a structural
diagram and speed chart.
21
◼ Structural diagram is a graphical representation of
the drive arrangement in general form.
◼ It provides the following data on the drive:
◼ the number of transmission groups
◼ the number of transmissions in each group;
◼ the relative order of the groups in the compound
transmission train;
◼ their characteristics and the relation between the
transmission ratios;
22
Structural diagram of a Gearbox
23
◼ the speed range ratio of each group and of the whole
transmission; and
◼ the number of speed steps of each shaft in each group.
24
Kinematic Diagram (a) Vs. Structural
Diagram (b)
25
◼ Speed chart serves to determine the specific
values of all the transmission ratios and
speeds of all the shafts in the drive.
◼ It is constructed according to the kinematic
diagram of the drive.
For kinematic calculation of the speed gearbox
for the machine tool follow the instructions for Lab
design/experiment #1.
26
Kinematic Diagram Vs. Structural Diagram and
Speed Chart
27
Fig. 100 Spindle-speed chart for the lathe.
28
Spindles and Spindle Bearings
◼ The spindle is one of the most essential parts of the
machine tool.
◼ It receives the cutting tool or the workpiece and
rotates it.
◼ Spindles are usually made of medium-carbon
structural steel with carbon content 0.45%, which
subsequently undergoes heat treatment known as
structural improvement (quenching followed by high
tempering to a hardness of 22-28 HRC).
29
Spindles and Spindle Bearings (Contd.)
◼ The configuration of a spindle depends on how it
holds the cutting tools and fixtures, the fit of the
drive elements and the type of its bearings.
◼ Spindles are usually made hollow to receive the bar
and decrease the spindle weight.
◼ The spindle noses of general-purpose machine tools
are standardized.
◼ Both sliding and antifriction (rolling) bearings are
used as spindle supports.
◼ To provide high accuracy of spindle rotation, its
antifriction bearings should be of higher accuracy
classes.
30
◼ Spindle units with tapered-bore double-row roller
bearings (series 3,182,100) are extensively used in
lathes, milling and boring machines, etc.
◼ The spindle unit of model IK62 engine lathe with
such a bearing as front spindle support is shown in
Fig. 18. When the bearing is adjusted axially along
the tapered journal of the spindle, the inner ring of
the bearing expands, preloading it and thus
eliminating radial clearance between the rollers and
rings.
31
(a) (b)
Fig. 18. Spindle unit of engine lathe, model 1K62 (with double row radial ball
bearing (a) and double taper roller bearing (b).
32
◼ Sliding bearings as spindle supports include the
following types:
(a) nonadjustable bearings, which are rarely
used and only where no wear can be expected
over a long period of service;
(b) bearings with radial (Fig. 19) and axial
clearance adjustment (Fig. 18) ;
(c) hydrostatic bearings, which have provisions
for supplying oil at considerable pressure to
several pockets in the bearing from which
it is forced out through the clearances between
the journal and the bearing.
(d) Air bearings.
33
A A-A
Figure 19. Spindle sliding bearings with radial

clearance adjustment.
34
◼ In machine tools, especially grinders, supports known
as ‘multishoe bearings’ are often used.
◼ Such bearings (Fig. 20a) consist of two semi-
cylindrical shells called half-bearings, one of which
(4) is fixed, the other (3) is radially movable under
the pressure of spring, 1 or oil is pumped into the
bearing, thus eliminating the clearance between the
spindle journal and-the bearing.
35
Fig. 20. Spindle multi-shoe sliding bearings.

