COMPREHENSIVE REPORT IN METHODS OF RESEARCH

1. Introduction of Research
 a scientific approach to answering a research question, solving a research
problem, or generating new knowledge through a systematic and orderly
collection, organization, and analysis of data to make research findings useful
in decision-making.
 The primary goal or purpose of research in any field of inquiry; is to add to
what is known about the phenomenon under investigation through applying
scientific methods. We may enumerate the following 4 broad goals of
scientific research: (1) Exploration and Explorative Research, (2) Description
and Descriptive Research, (3) Causal Explanation and Causal Research, (4)
Prediction and Predictive Research
 Some of its characteristics: focus on priority problem, systematic, structured
procedure, logical, reductive, replicable, generative, action-oriented, results
should be presented in formats most useful for administrators, decision-
makers, business managers, or community members.
 The key difference between research and problem solving is that while in
problem-solving the individual already has the necessary information to make
the decision or come up with a solution, in research the researcher needs to
gather the information before he answers the research problems.
 Kinds and classification of research according to purpose: (1) Predictive or
Prognostic – it has the purpose to determine the future operation of the
variables under investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such
for the better. Ex. If you have a business and are trying out some unique
marketing tricks, you might come up with some interesting questions. One
might be: Which cities do the highest spenders come from? This type of
question is fairly rote business intelligence. Predictive analysis, however, asks
this: What level of sales can I expect from a given city? (2) Directive – it
determines what should be done based on the findings. Ex. A company might
have a directive to sell more chocolate bars than another maker. If this
research uncovers that a rival company is selling a chocolate bar at a lower
price, the researching company could choose to lower it prices to stay in more
direct competition (3) Illuminative – it is concerned with the interaction of the
components of the variable being investigated. Ex. Connections among,
students’ characteristics, organizational patterns and policies and educational
consequences.
 According to Goal: (1) Basic or Pure (Theoretical) – it is done for the
development of theories and principles. It is conducted for intellectual
pleasure of learning. Ex. How did the universe begin? What are protons,
neutrons, and electrons composed of? How do slime molds reproduce? What
is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly? (2) Applied (Practical)– the
application of pure research. This is testing the efficiency of theories and
principles. Ex. Improve agricultural crop production. Treat or cure a specific
disease. Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation.
 According to the Level of Investigation: (1) Exploratory – the researcher
studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation. Ex. The owner of The
Cupcake King has many ideas for improving the bakery's sales but isn't sure

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 which will work. They think increasing the flavors of cupcakes the bakery
sells will bring in more customers but know they need more information.
They intend to conduct ER to investigate whether expanding their cupcake
selection will lead to an increase in sales, or if there is a better idea. (2)
Descriptive – the researcher studies the relationships of the variables. Ex. Do
corporate leaders of multinational companies in the 21stcentury possess
moral rights to receive multi- million bonuses? What are the main distinctive
traits of organizational culture of McDonald’s? (3) Experimental – the
researcher studies the effects of the variables on each other. Ex. Science
Investigatory Projects Experimental research seeks to determine a
relationship between two (2) variables—the dependent variable and the
independent variable. After completing an experimental research study, a
correlation between a specific aspect of an entity and the variable being
studied is either supported or rejected.
 According to the Type of Analysis: (1) Analytic Approach – the researcher
attempts to identify and isolate the components of the research situation. Ex.
the use of an appropriate process to break a problem down into the elements
necessary to solve it. Each element becomes a smaller and easier problem to
solve. (2) Holistic Approach – this begins with the total situation, focusing
attention on the system first and on its internal relationships. Ex. directly
grasp the whole without consideration of the parts.
 According to Scope: This involves the application of the steps of the scientific
method in the classroom problems. This type of research is done on a very
limited scope to solve a particular problem which is not so big.
 According to the Choice of Answers to Problems: (1) Evaluation research –
All possible courses of action are specified and identified and the researcher.
Ex. How satisfied are you with our product? (2) Developmental research –
the focus is on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process
than has been available. Ex. A study focused on the progressive changes that
occur as an organism develops.
 According to Statistical Content: (1) Quantitative or Statistical Research – is
one in which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the
study. Ex. Regarding alcohol (Alcohol addiction among high schoolers, or
among women: How alcohol has affected to human health: Drinking pattern
and reasons for drinking: You can compare yearly how it has changed and so
on.) (2) Non-quantitative Research (Qualitative)– this is research in which
the use of the quantity or statistics is practically not utilize Ex. “What is the
relationship between the arts, entrepreneurship and innovation in the
workplace?” “What are human rights?”
 According to Time Element: (1) Historical research – describes what was.
(2) Descriptive research – describes what is. (3) Experimental research –
describes what will be.

