DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

LTPC
0042
OBJECTIVES:

 To explore practically components of aircraft piston and gas turbine engines

and their working principles.
 To impart practical knowledge of flow phenomenon of subsonic and supersonic
jets.
 To determine practically thrust developed by rocket propellants.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of aircraft piston and its components.

2. Determine the velocity profiles of free jets.
3. Determine Velocity profiles of wall jets.
4. Wall pressure measurements of a subsonic diffusers and ramjet ducts.
5. Flame stabilization studies using conical and hemispherical flame holders.
6. Cascade testing of compressor blades.
7. Velocity and pressure measurements high speed jets.
8. Wall Pressure measurements of supersonic nozzle.
9. Wall pressure measurements on supersonic inlet.
10. Flow visualization of supersonic flow.
11. Performance test of propeller.
12. Study of gas turbine engines and its components.

TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES
 Identify components and information of piston and gas turbine engine.
 Analyze the behaviour of flow through ducts and jet engine components to
Distinguish subsonic and supersonic flow characteristics.
 Visualize flow phenomenon in supersonic flow.

1
 AE3412 PROPULSION LABORATORY
CONTENTS

SL. NAME OF THE PAGE

NO. EXPERIMENTS NO.

1 Study of aircraft piston and its components.

2 Determine the velocity profiles of free jets.

3 Determine Velocity profiles of wall jets.

4 Wall pressure measurements of a subsonic diffusers and ramjet ducts.

5 Flame stabilization studies using conical and hemispherical flame

holders.
6 Cascade testing of compressor blades.

7 Velocity and pressure measurements high speed jets.

8 Wall Pressure measurements of supersonic nozzle.

9 Wall pressure measurements on supersonic inlet.

10 Flow visualization of supersonic flow.

11 Performance test of propeller.

12 Study of gas turbine engines and its components.

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

A.1 Calibration of hybrid rocket motor

A.2 Testing of hybrid rocket motor

2
 EXP.NO.1. STUDY OF AIRCRAFT PISTON AND ITS COMPONENTS.
To study an aircraft piston & gas turbine engine and its components in details.
APPARATUSREQUIRED

1. Aircraft piston engine and its components.

2. Aircraft Jet engine.
INTRODUCTION

A Piston engine is a heat engine that uses one or more pistons to convert pressure in
to a rotating motion. The main types are the internal combustion engine used extensively in
motor vehicles, the steam engine which was the mainstay of the industrial revolution and in
olden low speed small aircrafts.

There may be one or more pistons. Each piston is inside a cylinder, into which a gas is
introduced, either already hot and under pressure (steam engine), or heated inside the cylinder
either by ignition of a fuel air mixture (internal combustion engine) or by contact with a hot
heat exchanger in the cylinder (Stirling engine). The hot gases expand, pushing the piston to
the bottom of the cylinder. The piston is returned to the cylinder top (Top Dead Centre) either
by a flywheel or the power from other pistons connected to the same shaft. In most types the
expanded or "exhausted" gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke. The exception is
the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. In some
designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder in which case it is said to
be double acting.

Piston Engine Components, and their Functions

The major components seen are connecting rod, crank shaft (swashplate), crank case,
piston rings, spark plug, cylinder, flywheel, crankpin and valves or ports.

In all types the linear movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via
a connecting rod and a crankshaft or by a swash plate. A flywheel is often used to ensure
smooth rotation. The more cylinders a reciprocating engine has, the engine will be more
vibration-free (smoothly).

A seal needs to be made between the sliding piston and the walls of the cylinder so
that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it and reduce the efficiency of
the engine. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a hard
3
metal which are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the
groove and press against the cylinder wall to form a seal.
ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
Stroke:
Either the up or down movement of the piston from the top to the bottom or bottom to
top of the cylinder (so the piston going from the bottom of the cylinder to the top would be
1stroke, from the top back to the bottom would bean other stroke)
Induction:
As the piston travels down the cylinder head, it ‘sucks' the fuel / air mixture into the
cylinder. This is known as 'induction'.
Compression:
As the piston travels up to the top of the cylinder head, it 'compresses' the
fuel/airmixture from the carburetor in the top of the cylinder head, making the fuel/air mix
ready forignitingby the spark plug. This is knownas 'compression'.

4
Ignition:
WhenTheSparkPlugIgnitesTheCompressedFuel/AirMixture,SometimesReferredTo As
The Power Stroke.
Exhaust:As the piston returns back to the top of the cylinder head after the fuel/air mixhas
been ignited, the piston pushes the burnt 'exhaust' gases out of the cylinder & through
theexhaustsystem.

TYPESOFPISTONENGINES

It is common for such engines to be classified by the number and alignment of

thecylinders and the total volume of displacement of gas by the pistons moving in the
cylindersusuallymeasured in cubic centimeters (cc).