36
◼ The bearing shown in Fig. 20b has three
shoes, two of which (2 and 3) are fixed and
the third 1 is permanently pressed- to the
spindle journal by leaf spring 4.
◼ Figure 20c shows bearing with three self-
aligning shoes. These shoes 4 rest upon the
spherical ends of adjusting screws 5 and can
tilt around them for self-alignment with
relation to the spindle journal, thus
eliminating edge pressure.
37
Fig. 20c. Spindle multi-shoe sliding bearings.
38
Feed Boxes
◼ Feed boxes are designed to provide the required feed
rates and feeding forces for machining different
workpieces.
◼ Feed boxes are usually driven by a separate electric
motor or from the spindle.
◼ The range of feeds should generally conform to a
geometric progression.
◼ Feed rate can be changed mechanically (by gear
transmissions, ratchet drives, cam mechanisms, etc.),
electrically, or hydraulically.
39
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Feed gearboxes are classified with reference to the
mechanism used to change the feed as follows:
(a) pick-off gears on fixed centre distance shafts;
(b) sliding gears;
(c) diving key-type transmissions:
(d) gear-cone and tumbler-gear transmissions
(Norton-type gearboxes),
(e) pick-off gear quadrants;
(f) meander-type mechanisms.
40
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Feed gearboxes with pick-off gears are used in
batch production machine tools with infrequent
change-over from job to job, such as automatic,
semi-automatic, single-purpose and special
machines.
◼ Feed gearboxes of this type are similar in design to
the corresponding speed gearboxes.
◼ These gearboxes are simple in design, consisting only
of pick-off gear wheels.
◼ They transmit high torques and can operate at high
speeds.
41
Pick off gears, A, B
42
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Feed gearboxes with diving-key type
transmissions can have up to 8-10 pairs of gears in
one mechanism. This type of transmission is normally
used as a main group in a feed gearbox.
◼ Figure 22a shows a mechanism where motion is
transmitted by a pair of meshing gear wheels z7 and
z8.
◼ This mechanism provides four different ratios.
43
Feed Boxes (contd.)
Fig. 22. Diagrams of

some feed gearbox
mechanisms: (a)
gearbox with diving-
key
44
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Clear wheels z1, z3, z5 and z7 (Fig. 22b) are keyed on
the drive shaft and mesh respectively with gear
wheels z2, z4, z6 and z8 mounted freely on the driven
key shaft.
◼ The diving key may engage any wheel on the driven
shaft.
◼ The engaged wheel will transmit motion to the driven
shaft while the other wheels on this shaft will turn
idly.
45
Feed Boxes (contd.)
Fig. 22. Diagrams of some feed gearbox mechanisms:

(b) gearbox with diving-key 46
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Drawbacks of feed gearboxes with diving key:
◼ power losses and wear due to the rotation of idle
gears;
◼ possible jamming of the diving key;
◼ insufficient rigidity of the key shaft,

.
◼ These feed gearboxes are used in small and some-
times in medium-size drilling machines and turret
lathes.
47
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Norton-type gearboxes (Fig. 22c) provide an
arithmetical series of feed steps, which is convenient
for cutting standard threads; and so they are widely
used in engine lathe feed boxes.
◼ This mechanism consist in its design the provision of
an idler gear;
◼ It does not need to comply with the general condition
that the sums of teeth numbers for all the pairs of
meshing gears on adjacent shafts shall be equal.
48
Feed Boxes (contd.)
Fig. 22c:
Norton-type
gearbox.
49
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ This serves to obtain a great number of ratios
needed for cutting threads of different pitches.
◼ Another advantage of this type of mechanism is its
small axial size.
◼ Pivoting bracket 1 (Fig. 22c) is mounted freely on
driving shaft 1, carrying sliding gear z1 moving along
the driving shaft and tumbler gear z2. The required
transmission ratio is obtained by bringing the tumbler
gear, into mesh with one of the cone's gear wheels
fixed on driven shaft II.
50
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ This mechanism provides the following four values of
gear ratio:
◼ i1 = z1/z3
◼ i2 = z1/z4
◼ i3 = z1/z5
◼ i4 = z1/z6
◼ Some transmissions of this type provide 10 or 12