2. Meaning of Thesis
 The thesis is one of the most important concepts in college expository
writing. A thesis sentence focuses your ideas for the paper; it's your
argument or insight or viewpoint crystallized into a single sentence that
gives the reader your main idea.

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  A dissertation embodying results of original research and especially
substantiating a specific view especially: one written by a candidate for
an academic degree. A proposition to be proved or one advanced without
proof: hypothesis.

3. Sources of Problems- (1) Interviews sessions can be significant sources of

research problems. The method gives you an opportunity to have formal
discussions and informal interactions with individuals who can provide useful
insights into research and make findings more relevant to future research. (2)
Personal Experiences. Your everyday experiences are a good source of
research problem. You have to think critically about your personal experiences
with an issue that affects your family, your personal life, or your community.
(3) deduction from theory refers to inferences a researcher makes from the
generalizations of life in a society that a researcher knows very well.(4)
Interdisciplinary Perspective. If you consider interdisciplinary perspective to
identify a problem for a research study, you’ll have to look at scholarship and
academic movements from outside your main area of investigation. (5)
Relevant Literature- Doing so allows you to find gaps on the topic, making it
easy for you to understand just how much understudied your area of interest is.

4. Characteristics of a Good Problem

 It should address a gap in knowledge.
 It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of
research
 It should lead to further research
 The problem should render itself to investigation through collection of data
 It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time, and
resources
 The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical

5. How to State a Problem

 Describe how things should work.
 Explain the problem and state why it matters.
 Explain your problem’s financial cost.
 Back up your claims.
 Propose a solution.
 Explain the benefits of your proposed solution.
 Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution.

6. How to Make the Problem Specific

 Clarify the Vision
 Define the Problem
 Determine the Context
 Identify the Impact
 Make a Business Case
 Identify the Gap
 Explain the Causes
 Select a Problem-Solving Method
 Describe Next Steps

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  Review the 5 Ws (and an H)

7. How to Write the Title of the Research

 Make sure your research title describes (a) the topic, (b) the method, (c) the
sample, and (d) the results of your study. You can use the following formula:
 As concise as possible. You want a title that will be comprehensible even to
people who are not experts in your field.
 Make sure your title is between 5 and 15 words in length.
 If you are writing a title for a university assignment or for a particular
academic journal, verify that your title conforms to the standards and
requirements for that outlet. For example, many journals require that titles
fall under a character limit, including spaces. Many universities require that
titles take a very specific form, limiting your creativity.
 Use a descriptive phrase to convey the purpose of your research efficiently.
 Most importantly, use critical keywords in the title to increase the
discoverability of your article.

8.The Hypothesis and How it Differs from an Assumption

 A hypothesis is an uncertain supposition or explanation regarding a
phenomenon or event. It is considered to be true by the researcher. A
hypothesis must always go through the process of verification and
investigation. It establishes the relationship determined by an assumption.
 An assumption is also a kind of belief which is considered to be true. An
assumption may or may not be verified or investigated. In research,
assumption denotes the existence of the relationship between the variables.

9.Functions of the Hypothesis

 Hypothesis helps in making an observation and experiments possible.
 It becomes the start point for the investigation.
 Hypothesis helps in verifying the observations.
 It helps in directing the inquiries in the right direction.

10.Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

 The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
 If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the
relationship between variables.
 The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting
more tests.
 The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should
also be understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its
significance.

12.The Variable and Types of Variables

 A variable is a characteristic that can be measured and that can assume
different values. Height, age, income, province or country of birth, grades
 Two main categories:
 Categorical- A categorical variable (also called qualitative variable)
refers to a characteristic that can’t be quantifiable. Categorical
variables can be either binary, nominal or ordinal:

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 o Binary- Yes/No outcomes.
o Nominal- Groups with no rank or order between them
o Ordinal- Groups that are ranked in a specific order.
 Quantitative/Numeric- A nominal variable is one that describes a
name, label or category without natural order. Sex and type of
dwelling are examples of nominal variables.
o Discrete - Counts of individual items or values.
o Continuous- Measurements of continuous or non-finite
values.

