Abstract

This module contains the discussions of the

Roles of Trees in Agroforestry, the Different
Agroforestry Systems in the Philippines, and
Potentials of trees and forest in Soil and Water
Conservation.

JULIE E. ASUBAR, RF
[Instructor]
FUNDAMENTALS OF
AGROFORESTRY
[Final Topics Module]
 The distinguishing feature of agroforestry systems relative to purely agricultural
production systems is the presence of trees. This emphasis on trees or woody perennials,
in general, makes agroforestry revolutionary. Traditional upland farmers have long
recognized the importance of trees. However, it is only with the advent of agroforestry
that modern day upland development workers are realizing the valuable role of trees. In
general, trees have dual roles in an agroforestry system: the protective roles and
productive roles.

THE PROTECTIVE ROLE OF TREES

It has been observed that the tropical rainforest is the best cover for tropical soils
especially in sloping areas. Agroforestry system could not duplicate the forest in terms of
its ability to protect the environment. However, the introduction of trees will greatly
enhance the protective ability of agroforestry farms.

1. TREES HELP RESTORE AND MAINTAIN THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL - trees
help enhance and maintain soil fertility through its beneficial impacts on physical and
chemical soil properties and nutrient cycling.

a. Effect on physical properties

i. Improvement of soil structural stability and water-holding capacity
through organic matter accumulation and effects of roots.
ii. Modification of extreme soil temperature by shade and litter.

b. Effects on chemical properties

i. Maintenance of soil organic matter.
ii. Addition of soil nutrients via litterfall, nitrogen fixation and atmospheric
inputs (i.e., the provision of favorable conditions for inputs by rain and
dust) including transmission by throughfall and stemflow.

c. More efficient nutrient cycling using nitrogen-fixing trees, “nutrient pumping”

(i.e., improved nutrient retrieval from lower soil horizons) and green manuring.

1
2. TREES PREVENT EXCESSIVE SOIL EROSION AND PROMOTE WATER
CONSERVATION - soil and water conservation is a primary concern on sloping lands
and arid areas. The role of trees in water conservation and erosion control is one
of the most widely acclaimed and compelling reasons for including trees in farmlands.
Evidence of the potentials of agroforestry in soil and water conservation can be seen
by comparing tree-covered areas with farms under annual crop cultivation.

3. TREES CAN MODIFY MICROCLIMATE TO FAVOR ASSOCIATED CROPS - trees

change the microclimate characteristics of an area because of their canopy. For
example, trees are planted as nurse trees to provide shade to crops such as cacao
and coffee.

4. TREES CAN ACT AS WINDBREAK - high velocity winds can cause damage to crops.
Aside from mechanical damage, strong winds lead to higher evaporation which causes
severe water stress especially in drier areas. As windbreaks, trees can help mitigate
strong winds by providing a physical barrier that will reduce wind velocity.

5. TREES CAN SERVE AS LIVE FENCE - in rural areas, it is very common to see trees
used as fences around the farm lots or backyard.

6. TREES ARE A VITAL HABITAT FOR WILDLIFE - a diverse range of birds, insects
and mammals live in forest habitats. These creatures have adapted to their
environment over centuries and are reliant on it.

7. TREES REDUCE POLLUTION - as well as improving our well-being, trees play an

important role in dispersing and removing pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and particulate matter (PM) from the atmosphere. Trees
reduce noise pollution through absorption, deflection, refraction, and masking.

2
THE PRODUCTIVE ROLE OF TREES

It is estimated that the forest products contribute about 1% of world gross

domestic product (GDP). The annual turnover of timber and other wood products from
forests is valued at more than US$200 billion. The demand for commercial timber and
other products is ever increasing, and expected to rise by 50% by 2010. Apart from that,
nontimber products like rubber, cotton, medicinal products, food and so on represent
significant economic value.
Although the basic function in an agroforestry system is to protect the site, they
also have economically valuable products. Some of these products are:

1. WOOD - wood is a major forest product and is used extensively for various purposes.
It is used in timber-based industries such as plywood, saw milling, paper and pulp,
and particle boards.

2. FUEL - wood is used as fuel for thousands of years, until the advent of coal, oil, gas,
electricity, etc. Wood constitutes as chief source of fuel. Even today more than half of
the total world consumption of wood is for fuel-woo

3. NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS – fiber, grasses, oils, fruits, leaf meal, resins,
latex, medicinal plants, and food.

