Aircraft Propulsion

NITTE MEENAKSHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution under Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum)

Accredited by NBA (AICTE), New Delhi
Yelahanka, Bangalore - 560064.
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION LAB MANUAL
SUTHAN R
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PROPULSION LAB MANUAL
AIRCRAFT PROPULSION LABORATORY
List of Experiments
1. Study of an aircraft piston engine. (Includes study of assembly of sub systems, various components,
their functions and operating principles)
2. Study of an aircraft jet engine (Includes study of assembly of sub systems, various components, their
functions and operating principles)
3. Measurement of nozzle flow
4. Study of free jet
5. Cascade testing of a model of axial compressor blade row
6. Study of performance of a propeller.
7. Study of forced convective heat transfer through non circular duct
8. Study of forced convective heat transfer over a flat plate
9 .Measurement of burning velocity of a premixed flame.
10. Determination of heat of combustion of aviation fuel
11. Fuel-injection characteristics
Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

Asst.Professor NMIT,Bangalore. 2 Page 2
EXPERIMENT NO-1
STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINE
Aim: To study the various components, their function and operating principles of an aircraft
piston engine.
Apparatus: In-line type 3-cylinder reciprocating engine (petrol)
Theory:
Piston engine components and their functions:
Cylinder –A cylindrical vessel in which the

piston makes the reciprocatory motion.
Combustion chambe r-The space enclosed in

the upper part of cylinder covered by the
cylinder head and the piston top during the
combustion process.
Connecting rod-It connects the piston and the

crank shaft and transmits the forces from the
piston to the crank shaft i.e. reciprocating
motion is converted into rotary motion.
Crankshaft-It converts the reciprocating

motion of the piston into useful rotary motion
of output shaft.
Exhaust manifold-The conduit which connects

the exhaust system to exhaust valve of the
engine through which the products of
combustion escape into the atmosphere.
Inlet and exhaust valves-These valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type.They
regulate the charge coming into the cylinder and for discharging the products of combustion
from the cylinder.
Inlet manifold-The conduit which connects the intake system to inlet valve of the engine
through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
Piston-A cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the
combustion system.

Piston rings-Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the
piston and the cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of the combustion gases.
Spark plug-It initiates the combustion process in spark ignition engines and is usually located on
the cylinder head.
Working principle
All internal combustion engines have a

certain sequence of events that must
take place to convert the chemical
energy in the fuel into mechanical work.
Intake Stroke: As the name suggests in

this stroke the intake of fuel takes place.
When the engine starts, the piston
descends to the cylinder's bottom from
the top. Thus the pressure inside the
cylinder reduces. Now the intake valve
opens and the fuel and air mixture enters
the cylinder. The valve then closes.
Compression Stroke : This stroke is
known as compression stroke because
the compression of the fuel mixture
takes place at this stage. When the
intake valve closes (exhaust valve is
already closed), the piston forced back
to the top of the cylinder and the fuel
mixture gets compressed. The
compression is around 1/8th of the original volume. An engine is considered more efficient if its
compression ratio is higher.

Combustion/Powe r Stroke: Now in case of petrol engine when the fuel mixture compresses to
the maximum value the spark plug produces spark which ignites the fuel mixture. The
combustion leads to the production of high pressure gases. Due to this tremendous force the
piston is driven back to the bottom of the cylinder. As the piston moves downwards, the
crankshaft rotates which rotates the propeller of an aircraft.
Exhaust Stroke: As the wheel moves to the bottom the exhaust valve opens up and due to the
momentum gained by the wheel the piston is pushed back to the top of the cylinder. The gases
due to combustion are hence expelled out of the cylinder into the atmosphere through the exhaust
valve.
The exhaust valve closes after the exhaust stroke and again the intake valve opens and the four
strokes are repeated.
Conclusion:
Thus the components and their function of piston engine have been studied.

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How we can categorize the aircraft piston engines?

2. What are the important components and their functions?
3. Why we need piston rings around the piston?
4. How reciprocating engine differs from jet engine for aircraft propulsion?
5. Differentiate pre- ignition, detonation and knocking?
6. Draw the ideal and real P- v , T-s diagram for 4stroke petrol engine ?
7. What is the drawback of aircraft piston engine over jet engine?
8. Are IC engines cyclic or non cyclic? Give the reason
9. Differentiate the IP,BP & FP ?
10. What is the physical significance of valve timing diagram?

EXPERIMENT NO-2
STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT JET ENGINE
Aim: To study the various components, their function and operating principles of an aircraft jet
engine.
Apparatus: MIG -21 R13-300 Turbojet with Afterburner Engine.
Specifications:
Type Turbojet with Afterburner
Length 4.6 m
Diameter Max 906mm,Inlet dia 690 mm
Compressor Twin spool,3LP and 5HP
Combustor Can annular type(10 can with duplex injector)
Turbine Two stage reaction(1HP and 1LP)
Nozzle Variable Area nozzle
Max. compression ratio 8.9
Turbine inlet temperature 10250 C
SFC 0.0978 kg/N h, 0.229 kg/N h with Additional combustion
Max.Thrust 40221 KN, With Auxiliary combustion 64746 KN
Air supply 67 kg/s
Theory:
A turbojet engine consists of the following sections and systems:

 Air intake section
 Compressor section
 Combustion section
 Turbine section
 Exhaust section
 Accessory section(Systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel supply, and auxiliary
purposes, such as anti- icing, cooling, and afterburning)

AIR INTAKE SECTION
The air intake section directs incoming air to the compressor entrance with a minimum of
energy loss. Additionally, it must deliver this air under all flight conditions with as little
turbulence and pressure variation as possible. Normally, the engine inlet is part of the airframe.
Proper duct design contributes to aircraft performance by increasing ram recovery and limiting
pressure drops. Divergent inlet designs changes ram air velocity into high static pressure at the
compressor inlet.
Two methods of classifying inlet ducts are as follows:
 Single entrance and divided entrance
 Subsonic and supersonic ducts
COMPRESSOR SECTION
The primary function of the compressor is to supply air in enough quantity to satisfy the
requirements of the combustion burners. Specifically, the compressor increases the air mass
received from the air inlet duct and directs it to the burners in the quantity and at the pressures
required. A secondary function is to supply compressor bleed air for various purposes in the
engine and aircraft. The compressor provides space for mounting accessories and engine parts.
There are two basic types of compressors.
 Centrifugal- flow compressors have a compression ratio of 5:1.
 Axial flow compressors have compression ratios approaching 15:1

Modern jet engine uses a axial- flow compressor which has two main element
 Rotor
 Stator.
Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades makes a pressure stage. The rotor is a shaft
with blades attached to it. These blades impel air rearward in the same manner as a propeller, by
reason of their angle and airfoil contour.. The action of the rotor increases the compression o f the
air. At each stage it accelerates rearward. The stator blades act as diffusers, partially converting
high velocity to pressure. Maintaining high efficiency requires small changes in the rate of
diffusion at each stage. The number of stages depends on the amount of air and total pressure rise
required. A greater number of stages means a higher compression ratio. Most present day
engines use from 10 to 16 stages.
COMBUSTION SECTION
The combustion section provides the means for and houses the combustion process. Its
function is to raise the temperature of the air passing through the engine. This process releases
energy contained in the air and fuel.
The primary considerations in burning the fuel-air mixture include:
 Providing the means for proper mixing of the fuel and air to assure good combustion.
 Burning this mixture efficiently.
 Cooling the hot combustion products to a temperature that the turbine blades can
withstand under operating conditions.
 Directing the hot gases to the turbine section.
About one- fourth of the air entering the combustion chamber area mixes with the fuel for
combustion. This is primary air. The remaining air (secondary air) serves as flame control.
Keeping the temperature of the heated gases down to a level at which the liners, turbine nozzles,
or blades will not burn. All combustion chambers contain the same basic elements: a casing, a
perforated inner liner, a fuel injection system, some means for initial ignition, and a fuel drainage
system to drain off unburned fuel after engine shutdown.
The three basic types of combustion chambers are as follows:

 The multiple chamber, or can.
 The annular, or basket.
 The can-annular.