In-LineEngine
This type of engine has cylinders lined up in one row. It typically has an even
numberof cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five- cylinder engines. An in-line
enginemay be either air cooled or liquid cooled. It is better suited for streamlining. If the
enginecrankshaft is located above the cylinders, it is called an inverted engine. Advantages
ofmounting the crankshaft this way include shorter landing gear and better pilot visibility.
Anin-lineenginehasahigherweight-to-horsepowerratiothanotheraircraftengines.Adisadvantage
of this type of engine is that the larger it is, the harder it is to cool. Due to
this,airplanesthatuseaninlineengine,usealow-tomedium-
horsepowerengine,andaretypicallyused by lightaircraft.
Ex:RangerL-440 air-cooled,six-cylinder,inverted, in-lineengineusedinFairchildPT-19.
OpposedEngine
Anopposed-typeenginehastwobanksofcylindersoppositeeachother.Thecrankshaftis
located in the center andis being driven fromboth sides.The

The engine is either air cooled or liquid cooled, but air cooled versions are used mostly
inaviation. It can be mounted either vertically or horizontally. The advantage of a
horizontally-opposed engine is that it allows better visibility and eliminates fluid lock
typically found onbottom cylinders. An opposed engine also has a relative advantage in being
mostly free
ofvibration.Thisisduetothefactthatthepistonsarelocatedleftandrightofthecrankshaftandacts as
balance weightsto each other.
5
Ex:AULPower UL260i horizontallyopposed air-cooled aeroengine.
V-TypeEngine
Cylindersinthisenginearearrangedintwoin-linebanks,typicallytilted60-90
degreesapartfromeachotheranddrivingacommoncrankshaft.ThevastmajorityofV
enginesiswater-cooled.TheVdesignprovidesahigherpower-to-weightratiothananinline
engine,whilestillprovidingasmallfrontalarea.Perhapsthemostfamousexampleofthis
designisthelegendary Rolls-RoyceMerlin engine,a27-liter(1649in3)60°V12engineused
in,amongothers, the Spitfiresthat playedamajor roleinthe BattleofBritain.
RadialEngine
This type of engine has a row of cylinders arranged in a circle around a crankcaselocated
in the middle. The combination of cylinders must be an odd number in each row andmay
contain more than one row. The odd number of cylinders allows for every other cylinderto be on
a power stroke, allowing for smooth operation. The power output is anywhere from100to 3,800
HP.
Ex:APratt&Whitney R-2800 engine

Figure1.Typesofaircraftpistonengines

4Stroke Engine

6
 Enginesbasedonthefour-strokeorOttocyclehaveonepowerstrokeforeveryfour
strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger boats, and many light aircraft.
Theyaregenerallyquieter,moreefficient,andlargerthantheirtwo-
strokecounterparts.Thereareanumber ofvariations ofthese cycles,most notablythe Atkinsonand
millercycles.

Mosttruckandautomotivedieselenginesuseafour-
strokecycle,butwithacompressionheatingignitionsystem.Thisvariationiscalledthedieselcycle.T
hefourstrokes refer to intake, compression, and combustion and exhaust strokes that occur
duringtwo crankshaft rotations per working cycle of Otto cycle and diesel engines. The four
steps inthiscycle are ofteninformally referred toas "suck, squeeze(or squash),bang, blow."

OPERATIONOFA4-STROKEENGINE
ACTIONSOC
INLET
CURRINGDU
STROKE PISTONDI &EXHAUS RINGTHISST EXPLANATION
RECTION TVALVEPO
ROKE
SITIONS

Pistontravelsd As the piston travels down

Inlet Induction
own thecylinder barrel, the inlet
Stroke1
stroke valveopens&freshfuel/airmixtur
valveopen/exh
thecylinderbar eis suckedinto the cylinder
austvalvecolse
rel
d
Pistontravelsu Asthepistontravelsbackupthecyli
p the Inlet&exhaust Compression nder,thefreshfuel/
Stroke2
cylinder valveclosed stroke airmixiscompressedreadyforigni
barrel tion

Thesparkplugignitesthecompres
Pistontravelsd
sedfuel/
own Inlet&exhaust Ignition(power
Stroke3 airmix,theresultingexplosionpus
valveclosed )stroke
hesthepiston back to the bottom
thecylinderbar
of thecylinder
rel

Pistontravelsu Inletvalveclose Asthepistontravelsbackupthecyli

Stroke4 d/exhaustvalve Exhauststroke
p the nderbarrel,thespentexhaustgases
cylinder open areforcedoutof

7
 barrel the exhaustvalve

Figure2.Fourdifferentstrokesforpistonengine

2Stroke Engine

The two-stroke internal combustion engine differs from the more common four-
strokeengine by completing the same four processes (intake, compression, combustion,
exhaust)
inonlytwostrokesofthepistonratherthanfour.Thisisaccomplishedbyusingthebeginningof the
compression stroke and the end of the combustion stroke to perform the intake andexhaust
functions. This allows a power stroke for every revolution of the crank, instead
ofeverysecond revolutionas in a four-stroke engine. Forthis reason,
8
9
 Two-Stroke engines provide high specific power, so they are valued for use
inportable, lightweight applications such as chainsaws as well as large-scale
industrialapplications like locomotives. Two-stroke engines are still commonly used in high-
power,handheld applications where light weight is essential, primarily string trimmers
andchainsaws.

OPERATIONOFA2-STROKEENGINE
ACTIONSOC
CURRINGDU
STROKE PISTONDIR RINGTHISST EXPLANATION
ECTION
ROKE

Asthepistontravelsupthebarrel,freshfuel/
Pistontravelsu airmixissuckedintothecrankcase(bottom of the
Stroke1 p the Induction engine) & the fuel/air mix inthe cylinder (top
cylinderbarrel of the engine) is compressedready for ignition
&compression

The spark plug ignites the fuel/air mix in

thecylinder,theresultingexplosionpushesthepis
tonbackdowntothebottomofthecylinder,asthepi
Pistontravelsd
stontravelsdown,thetransfer port openings are
Stroke2 ownthecylinde Ignition
exposed & the freshfuel/air mix is sucked
rbarrel
from the crankcase
&exhaust
intothecylinder.Asthefreshfuel/airmixisdrawni
ntothecylinder,itforcesthespentexhaustgases
outthrough the exhaustport.