3
WHAT IS A FOREST?
A FOREST is a plant association predominantly with trees.

Forest is a land with an area of more than 0.5 hectare and tree crown cover (or
equivalent stocking level) of more than 10%. The trees should be able to reach a
minimum height of 5 meters at maturity in situ. It consists either of closed forest
formations where trees of various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion of
the around or open formations with a continuous vegetation cover in which tree crown
cover exceeds 10%. Young natural stands and all plantations established for forestry
purposes, which have yet to reach a crown density of more than 10% or tree height of
15 meters are included under forest.

Tree – a woody and perennial plant, typically large and with a well-defined stem or stems
carrying a more or less crown; sometimes defined as attaining a minimum diameter of
12.7 centimeters and a minimum height of 4.6 meters at maturity with no branches within
1 meter.

Fact: In the 1963, the FAO published data that put forest cover at 40% of the 261,1obo
total land area or 12 million hectares. The late 1960s is the considered the start of a
logging boom period. Logging concession areas increased from 4.5 million hectares to
11.6 million hectares, covering more than one third of the entire country. Timbers non 6
companies were owned by the traditional elite, the Philippine military, and politicians.

Fact: In 1970, the forest covered 34% of the total land area or 10.2 million hectares.
From 1977 to 1980, deforestation reached an all-time high-over 300,000 hectares a year.

Fact: From 1960 to 1970, there were 480 timber licensees and TLA holders enjoyed a
windfall profit of US $ 42.85 billion and that only 200 families had control over long these
vast resources.

Fact: From 1980-1982, the Japanese imported logs from the Philippines were
approximately 250% greater than the official Philippine exports to Japan.

Fact: From 1987-1990, the Philippine-German Forestry Resource Inventory Project,

estimated deforestation rate of 100,000 a hectare.

4
BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THE FOREST

1. Direct Benefits

a. Major forest products

b. Minor forest products

2. Indirect Benefits (forest promote better climatic condition, conserve water in the
soil, reduce water control stream flows, and enhance soil productivity)

a. Forest increase Rainfall

b. Forest conserve water

▪ 12 percent of the rainwater is intercepted by the forest canopy or the
crowns of the trees and other vegetation
▪ Dry leaves, flowers, fruits and twigs that litter the surface of the soil
(forest floor) absorb water from 150 to 200 times their weight
▪ Moss or lumot absorb water about 200 to 900 time its weight

5
 ▪ Humus (composed of decayed organic matter) can hold at least 13
centimeters of water
▪ Crowns of the trees protect and shield the forest soil and air from the
direct rays of the sun thus minimize evaporation of water from the soil.
Hence water is conserved and stored in the soil
▪ Holes from decayed roots of trees and other vegetation, crevices
between boulder of rocks and earth boring animals hold large amount
of water. The water then flows gradually down the mountains into
creeks, streams, rivers and springs before finally reaching the ocean

c. Forest conserves soil

▪ The root network and the litter on the forest floor prevent soil erosion
and landslides
▪ The roots of the trees and other plants in the forest hold the soil
particles together
▪ The roots prevent the soil from being washed away and carried down
the mountain slopes during heavy rains.
▪ The roots served as screens that prevent small particles of soil from
being washed away by the surface run-off

d. Forest as soil maker

▪ Forest promotes the nutrient cycling
▪ Dead vegetations and remains of the dead animals accumulates on
the forest floor and decompose and eventually becomes soil
▪ Roots of some trees pierce through the crevices of rocks and stones
as they grew bigger, they break the rocks further into smaller pieces.
After the rocks and stones are broken and exposed to the heat of the
sun and continual rain (weathering will take place, wherein changes in
physical and chemical composition of rocks took place), the rocks are
further broken into smaller pieces until they become small, rough rocks
particles and pebbles

e. Forest prevents floods

▪ The rainwater is absorbed and retained by the soil until it is fully
saturated. The excess water gradually flows down the slopes as
surface runoff
▪ Branches, twigs, stems and other falling parts of the vegetation
accumulated in the forest ground and serve as barrier and as water
reservoir.
6
 f. Watershed - an area where the water in the slopes drains into a common
river or streams. It could be whole region or area that is fully or partly covered
by thick forest which generally contributes to the supply of water to a river or
lake.
▪ Major factors that contribute to the occurrence of floods:
➢ Too much water due to continuous heavy rains and floods
➢ Insufficient drainage system which hampers the flow of water
➢ Poor and improper flood control and water diversion schemes
➢ The destruction of forest watersheds