TURBINE SECTION
The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic (velocity) energy of the exhaust gases into
mechanical energy to drive the compressor and necessary accessories. This is the sole purpose of
the turbine. This function absorbs about 60 to 80 percent of the total pressure energy from the
exhaust gases. The exact amount of energy absorption at the turbine is determined by the load
the turbine is driving. The compressor size, type, accessories, and a propeller and its reduction
gears if the engine is a turbo-propeller type, also affect absorption.
The turbine assembly consists of two basic elements

 stator
 rotor
The stationary vanes of the turbine nozzle are contoured and set at such an angle that they
form small nozzles. They discharge the gas as extremely high-speed jets. Thus, the nozzle
converts a varying portion of the heat and pressure energy to velocity energy. It can then be
converted to mechanical energy through the rotor blades. The second purpose of the turbine
nozzle is to deflect the gases to a specific angle in the direction of turbine wheel rotation. Since
the gas flow from the nozzle must enter the turbine blade passageway while the turbine is still
rotating, it is essential to aim the gas in the general direction of turbine rota tion.
There are two types of turbine stages
 Impulse stage turbine
 Reaction stage turbine

AFTERBURNER SECTION
Fighter aircrafts require more thrust for short take off and Emergency situations. For
those application, Engine will have a component called Afterburner. Actually, it is more like a
converted tailpipe. The entire afterburner is projected from the engine. It is supported only at the
exhaust end where it is bolted to the engine.
Since the duct acts as a burner, the
inlet air velocity must be sufficiently low to
support stable combustion and to avoid
excessive pressure losses. For these
purposes a diffuser is located between the
turbine outlet and the tailpipe burner inlet.
Thus, the burner section of the duct can
reduce gas velocities so they do not exceed
the flame propagation rate. Mixing by
diffusion is too slow a process to be an aid
in forming a combustible mixture. The
flame holders provide local turbulence and
reduce velocity, which aids combustion
stability. The flame holders are located
downstream from the fuel- injection nozzles,
Additional energy is given to the exhaust gases by burning additional fuel sprayed in the exhaust
stream aft of the turbine.
EXHAUST SECTION
The exhaust section of the turbojet engine is made up of several parts, each of which has
its individual functions.. They must direct the flow of hot gases rearward in such a manner as to
prevent turbulence, while causing a high final or exit velocity to the gases.
The parts of the exhaust section include the exhaust cone, tailpipe (if required), and the
exhaust, or jet nozzle. The exhaust cone collects
the exhaust gases discharged from the turbine
assembly and gradually converts them into a solid
jet. During this operation, the velocity of the gases
will decrease slightly, and the pressure will
increase. This is caused by the diverging passage
between the outer duct and the inner cone. This
element collects and delivers the exhaust gases.
The gases flow either directly or through a tailpipe
to the jet nozzle, depending on whether or not a
tailpipe is required. There is no need for a tailpipe
in some engines
There are two types of jet nozzle design.
 Converging design, used on most freed-area nozzles for subsonic velocities
 Converging/diverging design, for supersonic gas velocities.
ACCESSORY SECTION
. The primary function is to provide space for the mounting of accessories necessary for
the operation and control of the engine. It also includes accessories concerned with the aircraft,
such as electric generators and fluid power pumps. The secondary purpose includes acting as an
oil reservoir, oil sump, and providing for and housing of accessory drive gears and reduction
gears.. The accessories on engines are the fuel control with its governing device, the high-
pressure fuel pump(s), and a breather screen or other means for venting the oil system. Other
parts are the oil sump, oil pressure and scavenge pumps, auxiliary fuel pump, starting fuel pump,
and other accessories, including starter, generator, and tachometer. Although these accessories
are essential, the particular combination of engine driven accessories depends upon the use for
which the engine is designed.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its
original pressure in compressor. Fuel is added to the air and burned in a combustion chamber to
raise the temperature of the fluid mixture to about 1,100°F to 1,300° F. The resulting hot air is
passed through a turbine, which drives the compressor. If the turbine and compressor are
efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and
this excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high- velocity stream of gas which produces
a thrust. Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner. It is a
second combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner
increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in
temperature is an increase of about 40 percent in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage
at high speeds once the plane is in the air.
Conclusion:
Thus the construction, working principle and components of gas turbine engine have
been studied.

1. What are the different gas turbine engines?

2. What is the operating cycle of a gas turbine engine? Explain each process?
3. Clarify the flow separation, stalling and surging in compressor?
4. What are the different types of combustion chambers used, compare it?
5. Explain the importance of liners in combustor?
6. What is the material consideration to be followed for compressor and turbine?
7. Why we need a diffuser and a nozzle?
8. Difference between axial flow compressor and centrifugal compressor?
9. What are the main combustion products of a GTE? How we can reduce it?
10. How GTE is different from piston engine?

Experiment no: 3
MEASUREMENT OF NOZZLE FLOW
Aim: To determine the velocity and pressure distribution through a convergent nozzle.
Apparatus: Convergent nozzle setup, blower, multi tube manometer and pitot tube.
Theory: The study of nozzle helps to know the velocity, discharge and pressure distribution required for
engineering applications like gas turbine engine and fluid flow through variable area ducts. Nozzle is a
device used to increase the kinetic energy of the fluid flowing through duct at the expense of the pressure
energy or the enthalpy. Nozzle is used to generate the thrust in an aerospace vehicle by increasing the
momentum of the fluid while passing through the duct. Also used in thrust reversing and vectoring
control in aviation industry. In the subsonic flow, nozzle is a convergent duct where the area of cross
section decreases in the flow direction along the duct length. In the case of supersonic flow, the Nozzle is
obtained by providing a convergent-divergent duct.
The working of the nozzle at low speeds can be explained using the Bernoulli’s equation. Assuming the
flow is incompressible i.e., the density is constant and there is no losses in the flow,
Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head
Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head
Potential energy per unit weight or potential head

In the case of gases or air, the potential energy in most of the practical cases can be omitted and thus we
get
or
P+ = Po = constant
From the Continuity Equation,
Where,
ρ = density,
A = Area of cross section of flow and
V = Velocity of flow