GASTURBINEENGINE

The gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using air as a working fluid
toprovide thrust. To achieve this, the air passing through the engine has to be accelerated;
thismeans that the velocity or kinetic energy of the air is increased. To obtain this increase,
thepressure energy is first of all increased, followed by the addition of heat energy, before
finalconversionback to kinetic Energy inthe formof a high velocityjet efflux.

10
 Figure3.Atypicalturbojetengine.

Figure4.A typicalturbofanengine.

Figure5. Basiccomponents ofjet engine.

11
 WORKINGCYCLE

The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke
pistonengine.However, in the gas turbine engine, combustion occurs at a constant pressure,
whereasin the piston engine it occurs at a constant volume. Both engine cycles show that in
eachinstance there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. These processes
areintermittent in the case of the piston engine whilst they occur continuously in the gas
turbine.In the piston engine only one stroke is utilized in the production of power, the others
beinginvolved in the charging, compressing and exhausting of the working fluid. In contrast,
theturbine engine eliminates the three ’idle’ strokes, thus enabling more fuel to be burnt in
ashortertime; hence it produces agreater power outputfor a givensize of engine.

Figure6.Gas turbinecycle

Due to the continuous action of the turbine engine and the fact that the
combustionchamber is not an enclosed space, the pressure of the air does not rise, like that of
the pistonengine, during combustion but its volume does increase. This process is known as
heating atconstant pressure. Under these conditions there is no peak or fluctuating pressures
to bewithstood, as is the case with the piston engine with its peak pressures in excess of 1,000
lb.per sq. in. It is these peak pressures which make it necessary for the piston engine to
employcylinders of heavy construction and to use high octane fuels, in contrast to the low
octanefuelsand thelight fabricated combustionchambers used on the turbineengine.

Becausetheturbo-
jetengineisaheatengine,thehigherthetemperatureofcombustionthegreateristheexpansionofthega
ses.Thecombustiontemperature,however, 12
 must not exceed a value that gives a turbine gas entry temperature suitable for the design
andmaterials of the turbine assembly.The use of air-cooled blades in the
turbineassemblypermitsa higher gastemperature anda consequentlyhigher thermal efficiency.

COMPONENTSOFGASTURBINEENGINE

Figure7.Gasturbinecomponents

INLETSECTION

The inlet is generally a large, smooth aluminum or magnesium duct which must
bedesigned to conduct the air into the compressor with minimum turbulence and restriction.
Theair inlet section may have a variety of names according to the design of the manufacturer.
Itmay be called the front frame and accessory section, the air inlet assembly, the front
bearingsupport and shroud assembly, or any other term descriptive of its function. Usually,
the outershellof thefront frameis joinedto the centerportion bybraces thatare often
calledstruts.

13
COMPRESSORSECTION

Figure8.Compressor

Figure9.Airflowdistribution ofcentrifugalcompressor

Thecompressorsectionhousesthecompressorrotorandworkstosupplyairinsufficient
quantity to satisfy the needs of the combustor. Compression results when fuelenergy of
combustion and mechanical work of the compressor and turbine are converted intopotential
energy. Compressors operate on the principal of acceleration of a working fluidfollowed by
diffusion to convert the acquired kinetic energy to a pressure rise. The primarypurpose of the
compressor is to increase the pressure of the mass of air entering the engineinlet and
discharge it to the diffuser and then to the combustor section at the correct
velocity,temperatureand pressure.

A secondary purpose of the compressor section is to supply engine service bleed air
tocoolhotsectionparts,topressurizebearingseals,andtosupplyheatedairforinletanti-icing
14
 and fuel system heat flow de-icing. Another secondary purpose is to extract air for
aircraftuses, and this is usually referred to as customer service air bleed air. Common uses for
this airinclude aircraft cabin pressurization, air conditioning system, pneumatic starting, and
variousotherincidental functions thatrequire clean pressurized air.

COMBUSTIONSECTION

The combustion section or burner, as it is called, consists basically of an outer

casing,andinnerperforatedliner,afuelinjectionsystem,andastartingignitionsystem.Thefunction
of this section is to add heat energy to the flowing gases, thereby expanding
andacceleratingthegasesintotheturbinesection.Thecombustionchambermustprovideameans for
proper mixing of air and fuel. It must also cool the hot combustion products to
atemperaturewhichtheturbinesectioncomponentscanwithstand.Toaccomplishthis,airflow
through the combustor is divided into primary and secondary air paths. Primary air isroutedto
thefuel nozzleareato support combustionand secondaryair is usedfor cooling.

Approximately one half of the primary air flows actually through the swirel vanes
inthe combustion liner in the area of the fuel nozzle openings, the remaining primary air
entersradiallythroughsmallholesintheone-
thirdoftheliner.Bothaxialandradialairflowsupportcombustion.

A portion of secondary air, the percent varying depends on the vintage of the
engine,provides a cooling air blanket over inside and outside surfaces of the liner and centers
theflame, preventing it from contacting the metal surfaces. The other portion of the secondary
airenters the liner at the rear and dilutes the mixture to a temperature acceptable for the
goodservicelife ofthe turbine components.