g. Forest promotes ecological balance

h. Forest Protect Human communities

i. Forest helps agriculture

FOREST PRODUCTS

These include all products that are derived from the forest. Comprise all goods and
services obtained from the forest either in raw derived or processed form.
Goods and services derived from the forest such as but limited to timber, lumber,
veneer, plywood, fiberboard, pulpwood, firewood, bark, tree top, resin gum, wood oil,
honey, beeswax, nipa, rattan or other forest growth such as grass, shrub and flowering
plant, the associated water, fish, game, scenic, historical, and educational.

Types of Forest Goods and Services

1. Economic goods - those that have some uses and are scarce relative to the wants
which they can satisfy

1.1. Rival or substitute goods - e.g. wood lumber and coconut lumber
1.2. Complementary goods - e.g. lumber and plywood

2. Free goods - the ones that have uses or set of uses, and the supply are unlimited.

7
Classification of Forest Products

1. Major Forest Products - products of major importance such as timber producing

species for construction using wood as their raw material.

1.1. Primary Wood Products - those products used in their raw forms usually in
either round or square forms as commodity for construction without greatly
altering their original shape like logs, poles, piles, post, mine timber, rail road ties.

1.2. Secondary Wood Products - those requiring further manufacture, reduction or

treatment which necessitate the change of the form of the original products.

1.2.1. Mechanically Reduced Products - products that are reduce

mechanically in shape or size without changing the nature of the basic wood
components.

▪ Lumber
▪ Veneer and plywood
▪ Wood furniture
▪ Sporting goods and tool handles
▪ Matches, splints, firewood and toothpicks
▪ Pencils
▪ Wood containers and woodenware
➢ Cooperage (tight and slacks)
➢ Boxes and crates

1.2.2. Chemically Reduced Products - products that are reduced or

manufactured through the employment of accepted chemical methods.

▪ Pulp and paper

▪ Wood composition boards
➢ Fiberboard
➢ Particle board
▪ Paper-based laminates
▪ Cellulose derivatives
▪ Products of wood hydrolysis

8
 1.2.3. Physically Reduced Products - products that are reduced or
manufactured through the employment of physical means such as the action
of heat on wood
▪ Products of carbonization and destructive distillates.

2. Minor Forest Products - products of minor importance, tree exudates, tree extracts
like dyes, tannins and other like bamboo, rattan, leaves, fruit, ornamental and
medicinal plants.

2.1. Tree Exudates - products which are natural discharge of trees and other forest
growths induced by nature or inflicted wounds on the plants.

2.1.1. Resin, dammar, and balau, Manila copal

2.1.2. Gums
2.1.3. Saps
2.1.4. Latex
2.1.5. Oleoresins (turpentine, resins and oils)

2.2. Extracted Products - products that are chemically derived or reduced.

2.2.1. Dyes
2.2.2. Tannins

2.3. Other Minor Forest Products - those that include bamboos, rattan, (split and
unsplit), nipa shingles, other fibrous plants, leaves, fruits, medicinal plants, vines,
bast fibers, trees for commercial and other purposes.

9
 Agroforestry is an age-old practice. This is evident in the many forms of
agroforestry that are found in the Philippines and other parts of the world. This section
is an inventory of the different agroforestry systems in the Philippines. Although there
are plenty of agroforestry systems, but we will just introduce three agroforestry systems
that fits in the country.

INDIGENOUS AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS

Indigenous agroforestry systems are those which have been in existence for
generations and have, thus, passed the test of time. These systems are usually practiced
by communities living close to or inside the forest. Loosely speaking, indigenous
agroforestry can also refer to those agroforestry practices which were developed by
farmers themselves in a certain locality.

Many forms of indigenous agroforestry systems have existed in various parts of

the world for thousands of years. They evolved through years of testing and fine-tuning.
As such, they are a virtual mine of information for agroforestry systems development. For
example, they can give an idea of the suitable species and species combinations for a
certain area. This information could enable poverty-stricken countries to save precious
research money and more importantly, time. It is therefore, imperative that indigenous
agroforestry systems be documented and analyzed.