values of ratio.
51
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Change-gear quadrant as a feed gearbox is shown
in Fig. 22d. This type of mechanism provides for the
appropriate mesh of pickoff gears.
◼ Such a mechanism enables the given feed to be set
up with -any degree of accuracy.
◼ The transmission ratios can be up to imin = 1/8.
◼ Commonly two pairs of pick-off gears are sufficient to
obtain the required feed rates.
◼ For engine lathes the following set of these wheels is
recommended: z = 20; 24; 25; 28; 30; 32; 36; 40;
44; 45; 48; 50; 55; 60; 65; 68; 70; 71; 72; 75; 76;
80; 85; 90; 95; 100; 110; 113; 120; 127.
52
Feed Boxes (contd.)
Fig. 22d.
Change-gear
quadrant.
53
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ Feed gearbox with meander-type mechanism (Fig.
22e) consists of gear cluster z1 - z2 fixed on the drive
shaft, gear clusters z3 - z4 and z5 - z6 mounted freely on
the intermediate shaft, pivoting bracket 1 which carries
tumbler gear z7 and moving sliding gear z8 meshed with
the latter, moving along the driven shaft for engagement.
◼ This mechanism provides these four values of ratios:
◼ i1 = z2/z5 x z6/z8
◼ i2 = z2/z8
◼ i3 = z1/z8
◼ i4 = z1/z4 x z3/z8
54
Feed Boxes (contd.)
Fig. 22e. Feed

gearbox with
meander-type
mechanism
55
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ The number of gear-wheel teeth in this mechanism is
chosen to maintain the relation:
◼ z1 = z3 = z5 =2 z2 = 2 z4 =2 z6= z8
◼ Hence ,
◼ i1 =1/4
◼ i2 =1/2
◼ i3 =1
◼ i4 =2
these ratios form a series with the common ratio of

2.
56
Feed Boxes (contd.)
◼ The advantages of the meander-type mechanism are:
◼ single-lever control small axial size and wide feed
range,
◼ The disadvantages of this mechanism are:
◼ insufficiently rigid and accurate due to engagement
by the tumbler gear;

◼ possibility of lubricant leakage and gear
contamination through openings in the feed

gearbox case;
◼ Continuous rotation of all the gears irrespective of
which is engaged.
57
Infinitely variable-speed transmissions
◼ Infinitely variable-speed transmissions, or
stepless drives, are used for continuously
varying the spindle speed or the feed rate,
thus helping to obtain the optimum cutting
speed and feed needed for machining various
workpieces.
◼ This speed or feed changing can be carried
out while the machine is running.
58
The following methods of principle movement
speed and feed variation are employed in
machine tools:
1. Electrical variation is performed by varying the speed of
the electric motor which drives the corresponding train of the
machine tool.
2. Hydraulic variation is mainly used for changing the speeds
of straight movements (in shapers, slotting, broaching and
grinding machines and it is much less common for rotational
motion speed changing.
3. Mechanical variation by means of mechanical variable-
speed drives.
2. 59
Mechanical infinitely variable-speed
transmissions
◼ Most mechanical variable-speed drives used in
machine tools are of the friction type. A few of
such drives are described below.
◼ The face-roller variable-speed drive is
shown in Fig. 23. To change the speed, small
drive roller 1 is moved along disc 2, altering the
operative radius of the latter and hence the
ratio between the drive and the driven shafts.
60
Fig. 23. Face

roller step less
drive
61
◼ The variable-pitch sheave drive (Fig. 24)
comprises two conical pairs of sheaves – driving pair
1 mounted on shaft I and driven pair 6 mounted on
shaft II. Both sheaves are of equal diameter. The
axial distance between the two halves of 1 and 6 can
be varied using a lever mechanism without effecting
the tightness of their joining V-belt 3 .
◼ The transmission of movement from shaft I to shaft
II is effected by means of either V-belt 3, reinforced
with wooden pads 2 on the inner surface, or some
other wide belt of appropriate shape.
62
Fig. 24. Variable-