Since in incompressible flow, ρ is constant, then the continuity equation is given by,
It should be noted that, for a convergent nozzle where the area of cross-section decreases along
the length of the nozzle, velocity increases according to the Continuity equation and length of the nozzle,
according to the Bernoulli’s equation.
Description:
Convergent nozzle set up consists of blower unit, the pressure tapings (10Nos) is made in
the nozzle surface and it is connected multi bank manometer. The orifice plate is fitted in the
pipeline of the blower outlet, to measure the discharge of flow & is connected to differential
manometer. The control panel consists of, differential monometer & multi bank manometer. &
whole instrumentation is mounted on a self contained sturdy table
A convergent nozzle with surface/static pressure taps along the length of the nozzle is provided to
measure the static pressure variation as the flow passes through the nozzle. Using the flow rate
measurement and the geometry of the nozzle at various locations, average velocities at a given location
can be determined along the length of the nozzle.
Fig: Nozzle setup

Formulas used:
1. Area of orifice Ao = ,(m2 )
2. Velocity at the orifice , (m/s)
3. Volume flow rate ,(m3 /s)
4. Velocity at nozzle Vx= , (m/s)
5. Pressure at nozzle taps P = g∆h ,(N/m2 )

Where,
d – Diameter of the orifice (mm)-30mm
Cd - Coefficient of discharge -0.65
g – Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s 2 )
ρ = Density of water (1000kg/m3 ),
Vx = Velocity of flow at any location (m/s)
∆h = Manometer difference (cm of water)
Observations & Tabulations:
Diameter of orifice = 30mm
Coefficient of discharge of orifice Cd =0.65
Length of the nozzle = ---- mm
Entry diameter = ---------- mm
Exit diameter = --------mm

Table-1
Pitot tube Velocity
Orifice
*mmr at exit
*mmr Multi tube manometer readings(h)
(cm of (m/s)
Sl. (cm of (cm of water)
Valve water)
No water)
position
.
ho1 ho2 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h10 href hp1 hp2
*mmr-manometer reading
Table-2
Locations Distance from inlet of nozzle
Diameter (cm) Area(m2 )
(port no) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Calculations:
1. Discharge or volume flow rate
2. Velocity of the nozzle at any location,
3. Pressure P = g∆h
Table-3
Volume Manometer Pressure Velocity
Valve flow Locations difference (N/m2 ) (m/s)
Sl. No.
position rate(m3 /s) (port no) (cm of
water)
1
2
3
4
5
1
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
5
2
6
7
8
9
10

Procedure:
1. Make sure that manometer fluid should be in level before start the experiment.
2. Switch on the blower unit.
3. Then slowly increase the speed of blower to the desired value, by adjusting the position of valve.
4. Note down the orifice manometer and differential manometer readings.
5. Calculate the flow rate from orifice values.
6. Measure velocity and pressure at different location of nozzle for obtained flow rate.
7. Repeat the procedure for different valve position.
8. Plot the curve from obtained values.
Graph:
1. Velocity vs Location
2. Pressure vs Location
Result:
Thus the pressure and velocity distribution of flow at different section of nozzle has been found.

1. What is convergent nozzle?

2. What is c-d nozzle?
3. What is the function of a nozzle?
4. How do u apply Bernoulli’s equation for nozzle? Why?
5. What you mean by throat of a nozzle and its use?
6. How the back pressures affect the nozzle flow?
7. What is under expanded nozzle?
8. What is over expanded nozzle?
9. What is the condition apply for convergent and c-d nozzle?
10. How we can achieve a supersonic flow in a nozzle?

Experiment no: 4
STUDY OF FREE JET

Aim: To study the characteristics of flow field and velocity profile by using free jet setup.
Apparatus: Free jet setup, Blower
Theory: A high velocity fluid stream, forced under pressure, out of a small diameter opening
such as a nozzle is called a jet. The Jet of the fluid has been extensively studied for its numerous
occurrences in the engineering system including flow through an opening. The flow, of jet differs
from the other kind of fluid flow because of jet is surrounded in one or more sides by a free
boundary of the same fluid. The free air jet is a term used to describe a flow of air using an
opening or a nozzle into an air space where the static pressure to influence the flow pattern and
the static pressure of surrounding space.
As the jet leaves the opening, a shear layer develops around its boundary. This is usually
referred to as “free shear layer”. Velocity of the jet is calculated using in the formula, a V =
√ In general, the free jet is formed when fluid is discharged from a nozzle or slot into large

stagnant environments. The entrainment of the jet on the stagnant environments makes the jet
width grow along the stream wise direction to some distance and finally dissipate. The
development of the free jet can be divided into four different zones according to the decay of
centerline velocity, as shown in Figure. In the first zone (potential core), the centerline velocity is
equal to inlet jet velocity where uniform velocity is assumed. The second zone is called the
developed zone where the centerline velocity begins to decrease. Beyond these zones is a fully
developed or established zone. Note that the irregularities of the edges are due to the mixing
process and entrainments of the flow from the still ambient air. The last zone is called the
terminal zone in which the centerline velocity rapidly decreases.
DISCRIPTION:-
Fig-Free jet setup

The set up basically consists of blower unit, A venture section (test section), orifice
arrangement, wall jet arrangement, and flow measurement on control panel consisting of Blower,
Differential manometer & multibank manometer & discharge measurement with orifice plate.
The blower unit coupled to A.C motor and discharge can be controlled by Inlet control valve

plate closing. This blower unit is fixed below the control panel and it is connected to the section
by a rubber hose and pipe line.
The venture section or test section unit consists of a inlet and outlet conical section in
between settling chamber with a Honey comb and mesh so that a laminar and constant Air
velocity is achieved. Nozzle with pressure tapings (10no) & connected to multibank manometer.
The velocity of jet is measured by a pitot tube with X-Y-Z co-ordinate measurement
arrangement.
Formula Used:
Velocity of the jet is calculated using the formula
Where,
V - Velocity in m/sec
g - Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
– Density of water – 1000 kg/m3
- Density of air – 1.23 kg/m3
∆h – Differential manometer readings ( in meters of water column)
Observations and Tabulations:
Diameter of Jet = ------cm
Table-1
Axial distance Lateral
Differential
from center of distance from
manometer head Velocity of jet
Sl. No. jet pipe (At center of
readings ‘V’ in m/sec
exit) jet pipe(At exit)
∆h in cm
X in cm Y in cm
1. +2.5
2. +2.0
3. +1.5
4. +1.0
5. +0.5

6. 0
7. -0.5
8. -1.0
9. -1.5
10. -2.0
11. -2.5
12. +2.5
13. +2.0
14. +1.5
15. +1.0
16. +0.5
17. 0
18. -0.5
19. -1.0
20. -1.5
21. -2.0
22. -2.5
23. +2.5
24. +2.0
25. +1.5
26. +1.0
27. +0.5
28. 0
29. -0.5
30. -1.0
31. -1.5
32. -2.0
33. -2.5
34. +2.5

35. +2.0
36. +1.5
37. +1.0
38. +0.5
39. 0
40. -0.5
41. -1.0
42. -1.5
43. -2.0
44. -2.5
Table-2
Lateral Axial distance
distance from from center of Differential manometer
Sl. Velocity of jet
center of jet pipe (At head readings
No. ‘V’ in m/sec
jet pipe(At exit) exit) ∆h in cm
Y in cm X in cm
1.
2.
3.
4. 0
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculation:
√ m/sec
Procedure:
1. Switch ON the main and observe that manometer liquid are in level.
2. Set control valve in FULL OPEN position and measure the flow rate.
3. Set the pitot-static tube at (0,0) position by using of movable adjuster.
4. Note down the readings from U-tube manometers
5. Then move the Pitot tube in x-direction slowly and note down the flow readings.
6. Repeat the experiment for different X values when Y=0
7. Repeat the procedure for different values in Y axis by keeping different set of X values
8. Plot the graph between Velocity vs Distance in X and Y axis
Graphs:
1. Velocity vs X
2. Y vs Velocity
Result:
Hence the characteristics of flow field in free jet are studied and velocity profiles are
plotted.