Three distinct indigenous agroforestry systems in the Philippines namely; 1) fallow

system/swidden cultivation 2) rice terraces system and 3) multistorey system

1. THE FALLOW SYSTEM/SWIDDEN CULTIVATION

The traditional fallow system or swidden cultivation is considered by many as the

oldest form of agroforestry, dating back from the beginning of human transition from
the hunting to gathering phase to the plant domestication and cultivation system
(Myers, 1980). The land is cleared, burned, and then planted to agricultural
crops. After a few years, the land is left under “fallow.” Fallow is the
condition of a swidden farm left after the crop cultivation becomes
unproductive usually covered with complexes of woody vegetation.

10
Fallowing can be short (one to two years), medium (three to eight years) and long
(more than eight years). (Fujisaka and Escobar, 1997)

11
 The key to sustainability to swidden agriculture is the length of fallow. During this
period, the soil having been depleted of its fertility during the cropping period regains its
fertility through the regenerative action of woody vegetation. In contrast to destructive
shifting cultivation, traditional upland farmers do not really abandon the land. Rather,
they rotate from one piece of land to another in a well-defined cycle. In this manner, the
system becomes stable and sustainable through time. However, over long period, as
population pressure rapidly increased, land per capita also decreased. As a result, the
fallow period has become shorter, allowing the farmers to return to the abandoned fields
before there have been enough time for sufficient soil fertility restoration. This will lead
to the eventual collapse of the system.

Three examples of fallow system

A. The fallow system of the Ikalahans - The Ikalahans inhabit the slopes of
Mt. Pulag in Imugan, Neuva Viscaya and elsewhere in the Cordillera. Their main
crop is sweet potato. They have evolved a system of intercropping, crop
rotation and fallow which enable them to cultivate a new field when fertility is
optimum and put the field back to fallow before significant erosion takes place.
Cultivation lasts for two to three years and the fallow period takes 17 years.
This system is believed to be already 250 years old.
The Ikalahan farmers also practice an effective soil erosion control
technique called “gen-gen” (bank or barrier) which is a form of contour
composting. The “gen-gen” is prepared by digging shallow trenches (4-6 cm
deep) along the contour of a field about 4-6 meters apart. Old sweet potato
vines and weeds are then placed in the trenches and filled with soil. Two to
three nodes of the vine are left above the ground to allow regrowth. The gen-
gen strips not only help slow run-off, but also produce tubers and compost.

B. The fallow system of the Hanunuos - The Hanunuos in Mansalay and

Bulalacao, Mindoro Oriental practice a very intensive intercropping system in
which harvests overlap. Each month, 16 to 35 different basic food plants are
harvested excluding wild plant foods such as fungi, palm buds, palm bole starch
and non-cultivated yams, tree fruits and berries. Interplanting of annuals under
perennials is also common.
Their fallow system has two stages – low forest fallow and high forest
fallow. In the first stage (low forest fallow), vegetation consists of herbaceous
shrubs, vines and low tree growth. The area is protected from firelines which
are not cut and cultivated. The stage takes about a year. In the second stage
12
 (high forest fallow), vegetation is composed of second-growth forest. This
stage takes seven to eight years.

C. The Naalad improved fallow system - The Naalad system is relatively older than
more recent agroforestry practice (estimated 80 years old) which is being
practiced by a typical rural community in Cebu, Philippines. It can be classified
as an “improved fallow system” which relies on Ipili-ipil (Leucaena
leucocephala), one of the most popular multipurpose tree species (MPTS) in
the tropics as fallow vegetation.
Naalad is located in the mountainous barangay in the municipality of Naga
in the province of Cebu around 23 km southeast of Cebu City at 10° 12’ latitude
and 123° 45’ longitude with an elevation ranging from 100-3—meters above
sea level. The area falls under the third Philippine climatic type which is
characterized by no pronounced maximum rain period but with a short dry
season lasting from one to three months from January to June and rainy season
starts July to December. The barangay has a very mountainous terrain. The
farms are located in slopes of up to 100%. Soils in the area belong to the
Faraon clay type which has a good drainage.
The production system of Naalad. An “improved tree fallow system” is a
rotational system that use preferred tree species as fallow species (Ipil-ipil).
The reason for using such tree is the production of an economic product or
improvement of the rate of soil amelioration. If the farmers rely on nature, it
will probably take 10-20 years to rejuvenate the fertility of the soil. Instead,
they planted Ipil-ipil along strips of the farm lot to hasten the fallow period to
only five to six years presumably because of the nitrogen fixing ability of this
species.
After the fallow period, the Ipil-ipil strips are cut and the branches are piled
along the contours to form a fascine-like structure which they called “balabag”
or “babag”. These structures have a spacing of one to two meters apart and
the agricultural crops are planted in the alley formed by two “babags”. The
function of the “babag” is primarily to control erosion. It has been observed by
the farmers that crops close to the “babag” grow move vigorously.
One advantage of the Naalad system over the traditional fallow system is
that the farmers need only two parcels of land both fallow and cultivation
periods last for five to six years. In the traditional fallow, more land is needed
because the fallow periods lasts more than 10 years while cultivation is only
two to three years. It could then be hypothesized that the Naalad system is an
adaptation to a decreasing land-to-people ratio.