pitch sheave drive
63
◼ To change the speed of shaft II, the conical
halves 1 on shaft I and also 6 on shaft II are
moved axially in opposite directions
simultaneously, thereby changing their pitch
diameter.
◼ The above movement is executed by levers 8,
pivoting about the axes 0 and 01, which also
moves simultaneously the conical halves on 1
and 6 axially in the opposite directions along
shafts I and II respectively.
◼ Levers 8 are driven by hand wheel 5 turning
screw 7 with right and left-hand threads.
64
◼ Toroidal stepless drive (Fig. 25) is used for
the principal movement in model IA1620
engine lathe.
◼ The ratio of this drive is changed by pivoting
the rolls, thereby changing their radii of
contact with the toroidal drive and driven
members.
65
Fig. 25. Diagram of a toroidal stepless drive.
66
Mechanisms for Straight Movement
◼ In modern machine tools the following
mechanisms are mainly used to produce
straight movement:
◼ Rack and-pinion transmissions
◼ Lead screw and nut transmissions,
◼ cam mechanisms,
◼ hydraulic devices, and
◼ solenoid type electromagnetic devices.
67
Mechanisms for Straight Movement: Rack
and-pinion transmissions
◼ Rack-and-pinion transmissions are,

used for the principal movement, the
feed movement, and various auxiliary
movements.
68
Mechanisms for Straight Movement:
Worm-and-Rack transmissions
◼ Worm-and-rack transmissions are of two
types:
◼ one with. the worm arranged at an angle to the
rack; which enables the diameter of the gear
wheel driving the worm to be increased for
smooth movement;
◼ the other with the worm parallel to the rack.
◼ The operating conditions of this transmission
are more favourable than those of the rack
and pinion.
69
Mechanisms for Straight Movement: Lead
screw and nut transmissions
◼ Lead screw and nut transmissions are
extensively employed for straight movement,
e.g., for producing slow movements in feed
drives.
◼ To cut down friction losses and wear typical
of the conventional sliding lead screw and nut
transmissions, they are being replaced by
rolling screw and nut transmissions (Fig. 26).
The latter have low friction losses, high
efficiency, and can be preloaded to eliminate
the backlash.
70
Lead screw and nut transmissions
Fig. 26. Ball screw-and-nut assembly
71
Mechanisms for Straight Movement: Cam
mechanisms
◼ Cam mechanisms converting rotating
movement into straight movement are employed
mainly in automatic machine tools. There are
cam mechanisms with disc cams and cylindrical
cams.
◼ Figure 27a shows the scheme of a disc cam
mechanism. When rotated, cam 1 transmits
motion through roller 2 and the sector gear to
the rack of the carriage, which produces the
reciprocating motion according to the cam
profile. 72
mechanisms
Figure 27b gives a general view of the disc cams.
Fig. 27. Disc cams and their principle of operation

73
mechanisms
Figure 28 below presents cam mechanisms
with cylindrical cams.
Figure 28 Cam
mechanisms with
cylindrical cams.
74
Ratchet Gearing Mechanisms
◼ These mechanisms serve to produce
intermittent movement.
◼ Ratchet gearings can be with external and
internal engagement.
◼ In the external engagement mechanism
(Fig. 31a) pawl 1 is imparted a swinging
motion. When swinging to the left the pawl
engages a tooth of ratchet wheel 2 turning
the latter counterclockwise through a definite
angle.
75
Ratchet Gearings
Fig. 31a.
Ratchet
gearings
76
Ratchet Gearings
◼ On the way back the pawl slides along the
ratchet wheel teeth leaving the wheel at a
standstill.
◼ In the internal engagement mechanism (Fig.
31b) the shaft; with the disc keyed on it
produces a swinging motion.
◼ The disc carries Pawl 1 which, when swinging
to the right, turns ratchet wheel 2 clockwise
and on the way back leaves it to dwell.
◼ The ratchet drive is shown schematically in
Fig. 31c. Pawl 1 is swung by crank disc 5
with pin 4. 77
Ratchet Gearings
◼ By changing the position of pin 4 in the crank
disc slot (i.e. radius R), it is possible to adjust
the swing angle  of pawl 1 and thus the
swing angle of ratchet wheel 2 per revolution
of crank disc 5.
78
Geneva-Type Gearings
◼ Geneva-type gearings are mainly used in
indexing devices with a constant angle of
periodic rotation of turrets, spindle carriers and
tables in multiple-spindle automatic machine
tools, etc.
◼ Geneva-type gearings generally have equal
angles between all the slots of a Geneva wheel
and an external engagement. The device is used
in machine tools.
◼ In a Geneva-type gearing (Fig. 32) the crank
disc gets into engagement with the Geneva
wheel (Star wheel) during its rotation by means
of the crank pin or roll.
79
Fig. 32. Geneva Wheel