13.The Methods of Research

 Historical Method- describes what occurred in the past and then makes a
critical inquiry into the truth of what occurred. It is a systematic process of
searching the facts and then using the information to synthesize, describe,
analyze and interpret the past.
 Descriptive Method- involves description, recording, analysis, and
interpretation of the present nature, composition or processes of
phenomena. It reveals problem or abnormal conditions so that remedial
measures may be instituted. It reveals to us what we do not want, what we
want, and how to acquire what we want.
 Case Study- a type of detailed and in-depth research involving a few
respondents, ranging from one to a small of less than ten (10), over a
considerable period of time. It provides a limited number of
participants and a very in-depth description of the development of a
certain activity, matter of a person, event, institution, or community.
 Surveys- a process of gathering data for relatively large numbers. The
purpose is to gather information about prevailing conditions or about
the variables under study.
 Developmental Studies- a method of research which is used when
researcher desires reliable information about a group of people over a
long period of time. It gives detailed and accurate information of the
objects or person to be observed.
 Follow-up Studies- used when you intend to investigate the
subsequent development of participants after a specified treatment or
condition. This may use to evaluate the success of particular programs
like the guidance program, instructional program, administrative
program and many others.

14. How to determine or Select the Method of Research to be used

The type of research you are making will dictate the kind of research
methodologies you use in order to be successful in collecting data. Data is often
used to generate new hypothesis based on the result collected about different
variables.

15. Theoretical Framework- is useful in identifying and limiting the scope of

the data needed, the researcher will need to give relevant information regarding
the framework by focusing on relationships of variables.

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 16. Conceptual Framework- a mental image or perception anchored on
theoretical framework. It is a detailed presentation of the variables to be
observed in the on-going study; the concepts defied in a way the investigator
wants, the way the variables are operationalized and the method of measuring
the variables.

17. The Review of Related Literature and Studies- the major process that
leads to past theory. It is an immediate concern to look for these sources, to put
the literature into some organized form, and to use this literature in the study. It
provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which may relate to
your own findings and conclusions.

18. How Terms are Defined-

 Define terms either in:
Conceptual definition- usually taken in dictionary and carries a universal
meaning easily understood by the readers.
Operational definition- expresses meaning of terms as used in a particular
field of study.
 Terms defined should be arranged in alphabetical order.

19. Sampling Techniques or Procedures

 Random Sampling- In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance
and each member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of
being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to give each
individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers
to decide which individuals to include.
 Table of Random Numbers- A series of digits (0 to 9) arranged randomly in
rows and columns, as demonstrated in the small sample shown below. The
table usually contains 5-digit numbers, arranged in rows and columns, for ease
of reading.
 Lottery Sampling- With a lottery method, each member of the population is
assigned a number, after which numbers are selected at random. An example
of a simple random sample would be the names of 25 employees being chosen
out of a hat from a company of 250 employees.
 Systematic Sampling- is a probability sampling method in which researchers
select members of the population at a regular interval (or k) determined in
advance.
 Stratified Sampling- researchers divide a population into homogeneous
subpopulations called strata (the plural of stratum) based on specific
characteristics (e.g., race, gender identity, location, etc.). Every member of the
population studied should be in exactly one stratum. Each stratum is then
sampled using another probability sampling method, such as cluster or simple
random sampling, allowing researchers to estimate statistical measures for
each sub-population. Researchers rely on stratified sampling when a
population’s characteristics are diverse and they want to ensure that every
characteristic is properly represented in the sample.
 Non-random Sampling- a method of selecting units from a population using
a subjective (i.e. non-random) method. Since non-probability sampling does

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 not require a complete survey frame, it is a fast, easy and inexpensive way of
obtaining data.
 Purposive/Deliberate Sampling- Purposive sampling, also known as
judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling, is a form of non-probability
sampling in which researchers rely on their own judgment when choosing
members of the population to participate in their surveys.
 Quota Sampling- a non-probability sampling method that relies on the non-
random selection of a predetermined number or proportion of units. This is
called a quota. You first divide the population into mutually exclusive
subgroups (called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota. These units share specific characteristics, determined by you prior to
forming your strata.
 Convenience Sampling- a method adopted by researchers where they collect
market research data from a conveniently available pool of respondents. It is
the most commonly used sampling technique as it’s incredibly prompt,
uncomplicated, and economical. In many cases, members are readily
approachable to be a part of the sample.

20. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources of Information

Primary sources provide first-hand observations or direct evidence concerning
a topic under investigation. They are created by witnesses or recorders at or near
the time of the event. They have not been filtered through further interpretation
or evaluation. Primary sources may include:
o Original Documents: diaries, speeches, letters, interview transcripts, news
footage, autobiographies, reports, census records, data from an experiment
o Creative Works: poetry, plays, novels, music scores, films, paintings
o Objects: clothing, buildings, tools, furniture
Secondary sources are works that analyze, assess or interpret a historical event,
era or phenomenon. They may use primary sources to write a review, critique or
interpretation often well after the event. Secondary sources may include:
o journal articles, editorial articles, literacy criticism, book reviews,
biographies, textbooks
Tertiary Sources are those used to identify and locate primary and secondary
sources.
o Tertiary sources may include
o Reference Works: encyclopedias, abstracts
o Lists or Collections: bibliographies, finding aids
o Search Tools: library database or catalog, indexes

21. Methods of Techniques Used in Data Collection

 Observation Method- a way of gathering data by watching behavior, events,
or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting. Observations can be
overt (everyone knows they are being observed) or covert (no one knows they
are being observed and the observer is concealed).
 Questioning Technique- an instrument for research, which consists of a list
of questions, along with the choice of answers, printed or typed in a sequence
on a form used for acquiring specific information from the respondents.

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  Objective Method- a technique for measuring social class that assigns
individuals to classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education,
income, and place of residence.
 Psychological Tests- a standardized measure of a sample of a
person's behavior that is used to measure the individual differences that exist
among people. A. psychological test is an objective and standardized measure
of an individual's mental and/or behavioral characteristics.
 Library technique- a research method that conducted by computer engine
searching or practical books reading to find the knowledge and information, to
be answered the research question.

22. Types of Data Presentation

 Tabular- a table that helps to represent even a large amount of data in an
engaging, easy to read, and coordinated manner. The data is arranged in rows
and columns.
 Graphical- a visual representation of data statistics-based results using graphs,
plots, and charts. This kind of representation is more effective in understanding
and comparing data than seen in a tabular form.
 Textual- a vague and raw format of the data. The data is mentioned in the text
form, which is usually written in a paragraph. The textual presentation of data
is used when the data is not large and can be easily comprehended by the reader
just when he reads the paragraph.
23. Documentation- is the evidence provided for information and ideas borrowed
from others. That evidence includes both primary sources and secondary sources.
There are numerous documentation styles and formats, including MLA style (used
for research in the humanities), APA style (psychology, sociology,
education), Chicago style (history), and ACS style (chemistry).

24. Types of Documentation

 Footnote- a note of reference, explanation, or comment usually placed below
the text on a printed page. One that is a relatively subordinate or minor part (as
of an event, work, or field) a movement now regarded as a footnote to
architectural history. Footnote is normally used to state clarifying information
about the written document in question. It helps to provide essential details that
the reader may not be familiar with pertaining to the research paper.
o Cases-Long Cite
o Cases-Short Cite
o Law-Review Journal Articles-Long Cite
o Law-Review Journal Articles-Short Cite
o Magazine-Short Cite
o Newspaper-Long Cite
o Newspapers-Short Cite
o The Internet
 Bibliography and its Meaning- as describe by Carter and Baker (2010), it is
an organized listing of books and systematic description of books as physical
objects. Bibliography gives a reviewer an idea of how much and what quality
of background research you did for your project. The bibliography should be
on a separate page. It should list the relevant sources used in the research for
the paper. This list should be arranged alphabetically by the surname of the

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 author. (Unlike the footnote reference, the surname is shown first, set off from
the rest of the information.) The information required is: author, title, place
of publication, publisher and date of publication.