15
 Figure10.Combustor

Figure11.Maincomponentsofaconventionalcombustor

Figure12.Illustrationofthreemaincombustortypes

16
TURBINESECTION

Figure13.Turbine

Figure14.Turbinebladecomponents

17
 The turbine section is bolted to the combustor and contains the turbine wheels
andturbine stators. The turbine functions is to transform a portion of the kinetic energy and
heatenergyintheexhaustgasesintomechanicalwork,therebyenablingtheturbinetodrivethe
compressors and accessories. The turbine extracts energy by reducing pressure of the
flowinggases. This occurs as pressure is converted to the velocity at the nozzles formed at the
trailingedge of the turbine stator vanes and rotor blades. The type of turbine design used in
almost allflight engines is the axial flow type, in which the products of combustion pass
through theturbine vanes and blades, changing their angle momentarily, and then returning to
an axialdirection.

EXHAUSTSECTION

Figure15.Exhaust

Figure9. Airflow througha C-Dnozzle or Venturi

Figure16. Air flow througha C-D nozzle or venturi

18
 Theexhaustsectionislocateddirectlybehindtheturbinesectionandconsistsinmostcasesof
aconvergentexhaustouter coneandaninnertailcone.Theexhaustcone,sometimes

19
 referred to as the turbine exhaust collector, collects the exhaust gases discharged from
turbinedischarge and gradually converts them into a uniform wall of gases. This process
isaccomplishedinconjunctionwiththetailcone,alsocalledexhaustplug,anditsradialsupports
struts. The tail cone shape acts to perform a diffuser with the exhaust cone and
theresultingpressurebuildupreducesturbulencedownstreamoftheturbinewheel.Thestrutsact to
return the air flow to an axial direction. The exhaust cone is the terminating componentof
manyengines.

CONCLUSION
Thus, theaircraft piston engine &jetengine working principle and
theircomponentsand its functions have been studied thoroughly.

EXP.NO.2.VELOCITYPROFILEOFFREEJET

AIM

Tofind outthe centerline velocityprofileoffree jet.

20
APPARATUSREQUIRED

Free-jettestsetup,Nozzle,Traversemechanism,Pitotprobefortotalpressuremeasurements,U-tube
Mercury manometerandmeter scale,Barometer, Thermometer.

THEORY

Jets can be classified in a variety of ways. They can be classified as compressible

orincompressible jets based on the speed of the jet. They can also be classified as laminar
orturbulent jets based on the Reynolds number. Based on the jet cross section shape, they
areclassified as circular or non-circular jets. Jets come under the category of free shear
flows.The Jets, which have free and unconstrained boundaries are called free jets. Examples
arenozzleexhaust jet intoatmosphere, water jet issuingfromaconduit oratap etc.

The flow of a jet can be divided into two regions; the mixing region and the
potentialcore. The potential core is that portion in the centre of the jet and near the exit of the
orificethrough which the jet flows. In the potential core, the viscous effects are negligible and
thefluid can be considered to be inviscid. The first part of the mixing region is the boundary
ofthe jet near the exit of the nozzle. This mixing region widens as the flow goes
downstream.Fartherdownstream,thewholejetwillbeamixingregion.Inthemixingregion,theeffect
sof viscosity and heat conduction have to be considered. In the mixing region there are
largevariationsinvelocity and density.

EXPERIMENTALSET-UP

The experimental set-up consists of a converging-diverging (CD) nozzle connected

toa high pressure compressor tank. The high pressure air is passed into the CD nozzle through
amoisture separator and dust collector. A pressure regulating valveis used to control the
massflowratethroughtheduct.Tolaminarizetheflow,threemeshesarefittedinsidethediverging
duct. The duct also consists of a settling chamber to which CD nozzle is attachedand the
compressed air coming out as a free- jet into the open atmosphere. The speed of thefree-jet
can be controlled by controlling the mass flow rate through the pressure regulatingvalve.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

Inthisexperiment,thevariationofjettotalpressurealongthecenterlineofafreejetis
measured to understand its decay characteristics. The jet is of circular shape. To find
itslateralspreadcharacteristicsthetotalpressurevariationsinthelateraldirectionie.Directionat
21
different X positions i.e.X = 1, 2, 3, 4 … are measured. The total pressure probe ismounted in
a traversing mechanism, which ensures the movement of the probe along the jetaxis.

FORMULAETOBEUSED

Forvelocitycalculation:

Where,

P0 is the total

pressureP is the static

pressureMistheMachn

umber

γis the specific heatratio ( for airγ= 1.4)

Fromthe aboveformula findout theMach number.

M=

u/aa=

Here,consider ‘T’ as a room

temperatureSo u = Ma

22
 TABULATION
Differencei MachN
Sl.No Distancealongje Jetvelocityinm
nheights umber
taxis in cm /s
∆hin cm

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

1. Variationsoftotalpressureandlocalreferencevelocitywithdistancealongcenterlineofthe jet

2. VariationsoftotalpressureandlocalreferencevelocitiesinlateraldirectionatdifferentXvalues.

3. Comparisonsofvelocity profilesinlateral directionofthejetatdifferent Xvalues.

CONCLUSION

Thus,theexperimenthasbeencarriedouttounderstandthejetdecaycharacteristicsalongthea
xisofthe jetand centerline velocityprofilehas been plotted.