Principle of
Geneva-type Crank Pin
gearing
Crank Disc
80
◼ This pin enters into a slot of the starwheel
and turns the latter through 1/z of its
revolution per revolution of the disc, i. e., the
ratio of the Geneva mechanism is 1/z; z being
the number of slots (ordinarily z = 3-8).
81
◼ To avoid a sharp impact while the pin enters into
the star wheel slot, the initial angular velocity of
the star wheel should be equal to 0.
◼ To ensure this, it is necessary to provide  +  =
90°, i. e., the pin should enter the star wheel slot
in a radial direction.
◼ The main relations between the parameters of the
Geneva-type gearing are:
◼ where  = half the angle between Geneva- wheel

slots
◼  = half the central angle of the crank disc rotation
required to turn the wheel through angle .
82
◼ From these equations we find the central angle
of disc rotation while the starwheel is engaged
by the pin:
◼ Hence, the central angle of crank disc rotation

while the starwheel is at rest is:
83
◼ The total cycle time is:
◼ Hence,
Where,
t1 = time of starwheel rotation
t2= time of starwheel rest
84
◼ With uniform rotation of the disc:
◼ α, β, and γ expressed in radians

◼ The correct relation between the
dimensions of the Geneva-type gearing is
expressed by the formula:
85
Ratchet and Geneva-Type Gearings
Fig. 32.
Principle of Geneva Wheel
Geneva-type
gearing Crank Pin
Crank Disc
86

Lecture 2-3 Machine Tools Drive Systems

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Lecture 2-3 Machine Tools Drive Systems

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Drive Systems of Machine Tools

◼ A drive system is the source of motion of the

Figure 5. Arrangement of self-contained

Figure 6. Speed-change mechanisms used in

Fig. 10. Speed gearbox of upright drill press 15

Fig. 11. Separate Drive

◼ The use of a separate

◼ comparatively small in radial dimensions.

◼ Less wear and tear of gears since only the gears

◼ the necessity of blocking to prevent engagement

Figure 19. Spindle sliding bearings with radial

Fig. 20. Spindle multi-shoe sliding bearings.

Fig. 20c. Spindle multi-shoe sliding bearings.

Fig. 22. Diagrams of

Fig. 22. Diagrams of some feed gearbox mechanisms:

◼ insufficient rigidity of the key shaft,

◼ Some transmissions of this type provide 10 or 12

Fig. 22e. Feed

these ratios form a series with the common ratio of

by the tumbler gear;

contamination through openings in the feed

Fig. 23. Face

Fig. 24. Variable-

Fig. 25. Diagram of a toroidal stepless drive.

◼ Lead screw and nut transmissions,

◼ hydraulic devices, and

◼ solenoid type electromagnetic devices.

◼ Rack-and-pinion transmissions are,

Fig. 26. Ball screw-and-nut assembly

Fig. 27. Disc cams and their principle of operation

Fig. 32. Geneva Wheel

◼ where  = half the angle between Geneva- wheel

◼ Hence, the central angle of crank disc rotation

◼ α, β, and γ expressed in radians

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