1. What is mean by free shear layer?

2. What is boundary layer?
3. How do you relate core flow and fully developed flow?
4. What is the importance of friction and viscous effects in acoustic field?
5. What is the use of free jet and wall jet experiment?
6. What is meant by free jet?
7. What is meant by wall jet?
8. How the back pressure is affecting the jet flow?
9. What is meant by potential core?
10. What will happen if the free jet is allowed to expand into vacuum?

Experiment no: 5
CASECADE TESTING OF AXIAL COMPRESSOR BLADE ROW
Aim: To determine the pressure distribution on a compressor cascade unit for different angle of
incidence.
Apparatus Required: Subsonic wind tunnel, compressor cascade blade section, multi tube
manometer
Theory: A stationary compressor cascade is array of blades and is two-dimensional in nature.
The row of compressor blades deflects the incoming flow in such a manner that its static pressure
increases across the row. The flow in a cascade blade profile can be conceived as a camber line
upon which a profile thickness distribution is symmetrically superimposed. Central blade of the
cascade is instrumented blade. Hypodermic tubes are provided at various sections along the
suction and pressure sides of blade surfaces. The tubes are buried inside the slots cut into the
blade surface with this static holes flush with the local surfaces. The open ends of these tubes
project out through one of the side walls of the test section. Local static pressures in the blade
surface are transmitted to the multi tube manometer through the open ends of the static pressure
hypodermic tubes.
Due to rotation and boundary layer formation, flows in actual turbo machine are three
dimensional. Assuming the flow to be two dimensional makes our problem quite easy. To do so
we neglect the blade height. In axial machines flow is assumed to be two dimensional flow. In
two dimensional plane flow variations occur only in pitch wise and stream wise directions only.
The boundary layer growth on the suction and pressure sides of the blades in a real flow leads to
the formation of low energy regions in the exit flow field.
Fig: Subsonic wind tunnel

Specification:
Type of wind tunnel : Low speed, open circuit, suction type
Test section : 600 mm x 600 mm .
Drive : Axial flow fan driven by AC motor (20HP).
Pitot tubes : For Flow measurement with a differential manometer.
Multibank Manometer : For static Pressure Distribution
Cascade of Blades
Blades of desired size and shape are assembled in a straight line or annular according to the
cascade required. For assembling the blades, pitch(s) and stagger angle ( γ) is defined. Blades of
equal lengths are used in constructing a cascade. Blades for a cascade can be manufactured from
wood, epoxy resin, glass wool, araldite or aluminum. Sometimes blades are made hollow to
reduce the quantity of material and the weight of the blade. Generally, seven blades are used for
cascade construction. The assembly is then fixed on the test section of the wind tunnel. Air is
blown over the cascade of blades to simulate the flow over an actual blade row in a turbo
machine.
Fig .Two dimensional flow through a cascade

Losses in cascade:
Losses in cascade occurs due to the three dimensional flow and the growth and separation of
boundary layers that takes place on the surface of the blades. Other takes place due to the loss of
stagnation pressure across the cascade and due to wasteful circulatory flows and the formation
of shock waves.
Various types of losses are mentioned below:
Profile Losses
It is the total loss in stagnation pressure across the blade row divided by the difference between
the stagnation pressure and the static pressure at the outlet. It takes place due to the formation of
boundary layer which steepens due to adverse pressure gradient.
Annulus losses
The majority of blade rows in turbo machines are housed in casings. In stationary blade rows a
loss of energy occurs due to growth of boundary layer on the end walls. The boundary layer on
the hub of the blade passages is subjected to centrifugal force, whereas that on the outer casing is
scrapped by the moving blades.
Secondary Losses
It arises due to three dimensional flows near the end walls. The term secondary losses occurs due
to the three-dimensional vortical flow structures that develop in blade passages due to high
turning of the flow and non-uniform inlet total pressure profiles. Flow which is transverse to the
primary flow direction is termed as secondary flow. The boundary layer flow along the end wall
contains span wise velocity gradients.
Tip Clearance Losses

Tip clearance flow is created by the fluid that passes through the radial gap between the tips of
the rotor blades and the stationary rotor casing. About one third of the losses of a high-pressure
stage can be due to the tip clearance flow, which deteriorates the aerodynamic and thermal
performance of the axial flow turbine
Fig . Flow through tip clearance in a compressor cascade

Formulas used:
1.
2. P∞ -Pi = ρ wg(h∞-hi)
3. Cp = ( for suction type wind tunnel)
Where
V∞ - Velocity at entry or free stream velocity (m/s)
w - Density of water (kg/m3 )
a - Density of air (kg/m3 )
V - Velocity in m/sec
g - Acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2 )
∆h – Differential manometer readings ( in meters of water column)
P∞ -Free stream pressure (N/m2 )
Pi- Pressure on surface of airfoil(N/m2 )
Cp- Pressure coefficient
Observation & Tabulation:

Table-1 Chord of cascade = 200mm
Sl Angle of Motor Velocity at Multi tube manometer readings

No incidence Speed entry ( cm of water)
in degrees (rpm) V∞(m/s) h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h∞
hp1 hp2 V∞
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Calculations
1. P∞ -Pi = ρ wg(h∞-hi)
2. Cp =

Table -2:
Port No Distance from x/c
leading edge
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Table -3:
Sl.no Angle of Velocity Port x/c Differential Pressure Pressure
incidence at entry number Manometer N/m2 coefficient
in degrees V∞(m/s) Readings
(cm of water)
1
2
3
4
1 5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
2 5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
4
3 5
6
7
8
9

Procedure:
 Fix the required cascade unit in the test section and connect all the pressure probes to the
multi tube manometer
 Fix the pitot tube at the appropriate position at inlet and set the cascade model at desired
angle position
 Then observe the mains on indicator to glow or not and switch on console
 Initially keep the speed control knob to zero position
 Then press the green button to start motor
 Then gently operate the speed control knob and increase the speed gradually to the
desired speed.
 Wait for few minutes to stabilize the flow and note down all the readings from
manometer and instrument panel.
 For the same angle of incidence, repeat the experiment for different speeds.
 Now change the incidence angle of cascade and repeat the same procedure for previous
set of speeds.
 After completing the experiment, bring back the speed control knob to zero and press the
red push bottom and switch off console.
 Find the required values from above formula and plot the curve.
Graph:
Cp Vs x/c
Result:
Hence the pressure distribution on compressor cascade section is determined.

1. How 2-d flow is different from 3-d flow?

2. What is effect of stalling and surging?
3. What is the difference between axial velocity and absolute velocity?
4. What is the difference between air angle and blade angle?
5. What the difference is between pitch and stagger angle?
6. What are the losses that can occur in blade?
7. What is the importance of velocity triangle?
8. How the angle of incidence will affect the performance of compressor?
9. What is meant by rotating stall?
10. What is the function of settling chamber?