23
 EXP.NO.3.VELOCITYPROFILEOFTHEWALL-JET

AIM
Tostudythejetdecaycharacteristicsalongthejetaxisandtoobtainlateralspreadcharacteristicsof
the jet.

APPARATUSREQUIRED
Wall-jet testsetup, 2-D traversing mechanism, pitot probe for total pressure measurements,U-
tubemanometer andmeter scale.

THEORY
Jetscanbeclassifiedinavarietyofways.Theycanbeclassifiedascompressibleorincompressible jets
based on the speed of the jet. They can also be classified as laminar orturbulent jets based on
the Reynolds number. Based on the jet cross section shape, they areclassifiedascircularornon-
circularjets.Jetscomeunderthecategoryoffreeshearflows.Jets which have free and
unconstrained boundaries are called free jets. Examples are nozzleexhaustjetinto atmosphere,
water jet issuing from a conduitor a tap etc.
The flow of a jet can be divided into two regions; the mixing region and the
potentialcore. The potential core is that portion in the center of the jet and near the exit of the
orificethrough which the jet flows. In the potential core, the viscous effects are negligible and
thefluid can be considered to be inviscid. The first part of the mixing region is the boundary
ofthe jet near the exit of the nozzle. This mixing region widens as the flow goes
downstream.Far downstream, the whole jet will be a mixing region. In the mixing region, the
effects ofviscosity and heat conduction have to be considered. In the mixing region there are
largevariationsinvelocityanddensity.Incontrasttoafree-jet,awalljetisaconstrainedjet.Itmay be
partially constrained depending upon the environmental and operating conditions inpractical
engineering applications. Some examples of wall-jets are: rocket nozzle exhaust of
aspacelaunchvehicleatthetimeoflaunch(thejetcomesincontactwithsomesolidboundary), an air
coolant jet grazing the surface of a combustion chamber wall to providecooling to the
chamber walls (in gas turbine combustion chamber application) etc. The effectofwall on the
jet flow isofvital practicalimportance.
DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP

The experimental set-up consists of a diverging duct connected to a high pressure

compressortank.Thehighpressureairispassedintothedivergingductthroughamoistureseparator,d
ust collector and a pressure regulating valve to control the mass flow rate through the duct.To
24
laminarize the flow, three meshes are fitted inside the diverging duct. The duct alsoconsists of
a settling chamber to which an orifice plate is attached. The orifice plate
consistsofacircularholeof20mmdiametertoissueafree-jetintotheopenatmosphere.Thespeedof
the free-jetcan be controlled by controlling the mass flow rate through the pressureregulating
valve. The effect if wall is studied by placing a circular plate in the jet flow path.For this, a
stand consisting of a circular disc is provided and the distance between the
circulardiscandtheorifice platethrough which the jet is issued canbe varied.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
In this experiment, the variation of jet total pressure along the centerline of a free jet
ismeasured to understand its decay characteristics. The jet is of circular shape with diameter
20mm.Tofinditslateralspreadcharacteristicsthetotalpressurevariationsthelateraldirection
i.e. r direction at different X positions i.e. X = 2,4,8 and 16 cm are measured. The
totalpressureprobeismountedina2-Dtraversingmechanism,whichensuresthemovementofthe
probe along the jet axis i.e. x-axis up to 600 mm. The circular disc stand which
provideswalleffect is kept at a desired distance fromthe orifice plate.

FORMULAETOBEUSED
Forvelocitycalculation:
FromBernoulli’srelationwehave
Po=P+0.5ρV2wherePisstaticpressure,Poistotalpressure,Visvelocityandρisdensityof air.
Withrespectto thepresentexperiment
Po = Pa +0.5ρu2, where Po is the local total pressure and u is the local
velocity.Fromthe above relationwe get

U=
If∆histhewaterdeflectioninmminmanometer,thecorrespondingpressureinPascalscanbecalculat
ed using therelation
Po=ρwg∆h/1000 Pa.Here ρwis water densityin kg/m3. g =9.8 m/s2.

25
 TABLE1:JETDECAYCHARACTERISTICS

Total
Differencei
Distancealongje Reference
nheights
S.No pressurereadingsincm
taxis in cm
∆hin cm
ofwaterinmanometer
jetvelocityinm
columns
/s
Left right
1

10

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
1. Variationsoftotalpressureandlocalreferencevelocitywithdistancealongcenterlineofthe jet
2. VariationsoftotalpressureandlocalreferencevelocitiesinlateraldirectionatdifferentXvalues.
3. Comparisonsofvelocityprofilesinlateral directionofthejetatdifferent Xvalues.

CONCLUSION

Thus,theexperimenthasbeencarriedouttounderstandthejetdecaycharacteristicsalon
g theaxisofthejetand lateral spread characteristicsofthe jet.

26
 EXP.NO.4.CASCADETESTINGOFCOMPRESSORBLADES

AIM

Tostudythelift/dragcharacteristicsoncascadecompressorblades.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

1) Lowspeedwind tunnel
2) Cascadecompressorblades

FORMULAETOBE USED
L
LiftCoefficient, 1
V2S

CL
2
DragCoefficient, D
C 
D 1
 V 2S
2

L = Lift in

ND=DraginN

 = Density of air in

kg/m3V= Velocityin m/s

S=Wettedareain m2

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

a) Prepareawindtunnelandcalibrateitwiththeliftdragbalanceandensureitisfullyservicea
ble.
b) Theoperatinginstructionsaretobemeticulouslyfollowed.
c) Fixthemodelon theverticalstring andlockit.
d) Closethetestsectionandensurethatnoitemsareleftinsidethetestsectionbeforeclosing.
e) Blank allthepoints.
f) Settheliftforce indicatortozero.
g) Fixtherequiredairvelocityusingthevelocity indicator.
h) Nowby changingthe angle ofattackthe correspondinglift force isnoteddown.
i) Thesame isrepeated fordifferent anglesofattacks.