25. Comparison of Bibliography and Footnote

The Footnote
Content footnotes give additional information about the content, and
bibliographic notes provide additional sources related to the content. The footnote
is found at the bottom, or foot, of the page. It is marked by a superscript number
within the body of the text. The superscript number also appears at the bottom of
the page, along with the additional explanatory or bibliographic information. If
specific sources are used to write content footnotes, this information should be
cited through parenthetical citations within the footnote and then with full citation
information within the Works Cited, or Bibliography, page. Bibliographic
footnotes point your readers to specific, related outside texts without providing
much commentary on them. Full citation information for these sources should
also be included on the Works Cited page.
The Bibliography
The Bibliography, or Works Cited, page is the last section of a paper. It compiles
the full citation information for any source cited in or consulted for the paper into
one location and allows your readers to get an overview of the works informing
your thinking. The full citation information found in this section tells your readers
when and where a source was published, whereas a footnote might only include
the title of the work. Additionally, no information besides the citation information
is included within the bibliography.

26. The Rules for Handling of Quotation

 Direct quotations should consume a small percentage of the whole research
paper. No more than 15 percent of your paper should be direct quotation.
 Keep quotations short and to the point although there might be a lot of
information but you need to add only that information which is highly relevant.
 Clearly identify each quotation so that each of the quotation has its own
reference and citation. You can use two or more than two quotations in one
paragraph but then you need to clearly identify each of them.
 Precede and follow each of the quotations with your own words and this is
important. You cannot just write a quote without any introduction why you are
adding this quote here. This will help you tell the readers about your point of
view before you introduce the quote.
 Interweave your sources avoid mistake of using the same source again and
again otherwise your paper will become plagiarized.
 Cite your sources properly include authors full name, year of publication and
page number in the in-text citation.

29. Qualities Needed by a Researcher

 Curiosity
 Analytical ability and foresight
 Determination
 Collaboration
 Communication

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30. Writing the Report
 Introduction- your introduction states the issue to be researched and the
methodology. As long as these two points are considered, the introduction will
be effective. Apart from stating the problem, the reviews of resources, previous
researches conducted in the field, and relevancy of the topic should be
mentioned. Regardless of the type of paper (thesis, dissertation, term paper), the
report is a concise presentation. Hence, its content should be chosen carefully.
 Discussion of Findings Analysis- The research findings analysis is the most
important part. The supervisors want to see the novelty in the research. It is not
about summarizing the existing data, but about drawing unique conclusions.
This section might be integrated into the results and findings. The main point is
to deliver an extensive explanation and personal interpretation of the results. It
is also a stage where you double-check the objectives, the title of the research to
see if they correspond to your findings
 Literature Review- The research is composed of theoretical and practical parts.
The theoretical part summarizes the previous researches and identifies the novel
features of your research. This part is important for overall research conduct.
Regardless of the type, either thesis report or any other, the list of sources you
refer to should be presented. Its extensiveness is optional.
 Conclusion- Using the tips on how to write a research report along with the rules
of academic writing, you should be able to create a good quality paper. Every
paper should be free of plagiarism, based on relevant literature, and datum.
Remember to dedicate enough time to proofread all the materials. Whether the
report is sent over the email or presented during an interview, its format should
be flawless.

31. Writing the Research Proposal- Your proposal should include the following:
 TITLE- Your title should give a clear indication of your proposed research
approach or key question.
 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE- the background and issues of your
proposed research, identify your discipline, a short literature review, a summary
of key debates and developments in the field.
 RESEARCH QUESTION(S)- You should formulate these clearly, giving an
explanation as to what problems and issues are to be explored and why they are
worth exploring.
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY- You should provide an outline of: the
theoretical resources to be drawn on, the research approach (theoretical
framework), the research methods appropriate for the proposed research
a discussion of advantages as well as limits of particular approaches and methods.

32. The Research Abstract

An effective abstract will contain several key features:
 Motivation/problem statement: Why is your research/argument important?
What practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?
 Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results?
(e.g. analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17
students)

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  Results/findings/product: As a result of completing the above procedure, what
did you learn/invent/create?
 Conclusion/implications: What are the larger implications of your findings,
especially for the problem/gap identified previously? Why is this research
valuable?

33. Appendices- An appendix is a supplementary document that facilitates your

reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to your core argument.
Appendices are a useful tool for providing additional information or clarification in
a research paper, dissertation, or thesis without making your final product too long.
Appendices help you provide more background information and nuance about your
topic without disrupting your text with too many tables and figures or other distracting
elements. We’ve prepared some examples and templates for you, for inclusions such as
research protocols, survey questions, and interview transcripts. All are worthy additions
to an appendix. You can download these in the format of your choice below.

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