Experime nt no: 6
STUDY OF PERFORMANCE OF A PROPELLER
Aim: To study the performance of a propeller at different speeds and measure the actual and
theoretical performance parameters.
Apparatus used : Two bladed Propeller with electric DC motor and anemometer.
Theory: The aircraft propeller consists of two or more

blades and a central hub to which the
blades and are attached. Each blade is essentially of
rotating wing. As result of their
construction, propeller blade produce forces/thrust to pull
or push the airplane through the air. Power required to
rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the engines or
motors.
The purpose of a propeller is to
convert power (delivered by a rotating shaft) into thrust.
It does that by accelerating a large mass of air to a higher
velocity. The effectiveness with which a propeller
performs this conversion is known as "efficiency”. A
propeller blade is a sophisticated whirling airfoil. At a
constant RPM and aircraft true airspeed, the speed of the
air over any portion of the airfoil varies with the distance
from the center of rotation. The maximum velocity
occurs at the point of maximum thickness out near the
tip.
Definitions
BLADE ANGLE: Blade angle is defined as the angle
between the chord particular blade
section and the plane of rotation
BLADE PITCH : Blade pitch is the distance advanced by
the propeller in one revolution
ANGLE OF ATTACK : This is the angle formed between the chord of the blade and direction of
relative air flow
GEOMETRIC PITCH : The propeller would have been advanced in one revolution
EXPERIMENTAL MEAN PITCH : The distance traveled by the propeller in one revolution
without producing thrust
EFFECTIVE PITCH: Actual distance advanced by the propeller in one revolution
PITCH DISTRIBUTION : The angle gradually decreases towards the tip and increases towards
the shank
PROPELLER SLIP: Slip is defined as difference between the geometric pitch and the
effective pitch

Formulas used:
V  Ve
1. V P 
2
V
2. J 
nd
3.Tth =AdiscVp (Ve-V∞)=0.5Adisc(Ve2 -V∞2 )
4. Pin = ηmech xVxI=TVp=
5. Q=
6. Pout = TV∞
7. ηP =Pout /Pin = T V∞/TVp =
8. CT =T/ρn2 d4
9. CP =Pout /ρn3 d5
10. CQ =Q/ρn2 d5
Where
V∞ - Velocity at entry of propeller (m/s)
Ve - Velocity at exit of propeller (m/s)
Vp - Velocity at propeller disc (m/s)
N - Number of revolutions (rpm)
n - Number of revolutions (rps)
d - Diameter of propeller disc(m)
J - Advance ratio
Tth – Theoretical thrust (N)
 - Density of air (kg/m3 )
Adisc- Area of propeller disc(m2 )
Pin - Power input to the propeller (Watts)
ηmech - mechanical efficiency of electric motor
V- Voltage of electric motor (Volts)
I – Current consumption by electric motor (A)
Q – Torque produced by the propeller disc ( Nm or J)
Pout – Power output by the propeller disc (Watts)
T – Thrust produced by the propeller disc ( N )
ηP – Propulsive efficiency of propeller
CT - Thrust coefficient
Cp –Power coefficient
CQ- Torque coefficient

Observation&Tabular column:
Propeller Diameter d (meters) = 830mm

Density of air =1.23 Kg/m3
Table- 1:
Propeller Experimental At At At disc
Sl rotation Power input(Experimental) Thrust (Tex ) entry exit V  Ve
No. (N) (Watts) V∞ Ve VP 
rpm Voltage Current Pin = m/sec m/sec 2
Kgs N
ηmech xVxI m/sec
Calculation:
1) Advance ratio
V
J 
nd
2) Thrust(Theoritical)
Tth =AdiscVp (Ve-V∞)=0.5Adisc(Ve2 -V∞2 )
3) Power Input to the Propeller
Pin = ηmech xVxI=TVp=

1 Watt(W)= 1 Nm/sec
0.735 KW=1hp
4) Torque
Q=
5) Power output
Pout = TV∞
6) Propulsive efficiency
ηP =Pout /Pin = T V∞/TVp
2V
P 
Ve  V 

Table- 2 .
Sl. Advance Theoritical Power Input Torque Q Power output Propulsive
No. ratio thrust to Propeller (Joule) Pout (Watts) efficiency
J Tth (N) Pin (Watts) ηp
Exp Th Exp Th Exp Th Exp Th
7) Thrust Co-efficient
CT =T/ρn2 d4
8) Power co-efficient
CP =Pout /ρn3 d5
9) Torque coefficient
CQ =Q/ρn2 d5
Table- 3.
Sl No. Advance Thrust coefficient Power coefficient Torque coefficient
ratio CT Cp CQ
J Exp Th Exp Th Exp Th
Procedure:
1. Ensure that the propeller blade is firmly locked in position and mesh guard is safe enough
to protect. There should not be any lose items before, inside, and at exit of experimental
setup.
2. Connect the power cable and observe the `MAIN ON` indicator to glow.
3. Ensure that the speed controller knob is set to zero position.
4. Switch on force indicator and press the tare position button, to set it to zero and keep it in
normal position.
5. Slowly increase the speed by operating the speed control knob to some desired rpm
value.
6. Note the rpm indicator reading, and thrust force from the indicator. ( keep the switch
always in normal position while running the test rig.
7. Record the velocity values at the inlet and exit by anemometer.
8. Run the propeller for different rpm (Max 1200 rpm) and record the inlet & exit velocities
and thrust.
9. Calculate the performance parameters by using formulas and plot the curves.

Graphs:
Repeat the experiment for different

rpm and compare the theoretical and
experimental values
Plot the curve for following

CT Vs J
CP Vs J
CQ Vs J
ηP Vs J
Result:
Thus the performance of propeller is evaluated and the theoretical & experimental
parameters were compared.

1. What is the working principle of propeller?

2. What is mean by propeller efficiency?
3. What is mean by advance ratio?
4. What is fixed pitch propeller?
5. What is variable pitch propeller?
6. Differentiate between the blade pitch, geometric pitch and effective pitch?
7. Define propeller slip?
8. Define the propeller coefficients?
9. Difference between wing and propeller of aircraft??
10. Differentiate blade angle and angle of attack?

Experime nt no-7
STUDY OF FORCED CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH NON CIRCULAR

DUCT
Aim: To determine the theoretical and experimental heat transfer coefficient using forced
convection setup.
Apparatus Used: Forced convection Apparatus, Elliptical cross section.
Theory: Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the
movement of fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is caused
by means of external agency such as pump or blower that forces fluid over the surfaces, then the
process of heat transfer is called forced convection.
In convection heat transfer, there are two flow regions named laminar and turbulent. The
non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as criterion to determine change from
laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant
and the flow is laminar and for larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces become
dominant and the flow is turbulent.
The undisturbed fluid velocity and temperature upstream of the plate are V∞ and T1 ,
respectively. The surface temperature of the plate is Ts and L is the length of tube in the
direction of flow.
Fig.Forced convection setup

Formulas used:
1. Velocity at the orifice
, (m/s)
2. Volume flow rate of air through the orifice,
, ( m3 /s)
3. Free stream velocity
= ,(m/s)
4. Surface temperature
T T T T T T7
, (o C)
5. Bulk mean fluid temperature
T T
, (o C)
6. Film temperature of air
= , (o C)
7. Hydraulic diameter
= ,(m)
For elliptical cross section Ac=
P=2
8. Reynolds Number
Re =
9. Prandtl Number
Pr =