27
 TABULARCOLUMN

Angle
Sl.No. L D CL CD
ofattack(
α)

CONCLUSION

Thus,thecharacteristicsofcascadecompressorbladesarestudiedandthegraphshavebeen
plotted forCLversus α andCDversus α.

28
EXP.NO.5.WALLPRESSUREMEASUREMENTSOFASUBSONICRAMJETDUCT
AIM
Tostudy thewallpressure ofasubsonic ramjet engine.
APPARATUSREQUIRED
SubsonicRamjet model,Pitot-statictube,Multi-tubewater manometerand meterscale.
INTRODUCTION
A ramjet is a form of the air breathing jet engine without any turbo machinery using
theengine's forward motion to compress the incoming air. Ramjets work most efficiently
atsupersonicspeeds around Mach2-5.This typeofengine canoperate up tospeeds of Mach6.

Ramjets can be useful in applications requiring a small and simple mechanism for high-
speeduse,such as missilesor artillery shells.

DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP
The experimental setup consists of a subsonic ramjet withthe pressure tappings on thesurfaces
on it. The pressure tappings are connected to multi-tube water manometer. Thisramjetsetupis
keptto the free jet setup.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.
 Switchonthecompressorsuptotherequiredpressure inthestoragetank.
 Aligntheramjet setupto the freejet setup.
 Checkthe pressuretappings.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Takethe pressure readingsand velocity readings.
FORMULAETOBEUSED
Forvelocitycalculation:
FromBernoulli’srelation,
Po=P+0.5ρV2wherePisstaticpressure,Poistotalpressure,Visvelocityandρisdensityofair.
Withrespecttothepresentexperiment
Po = Pa +0.5ρu2, where Po is the local total pressure and u is the local
velocity.Fromthe aboverelation we get

U=

29
If∆histhewaterdeflectioninmminmanometer,thecorrespondingpressureinPascalscanbecalculat
ed using therelation
Po=ρwg∆h/1000 Pa.Here ρwis water densityin kg/m3. g =9.8 m/s2.

TABLE1: TO CALCULATEPRESSURE COEFFICIENT

Total Cp
Distancealong Differencei Referencejetv

S.No jetaxisin cm pressurereadingsinc

nheights elocityinm/s
∆hin cm
mofwaterinmanomet
er
columns
Left right
1

Cp =

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

1.VariationsofCpalong thewall of thesubsonicramjetengine.

CONCLUSION
Thus,thewallpressuredistributionalongtheramjetengineiscarriedout&itis
foundout that .

30
EXP.NO.6.FLAMESTABILIZATIONSTUDIESUSINGCONICALFALMEHOLDERS

AIM
Tostudythewakepressure regionofflameholder.
APPARATUSREQUIRED
Flameholder,Pitot-statictube,Multi-tubewatermanometer andmeterscale.
INTRODUCTION
A flame holder is one of the important components ofthe combustion chamber. The flamehas
to be sustained in the combustion chamber throughout the engine operation.So the designofa
flame holder playsan important rolein thedesign ofcombustion chamber.

DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP
Theexperimentalsetupconsistsofaflameholder.Thepressurereadingsaretakeninthewakeregionof
the flameholder.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.
 Switchonthecompressorsuptotherequiredpressure inthestoragetank.
 Aligntheramjet setupto the freejet setup.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Takethe pressurereadings forthe flameholder.
MODELCALCULATIONS
FromBernoulli’srelation,
Po=P+0.5ρV2wherePisstaticpressure,Poistotalpressure,Visvelocityandρisdensityofair.
Withrespecttothepresentexperiment
Po = Pa +0.5ρu2, where Po is the local total pressure and u is the local
velocity.Fromthe above relationwe get

U=
If∆histhewaterdeflectioninmminmanometer,thecorrespondingpressureinPascalscanbecalculat
ed using therelation
Po=ρwg∆h/1000 Pa.Here ρwis water densityin kg/m3. g =9.8 m/s2.

31
 TABLE1:TOCALCULATE Cp

Total Cp
Distancealong Differencei Referencejetv
jetaxisin cm nheights elocityinm/s
S.No pressurereadingsinc
∆hin cm
mofwaterinmanomet
er
columns
Left right
1

Cp =

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION

1.Variations of Cpalong the wakeregion of theflame holder.

CONCLUSION
Thus,the wakepressure distributionin theflame holderis studied.