10. Average Nusselt number for flow regimes
Nu=1.86( )1/3 ( )0.14 for Re< 2300(laminar flow)

Nu=0.027Re0.8 Pr1/3 ( )0.4 for Re> 2300(turbulent flow)
11. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient
Nu=
u
hth = ,W/m2 -K
12. Experimental heat transfer coefficient
Qin = hexp At (Ts - )
hexp = ,W /m2 -K
13. Mass flow rate
a= ρx , Kg/s
14. Heat carried away by the air,
Qout = aC p (T8 -T1 ) ,Watts
Where,
= Discharge or Volume flow rate through orifice (m3/s)

Cd=Coefficient of discharge of orifice (0.64)
h= Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
Ac=Cross sectional area of elliptical duct (m2 )
P=Perimeter of elliptical duct (m)
L = Length of the tube along the fluid direction (m)
K = Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/mK)
V∞ = Free stream Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
ρ = Density of fluid at film temperature Tf (kg/m3
µ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid at film temperature Tf (Ns/m2)
Cp = Specific heat of fluid at film temperature Tf (KJ/kg K)
υ = kinematic viscosity at film temperature Tf (m2 /s)
At = Total surface area contacted by the fluid or tube (m2 )
Dh = Hydraulic diameter(m)

Observation &Tabular column:

Coefficient of discharge of orifice =0.64
Orifice diameter=20mm
Major axis(2a) =19mm
Minor axis(2b) = 11mm
Length of pipe (L)= 300mm
Intake pipe diameter = 28mm
Table-1:
Sl. Energy Input Differential manometer Temperature distribution

No readings at orifice T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
(Watts) (cm of water)
h1 h2
Calculations:
1. Velocity at the orifice
, (m/s)
= 1000 kg/m3
= 1.23 kg/m3
m/s2
2. Volume flow rate of air through the orifice,
, ( m3 /s)
Aorifice = , orifice diameter d=20mm

3. Free stream velocity
= ,(m/s)
Aintake = , intake diameter d=28mm
T T T T T T7
, (o C)
T T
, (o C)

= , (o C)
Properties of Air are taken at Tf from Table

At temperature Tf,(Properties of air at 1atm pressure)
kinematic viscosity υ,
Absolute viscosity μ,
Prandtl Number Pr ,
Thermal conductivity K ,
Specific heat at constant pressure C p,
Density of fluid ,
7. Hydraulic diameter
= ,(m)
For elliptical cross section Ac=
P=2
8. Reynolds Number
Re =
9. Prandtl Number
Pr =
Nu=1.86( )1/3 ( )0.14 for Re< 2300(laminar flow)

Nu=0.027Re0.8 Pr1/3 ( )0.4 for Re> 2300(turbulent flow)
Nu=
u
hth = ,W/m2 -K

Qin = hexp At (Ts - )
At = Dh L
hexp = ,W /m2 -K
13. Mass flow rate
a= ρx , Kg/s
Table-2:
SL Heat input Free stream Reynolds Prandtl Nusselt Convective Heat Heat carried
No velocity No. (Re) No No Transfer away by the
Watts in m/s Coefficient air , out
(V∞) Pr Nu (W/m2 K) Watts
hth hexp
Procedure
1) Switch on the mains and the console
2) Start the blower and control it so that the airflow is set to some desired value.
3) Switch on the heater and regulate the heat input for desired value and wait for about 10-
15 min to allow temperatures to reach steady value
4) Note down the differential manometer readings to calculate orifice velocity.
5) Note down all the temperature readings.
6) Repeat the experiment for different air flow and heat input.
Result:Thus the theoretical and experimental heat transfer coefficient is determined by using
force convection apparatus

DATA SHEET

Experime nt no-8
STUDY OF FORCED CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER OVER A FLAT PLATE
Aim: To determine the theoretical and experimental heat transfer coefficient using forced
convection setup.
Apparatus Used: Forced convection Apparatus, Flat plate.
Theory: Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the
movement of fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is caused
by means of external agency such as pump or blower that forces fluid over the surfaces, then the
process of heat transfer is called forced convection.
In convection heat transfer, there are two flow regions named laminar and turbulent. The
non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as criterion to determine change from
laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant
and the flow is laminar and for larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces become
dominant and the flow is turbulent.
The undisturbed fluid velocity and temperature upstream of the plate are V∞ and T1 ,
respectively. The surface temperature of the plate is Ts and L is the length of tube in the
direction of flow.
Fig.Forced convection setup

Formulas used:
T T T T T
, (o C)
T T7
, (o C)
= , (o C)
4. Reynolds Number
Re =
5. Prandtl Number
Pr =
Nu=0.664Re0.5 Pr1/3 for Re< 5 x 105 (laminar flow)

Nu=0.037Re0.8 Pr1/3 for Re> 5 x 105 (turbulent flow)
Nu=
u
hth = ,W/m2 -K
Qin = hexp A (Ts - )
hexp = ,W /m2 -K

9. Mass flow rate
a= ρx , Kg/s
Where,
= Discharge or Volume flow rate through orifice (m3/s)

Cd=Coefficient of discharge of orifice (0.64)
h= Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
L = Length of the plate along the fluid direction (m)
K = Thermal conductivity of fluid (W/mK)
V∞ = Free stream Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
ρ = Density of fluid at film temperature Tf (kg/m3
µ = Dynamic viscosity of fluid at film temperature Tf (Ns/m2)
Cp = Specific heat of fluid at film temperature Tf (KJ/kg K)
υ = kinematic viscosity at film temperature Tf (m2 /s)
A = Total surface area contacted by the fluid or tube (m2 )

Size of flat plate = 100 x 150 mm
Size of duct =250 x 250 mm
Table-1:
Sl. Energy Input Velocity at duct Temperature distribution (o C)

No m/s T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
(Watts)
Calculations:
T T T T T
, (o C)
T T
, (o C)

= , (o C)
Properties of Air are taken at Tf from Table

At temperature Tf,(Properties of air at 1atm pressure)
kinematic viscosity υ,
Absolute viscosity μ,
Prandtl Number Pr ,
Thermal conductivity K ,
Specific heat at constant pressure C p,
Density of fluid ,
4. Reynolds Number
Re =
5. Prandtl Number
Pr =

7.
Nu=0.664Re0.5 Pr1/3 for Re< 5 x 105 (laminar flow)
Nu=0.037Re0.8 Pr1/3 for Re> 5 x 105 (turbulent flow)
Nu=
u
hth = ,W/m2 -K
Qin = hexp As (Ts - )
hexp = ,W /m2 -K
10. Mass flow rate
a= ρx , Kg/s

Table-2:
SL Heat input Free stream Reynolds Prandtl Nusselt Convective Heat Heat carried
No velocity No. (Re) No No Transfer away by the
Watts in m/s Coefficient air , out
(V∞) Pr Nu (W/m2 K) Watts
hth hexp
Procedure
1) Switch on the mains and the console
2) Start the blower and control it so that the airflow is set to minimum desired value.
3) Set the temperature for desired value and let heater heat the flat plate
4) Wait for about 10-15 min to allow temperatures to reach steady value.
5) Note down all the temperature readings.
6) Repeat the experiment for different air flow and heat input
Result:Thus the theoretical and experimental heat transfer coefficient is determined by using
force convection apparatus

1. What is the difference between natural convection and forced convection?

2. How do u relate velocity and thermal boundary layer?
3. What is the physical significance of Prandtl number??
4. What is meant by Nusselt number?
5. What is the effect of Reynolds no in fluid flow?
6. State Newton’s law of viscosity?
7. What is meant by film temperature?
8. What is the principle of thermocouple?
9. What is Reynolds no for flat plate and tube flow?
10. What is the value of Prandtl and Nusselt no for fluids?