32
EXP.NO.7. VELOCITYAND PRESSUREMEASUREMENTSIN CO-AXIALJETS

AIM
Tostudythe velocityandpressuredistributionof acoaxialjet.
APPARATUSREQUIRED
Coaxialjetsetup,Pitottube,Pitot - statictube,Multi-tubewater manometer and meterscale.
INTRODUCTION
The Co axial jet is one of the emerging areas of study in the field of
aerospaceengineering. The mixing characteristics in the combustion chamber are one of the
importantphenomenonfor the better performance of the engine.
DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP
The experimental setup consists of a coaxial jet setup with the pressure gauges to measure
thetotal pressure on both the jets. The Pitot tube is used to measure the total pressure along
thedirection of the flow of interest. The Pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of
theflow.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.
 Switchonthecompressors up tothe requiredpressureinthestoragetank.
 Fit the supersonicnozzlesetupto thefreejetsetup.
 Checkthe pressuretappings.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Takethe pressure readingsand velocity readings.
MODELCALCULATIONS
Forvelocitycalculations:

Where,

P0 is the total pressure,P is the static pressure,M is the Mach number,γ is the
specificheatratio( fir air γ =1.4),Fromthe above formula find out theMach number.
M=

u/aa=

33
 WhereTistheLab temperature
u =M a

TABLE1:TOCALCULATE Cp

Total Cp
Distancealong Differencei Referencejetv

S.No jetaxisin cm pressurereadingsinc

nheights elocityinm/s
∆hin cm
mofwaterinmanomet
er
columns
Left right
1

Cp =

RESULTS&DISCUSSION

1. Variationsofthepressure alongtheaxis ofthejet.

2. Variationsof thevelocity alongthe axisof thejet.

CONCLUSION

34
Thus,variation ofvelocityandpressure is plottedalong theaxis of thecoaxialjet.

35
EXP.NO.8.FLOWVISUALIZATIONOFSECONDARYINJECTIONINASUPERSONICC
ROSS FLOW

AIM

Tovisualizetheflowpatternin supersonic flow by secondaryinjection.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Supersonic free jet, Converging Diverging Nozzle, Secondary fluid

injection,Shadowgraph System, Camera

INTRODUCTION

Flow visualization has played an important role in understanding the fundamentals of

fluidsphenomena. One of the most important applications of flow visualization was due to
OsborneReynolds,aprominentinnovatorinfluiddynamics,in1883.Heinvestigatedthecircumstan
ces of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow by injecting a liquid dye intothe water
flowing through a long horizontal pipe. From these experiments came the
famousdimensionless Reynolds number of dynamic similarity. Another powerful flow
visualizationtoolisschlieren/shadowgraphtechnique,whichisabletovisualize'invisible'densitygr
adients and has been applied widely to study combustion, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics,etc.

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

Itconsistsofalightsourcewhichcanbevarieditsintensity,lenses,screenandcameras.Direct
shadowgraph is shown in figure.

 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.

 Switchonthecompressorsuptotherequiredpressure inthestoragetank.
 Fitthe supersonic C-Dnozzle with secondaryfluid injectionsetup.
 Checkthe pressuretappings.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Makethe shadowgraph setup& camera ready.
 Taketheimage.

CONCLUSION

ThustheshadowgraphimageforthesecondaryfluidinjectioninthesupersonicC-Dnozzleis
captured and discussed.

36
 EXP.NO.9. WALL PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS OF A SUBSONIC
DIFFUSERAIM
1. Tostudy thewall pressureofa subsonic diffuser.
APPARATUSREQUIRED
SubsonicDiffuser,Pitot-statictube,Multi-tubewater manometerand meterscale.
INTRODUCTION
The diffuser is one of the most important components of the jet engines. It allows
theatmospheric air to pass through it. Its function is also to make sure that there is a
minimumtotal pressure loss in the diffuser. It has to prevent the boundary layer separation in
thediffuserand it has todistribute the mass flowevenly to the compressor.
DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP
The experimental setup consists of a subsonic diffuser with the pressure tappings on
thesurfaces on it. The pressure tappings are connected to multi-tube water manometer.
Thisdiffuser setup is keptto the free jet setup.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.
 Switchonthecompressorsuptotherequiredpressure inthestoragetank.
 Alignthe diffuser setuptothe freejetsetup.
 Checkthe pressuretappings.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Takethe pressure readingsand velocity readings.
MODELCALCULATIONS
Forvelocitycalculations:
FromBernoulli’srelation,
Po=P+0.5ρV2wherePisstaticpressure,Poistotalpressure,Visvelocityandρisdensityofair.
Withrespecttothepresentexperiment
Po = Pa +0.5ρu2, where Po is the local total pressure and u is the local
velocity.Fromthe aboverelation we get

U=
If∆histhewaterdeflectioninmminmanometer,thecorrespondingpressureinPascalscanbecalculat
ed using therelation

Po=ρwg∆h/1000 Pa.Here ρwis water densityin kg/m3. g =9.8 m/s2.

37
 TABLE1:TOCALCULATE Cp

Total Cp
Distancealong Differencei Referencejetv

S.No jetaxisin cm pressurereadingsinc

nheights elocityinm/s
∆hin cm
mofwaterinmanomet
er
columns
Left right
1

Cp =

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
1. Variationsof Cpalong the wallofthe subsonicramjet engine.

CONCLUSION
Thus,thewallpressuredistributionalongthesubsonicdiffuseriscarriedout&itis
found out that .
38
 EXP.NO.10. WALL PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS OF A SUPERSONIC
NOZZLEAIM
1. Tostudy thewall pressure distribution ofa supersonicnozzle.
APPARATUSREQUIRED
Supersonicnozzle,Pitottube, Statictube, Multi-tubewatermanometerandmeter scale.
INTRODUCTION
Thenozzleisoneofthemostimportantcomponentsofthejetengines.Thesupersonic nozzle
is used in the jet engine flying at supersonic speed. It is converging-
divergingtype.Itislocatedattheexitsectionofthejetengine.Itconvertsthepressureenergyto
kineticenergy. The highvelocity gas comingout ofthe nozzlegivesrisetothrust.
DESCRIPTIONOFEXPERIMENTALSET-UP
The experimental setup consists of a supersonic nozzle with the pressure tappings on
thesurfaces on it. The pressure tappings are connected to multi-tube water manometer.
Thissupersonicnozzlesetup is connectedto the supersonicfreejetsetup.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE
 Checkthe valves onthefree jetsetup.
 Switchonthecompressorsuptotherequiredpressure inthestoragetank.
 Fit the supersonicnozzlesetupto thefreejetsetup.
 Checkthe pressuretappings.
 Openthe controlvalves inthe freejet setup.
 Takethe pressure readingsand velocity readings.
MODELCALCULATIONS
Forvelocitycalculations:

Where,

P0 is the total pressure,P is the static pressure,M is the Mach number,γ is the
specificheatratio( fir air γ =1.4),Fromthe above formula find out theMach number.

M=

u/aa=

39
 Where T is the Lab

temperatureu = M a

TABLE1:TOCALCULATECp

Total Cp
Distancealong Differencei Referencejetv
jetaxisin cm nheights elocityinm/s
S.No pressurereadingsinc
∆hin cm
mofwaterinmanomet
er
columns
Left right
1

Cp =

RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
1.Variations ofCp alongthe wallofthe supersonic nozzle.

CONCLUSION

Thus,thewallpressuredistributionalongthesupersonicnozzleiscarriedout&itis
found out that .

40
 EXP.NO.A1.CALIBRATIONOFHYBRIDROCKETMOTOR

AIM
TocalibratetheHybrid rocket motorin thetest rig.

APPARATUSREQUIRED

Hybridrocketmotor,propellants,teststand,loadcell,loadindicator,ignitionsystem.

INTRODUCTION

A hybrid rocket is a rocket motor which uses propellants in two different states of matter -
one solid and the other either gas or liquid. Various combinations of solid fuels and
liquidoxidizers as well as liquid fuels and solid oxidizers have been experimentally evaluated
forusein hybridrocket motors.

WORKINGPRINCIPLE

A hybrid rocket consists of a pressure vessel (tank) containing the liquid propellant,
thecombustion chamber containing the solid propellant, and a valve isolating the two.
Whenthrust is desired, a suitable ignition source is introduced in the combustion chamber and
thevalve is opened. The liquid propellant (or gas) flows into the combustion chamber where it
isvaporized and then reacted with the solid propellant. Combustion occurs in a boundary
layerdiffusion flame adjacent to the surface of the solid propellant. After combustion a very
highthrust is produced at the nozzle. Generally liquid or gas propellant is the oxidizer and
41
solidpropellant isthe fuel.

42
ADVANTAGES:

 Safetyduringfabrication,storage oroperationwithoutanypossibility ofexplosion

 Start-stop-restart-throttlingcapabilities –morecontrollable
 Relativelylow systemcost
 Higherspecificimpulsethansolidrocketmotorsandhigherdensityspecificimpulsethanliqu
id bi-propellants.
 Mechanicallysimpler andeasilytransportable
 Relativelysafe and nontoxic oxidizer.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Lowerdensityspecificimpulse thansolidpropellantsystem
 ImproperOxidizer-to-
fuelmixtureratio,hencespecificimpulsewillvarysomewhatduringsteady state operation
andthrottling.
 Some fuelslivermust be retainedin the combustionchamberat theend
ofburnwhichslightlyreduces mass fraction.

PROPELLANTS:

Hydridesoflightmetalssuchasberyllium,lithiumandaluminiummixedwithasuitablepolymerbind
er.

Fuels – paraffin wax, lithium hydride/polybutadiene, Hydroxy-

terminatedpolyetherbinders (HTPB)

Oxidizer– liquidoxygen, oxygendi-fluoride

EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

 Insertthesolidpropellant(wax)inthehybridrocketmotor.
 Fix the loadcell and loadindicator.
 Applysuitable know loads.
 Takethe loadindicatorreading.

43
 TABULARCOLUMN

Sl.No. Appliedlo Deflection

ad(kg)
(mm)

10

CONCLUSION
Thus,thecalibrationofhybridrocketmotorhasbeencarriedoutandloadvs.deflectiongra
ph is plotted.

44
 EXP.NO.A2.TESTINGOFHYBRIDROCKETMOTOR

AIM

Totest theHybrid rocket motorand to plotthrust vs. oxygenpressure.

APPARATUSREQUIRED
Hybridrocket motor,propellants,teststand,loadcell,loadindicator,ignitionsystem.
SAFETYPRECAUTIONS
 Keepthe fireextinguisher readybefore thetest.
 Maintainsufficientdistancefromthe hybridrocketmotor.
 Dothe experimentin wellvented place,if possible in openplace.
EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE

 Carryouttheignition test.
 Insertthepropellantinsidethehybridrocketmotor.
 Checktheconnections.
 Switchonthe ignitionsystemand supplytheoxygen.
 Notedown the oxygen pressureand load cell deflection.
 Plot theoxygenpressure vs.thrustgraph.

TABULATION

Sl.No. Oxygenp Thrust(N)

ressure(b
ar)

CONCLUSION

Thus,thetestingofhybridrocketmotorhasbeencarriedoutandthrustvs.oxygenpressure is
plotted.
45