Experime nt no-9
MEASUREMENT OF BURNING VELOCITY OF PREMIXED FLAME
Aim: To study the characteristics and burning velocity of the premixed flame for laminar flow.
Apparatus: LPG Gas, Bunsen burner, Air flow rotameter, flame cone angle measurement
protractor, gas rotameter.
Theory: The classical device to generate a

laminar premixed flame is Bunsen burner
shown in figure (a).Gaseous fuel from the
fuel supply enters through an orifice into the
mixing chamber into which air is entrained
through adjustable openings from outside.
The cross sectional area of fuel orifice may
be adjusted by moving the needle through an
adjustment screw into the orifice. Thereby
the velocity of the jet entering into the
mixing chamber may be varied and
entrainment of the air and the mixing can be
optimized. The mixing chamber must be long
enough to generate a premixed gas issuing
from the Bunsen tube into the surroundings.
A Bunsen flame tube cone establishes itself
at the top of the tube. It represents a steady
premixed flame propagating normal to itself
with the burning velocity into the unburnt
mixture. Fig (a): The Bunsen burne r.
The kinematic balance of this process is

illustrated for a steady oblique flame as shown in
the figure(b).The oncoming flow velocity vector
Vu of the unburnt mixture(subscript u) is split into
a component Vt,u which is tangential to the flame
and into a component Vn,u normal to the flame
front. Due to a thermal expansion within the
flame front the normal velocity component is
increased, since the mass flow “ρv” through the
flame must be the same in the unburnt mixture
and in the burnt gas (subscript b).
Fig(b):Kinematic balance for a steady

oblique flame
ρ (Vn ) u = ρ(Vn )b, ---------------------1

Vn, b=Vn, u (ρu /ρb) ---------------------2
The tangential velocity component Vt is not affected by gas expansion and remains the same
Vt,b=Vt,u ---------------------3
Vector addition of the velocity components is the burnt gas in figure(b) then leads to V b which
points into a direction which is deflected from the flow direction of the unburnt mixture. Finally,
since the flame front is stationary in this experiment the burning velocity,
Vb=Vn,u ---------------------4
With the Bunsen flame cone angle in fig . denoted by α the normal velocity is
Vn, u=VuSin α and it follows
Vb=VuSin α ---------------------5
This allows to experimentally determine the burning velocity by measuring the cone angle α
under the condition that the flow velocity Vn is uniform across the tube exit. If this is not the case
the flame angle also varies with radial distance since the burning velocity Vb is essentially
constant.
If the tip is closed which is in general the case for hydrocarbon flames the burning
velocity at the tip being normal and therefore equal to the flow velocity, is by a factor ( /sinα)
larger than the burning velocity through the oblique part of the cone. Another example for an
experimental device to measure laminar burning velocities is the combustion bomb within which
the flame is initiated by a central spark. Spherical propagation of flame then takes place which
may optically be detached through quartz windows and the flame propagation velocity (drf/dt)
may be recorded. Now the flame front is not stationary. If the radial flow velocities are defined
positive inward direction, the velocities of the front must be subtracted from these in the mass
flow balance.
Depending on air flow through the valve, different types of

flames in Bunsen burner
1. Air valve closed

2. Air valve nearly fully closed
3. Air valve semi opened
4. Air valve fully open

Formulae used:
1) Volume flow rate of air(m3 /s)
2) Volume flow rate of fuel (m3 /s)
3) Volume flow rate of air- fuel mixture(m3 /s)
4) Velocity of unburnt mixture ,( m/s)
Vu=
5) Burning velocity of flame
Vb=V uSin α
Where
Ab= Area of burner =Л*d2 /4
d=diameter of burner,d=10mm
α = cone angle
Observation & Tabulation:
Table-1
S.No Air flow rate LPG flow Flow rate of Air- Cone angle Burning
(LPM) rate (LPM) Fuel mixture (degree) Velocity
(LPM) (m/s)
1
2
3
4
Calculations:
1) Volume flow rate of air(m3 /s)

2) Volume flow rate of fuel (m3 /s)
3) Volume flow rate of air- fuel mixture(m3 /s)
4) Velocity of unburnt mixture ,( m/s)

Vu=
5) Area of burner
Ab=Л*d2 /4
6) Burning velocity of flame

Vb=V uSin α
Procedure:
1. First ensure all the valves of the rotameter, gas cylinder and compressor are closed.
2. Then open regulator valve of the LPG cylinder slightly.
3. Simultaneously open the rotameter valve, fire the burner using the matchstick or lighter.
4. By observing the flame, adjust the rotameter valve to get the conical blue flame (Ensure the
laminar flow condition).
5. Now the flame cone is established and measure the cone angle with respect to the centerline of
the cone (flame) by using protractor .
7. Repeat the same procedure for different gas and airflow rate.
8. After all readings been taken, ensure that all the valves (LPG cylinder, rotameter, etc) are
closed
Result:
Hence the characteristics and burning velocity of premixed flame for laminar flow is
studied.

1. What is meant by diffusion flame?

2. What is meant by premixed flame?
3. What is the use of flame sheet?
4. What is flame velocity?
5. Difference between rich and lean mixture?
6. What is the condition for stationary flame?
7. What is the condition for stochiometric mixture?
8. What is lewis number? significance?
9. Why we need to find the semi cone angle of premixed flame?
10. What is the significance of the flame colour?

Experime nt No. 10
DETERMINATION OF HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF AVIATION FUEL

Aim: To determine the calorific value of solid fuels ( or liquid fuels) by using of bomb
calorimeter
Apparatus used: The Bomb Calorimeter, Stirrer assembly, solid fuel, Oxygen cylinder,
Thermometer, briquette press, fuse wire.
Theory:
A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used for measuring the
heat of combustion of a particular reaction. Bomb calorimeters have to withstand the large
pressure within the calorimeter as the reaction is being measured. Electrical energy is used to
ignite the fuel, which will lead to combustion. Then it will heat up the surrounding water, the
temperature will be measured by thermocouple.
A Bomb Calorimeter will measure the amount of heat generated when matter is burnt in a
sealed chamber (Bomb) in an atmosphere of pure oxygen gas. A known amount of the sample is
burnt in a sealed chamber. The air is replaced by pure oxygen. The sample is ignited electrically.
As the sample burns, heat is produced. The rise in temperature is determined. Since, barring heat
loss the heat absorbed by calorimeter assembly and the rise in temperature enables to calculate
the heat of combustion of the sample.

Formulas used:
From Energy equilibrium equation
Amount of heat liberated by fuel ,fuse wire and thread = Amount of heat Absorbed by water
mf CVf + mfw  CVf w+ mt  CVt = (mw+ me w )Cpw  (Tf-Ti)
Calorific value of fuel

 
CVf =
Where
mf = Mass of fuel taken (gms)
mf w = Mass of fuel wire burned ( gms)
mt = Mass of thread taken( gms)
mw = Mass of water in calorimeter(gms)
me w = Mass of equivalent water (gms)
Cpw= Sp. heat of water at constant pressure(KJ/kg K)
Ti= Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter(o C)
Tf= Final temperature of water in the calorimeter (o C)
CVf= Calorific value of fuel in MJ /kg.
CVfw = Calorific value of fuse wire in KJ/kg.
(1400 J/gm for nickel - chromium, 420 J/gm for Platinum wire )

Crucible mass = …..grms
Quantity water in calorimeter….litres
Sl. Mass of Temperature

No Mass of Mass of equivalent (o C) CV of fuel
Fuel Used Pressure fuel water water taken, (MJ/Kg)
Ti Tf
taken, mf taken, mw me w
(grms) (grms) (grms
Calculation:
 
1. CVf =
Mass of thread and fuse wire is negligible
So, the above formula will change into
 
CVf = …..(MJ/kg)

Procedure:
1. A dry fuel sample is taken and compresses it into briquette using the briquette press.
2. Weight the briquette (capsule) accurately and also weight the crucible in case of liquid
fluid.
3. Tie the thread with capsule and other end connect with fuse wire
4. Place the capsule in the crucible and make sure that fuse wire should be connected with
ignition rods.
5. Now Connect oxygen cylinder to the bomb, till the pressure in the bomb rises to
300-400 psi and place the charged bomb in the calorimeter that filled with 1500 cc. of
water.
6. Fix the thermometer and electrical leads in calorimeter.
7. Keep the stirrer in calorimeter in proper position.
8. Note down initial temperature from indicator and rise in temperature should be in zero
position.
9. Now switch on fire button to make combustion process and start stirrer also.
10. Note down the maximum rise in temperature of water is observed by the thermometer
and is recorded.
11. The stirrer is being kept in motion all the time during the experiment.
12. After the burning of fuel the bomb is taken out of the calorimeter and product of
combustion are released with the help of release valve.
13. The products of combustion are dried and unburned fuse wire if any is collected and
weighed.
Result: Thus the calorific value of given fuel is determined by using of bomb calorimeter.

1. What is meant by calorific value of a fuel?

2. Why we need additives for the aviation fuel?
3. What are the aviation fuels are used in modern GT engines?
4. What is higher calorific value and lower calorific value of fuel?
5. What is specific heat at constant pressure and specific heat at constant volume?
6. What is complete combustion and incomplete combustion?
7. What is meant by Stochiometric combustion?
8. What is flash point and fire point?
9. Difference between heart of combustion, calorific value and heating value?
10. What are devices can be used to find the value of fuels?

Experime nt no-11
FUEL INJECTION CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: To study the characteristics of fuel injection for different pressure conditions.
Apparatus: Compressor, fuel chamber, glass chamber and Injector.
Theory: A fuel injection system is one of the basic components of automobile /aviation sector.
Fuel nozzles are generally made of brass housings with either brass or stainless steel inserts.
These inserts act as calibrated orifices and can vary in hole diameter to meet the flow
requirement specified for the engine. Nozzles installed in normally aspirated engines are
equipped with a stainless steel air bleed screen and shroud. This screen serves to filter the air as
it enters the nozzle body. The resulting mixing of fuel with air helps atomize the fuel charge as it
enters the intake port.
Fig. Fuel
Injection
setup
On most of the GT engines where fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber,
the resulting spray pattern has a huge impact on the burn rate of the charge and the usefulness of
the expanding flame-front. Fuel injected in this manner is better utilized if the entire combustion
chamber is saturated with an atomized charge of fuel and air. However, the need for a consistent
spray pattern — even from our single-point nozzle, remains vitally important.

The spray pattern at the nozzle is determined by the hole shape, size, fuel pressure, and
the amount of ambient or deck pressure air mixed at the nozzle. A good spray pattern will
provide maximum atomization and smooth, consistent engine operation. Conversely, a nozzle
with a dirty shroud or deteriorated upper deck shroud seals will not provide the same spray
pattern as a clean unit. Likewise, if the calibrated orifice has become damaged due to rough
handling or if the inside diameter of the orifice has been scratched or chipped by insertion of
safety wire or some other equally offensive material, the spray pattern will never be right —
despite the cleanliness of the screen or the condition of the shroud seals.
Fig.Fuel spray cone angle( ) measurement

Fig: various stages fuel injection
Observation and tabulation:
Sl.no Injection pressure (psi) Spray cone angle ( ) Inference
Procedure:
1. First ensure all the compressor, fuel chamber and injector flow lines are closed.
2. Then pressurize the compressor till it reaches the red line in pressure gauge.
3. Now open the air flow lines to fuel chamber and pressurize it for desired value.
4. Then close the airflow line to fuel chamber and open the air flow line to injector.
5. Now open the fuel supply valve to fuel injector and observe the fuel spray pattern inside the
glass chamber.
7. Then measure the spray cone and angle by manual or digital measurement system.
8. Repeat the same procedure for different injection pressure and observe the spray pattern.
Result:
Hence the spray characteristics of fuel injection for different pressure are studied.

1. What is meant by fuel spray cone?

2. What are the different types of fuel spray nozzles used in GT engines?
3. What is the effect of injection pressure in combustion process?
4. What is meant by atomization?
5. What is meant by vaporization?
6. Is turbulence require for proper mixing? Why?
7. What is use of throttle valve in fuel injection system?
8. What are the components for fuel injection system?
9. Give the significance of spray pattern?
10. What is the use of swirl injectors in GT engines?


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NITTE MEENAKSHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution under Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum)

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AIRCRAFT PROPULSION LAB MANUAL

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

AIRCRAFT PROPULSION LABORATORY

3. Measurement of nozzle flow

4. Study of free jet

5. Cascade testing of a model of axial compressor blade row

6. Study of performance of a propeller.

7. Study of forced convective heat transfer through non circular duct

8. Study of forced convective heat transfer over a flat plate

9 .Measurement of burning velocity of a premixed flame.

10. Determination of heat of combustion of aviation fuel

11. Fuel-injection characteristics

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINE

Apparatus: In-line type 3-cylinder reciprocating engine (petrol)

Cylinder –A cylindrical vessel in which the

Combustion chambe r-The space enclosed in

Connecting rod-It connects the piston and the

Crankshaft-It converts the reciprocating

Exhaust manifold-The conduit which connects

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

All internal combustion engines have a

Intake Stroke: As the name suggests in

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How we can categorize the aircraft piston engines?

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

STUDY OF AN AIRCRAFT JET ENGINE

Apparatus: MIG -21 R13-300 Turbojet with Afterburner Engine.

A turbojet engine consists of the following sections and systems:

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

AIR INTAKE SECTION

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

The three basic types of combustion chambers are as follows:

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

The turbine assembly consists of two basic elements

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

SAMPLE VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the different gas turbine engines?

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

MEASUREMENT OF NOZZLE FLOW

Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure head

Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head

Potential energy per unit weight or potential head

From the Continuity Equation,

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

Fig: Nozzle setup

1. Area of orifice Ao = ,(m2 )

2. Velocity at the orifice , (m/s)

3. Volume flow rate ,(m3 /s)

4. Velocity at nozzle Vx= , (m/s)

5. Pressure at nozzle taps P = g∆h ,(N/m2 )

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

ho1 ho2 h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h10 href hp1 hp2

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg

2. Velocity of the nozzle at any location,

Suthan R Department of Aeronautical Engg