13
Rice Terraces System

Banaue is famous for its beautiful rice terraces. The rice terraces are a series
of benches terraces constructed on very steep mountainsides in the Cordilleras
where irrigated (lowland) rice is cultivated. Without the use of either fertilizers or
pesticides, the yields are comparable to the best lowland farms. Yields of 6.1 and
6.2 tons/hectare have been reported. In contrast, the national average yield of
rice is only 2.5 tons/hectare. The system is estimated to be more than 2000 years
old.

Terracing is one of the most effective ways of minimizing soil erosion. The
rice terraces in the Cordillera are built on a stable bedrock or parent material
preventing landslides. A forest component is valuable to the system. Forest or
“pinugo” in local dialect are owned, developed, and maintained by families who
own rice terraces (‘payoh”). The forest serves as watershed from which springs
forth water needed to irrigate the terraces. Trees also prevent land slippage.

14
2. MULTISTOREY SYSTEM

Lowland and upland farmers have long been planting forest trees, fruit trees, food
crops and medicinal plants in a multi-layer canopy. Multistorey system is an
agroforestry combination which is characterized by at least two vertical
canopy layers, in which tree crops (e. g. forest species, commercial tree crops)
are mixed with annual and perennial plantation crops, lending a managed
mixed forest appearance. This system is usually dominated by perennials rather than
annual crops. It seems to be an attempt to mimic the structure of a tropical rainforest
with its attendant advantages. The upper canopy is composed of light demanding species
while the understory is made up of shade-tolerant species.

Types of multistorey systems in the Philippines

A. Coconut-based multistorey system - Coconut-based multiple cropping

systems can also be considered as multistorey agroforestry systems. Coconut
is one of the most widely-grown tree in the tropics. Coconut is well-suited for
interplanting especially the older ones. They allow sufficient sunlight to reach
the understorey to permit the growth of other compatible species. Moreover,
the root system of coconut occupies only a small portion of the total land area.

Interplanted crops under this system are; mid-canopy - fruit trees, coffee,
citrus, banana; ground level - ginger, corn, pineapple, sweet potato; etc.

15
B. Paraserianthes falcatria + coffee or abaca - This system is reportedly
being practiced in Bukidnon. Falcata trees are planted at 7m x 7m to 10m x
10m and used as shade trees to coffee or abaca. In addition, other crops like
cacao, lanzones and mango are interplanted.

C. Mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla) + agricultural crops
- This also practiced in Benguet.
Mahogany has a spacing of 10m x 10m
at the base of which yam and tugi
(Dioscorea esculenta) are planted with
the trees as trellis. Intercropping of
gabi, pineapple, ginger and banana are
also common.

16
3. ALLEY CROPPING SYSTEM

Alley cropping is an agroforestry system which involves planting of hedgerows

along the contours and growing agricultural crops in the “alley” formed
between two hedgerows. The hedgerows maybe composed of one or two rows of
woody perennials and are regularly pruned during the cropping period to prevent shading
of the associated crops. The basic idea behind planting hedgerows is to minimize soil
erosion by trapping sediments at the base of the hedgerows and reducing surface runoff
velocity. After a few years, the hedgerows develop micro-terraces with the risers
supported by roots and stems of the hedge plants. These terraces add further stability to
the slope and serve as cheap and effective soil conservation measure. In addition, the
use of hedgerow pruning’s as green manuring or mulch ca replenish soil nutrients which
promotes a speedier nutrient cycling. In the Philippines it is more popularly known as
Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT).

17
 Establishment procedures

1. Locating the contour lines - With the use of an A-frame contour lines are
located at predetermined intervals beginning of the highest point of the farm.
This is facilitated if the farm is cleared of any obstructions beforehand. As many
contour lines as possible are located within a farm.
2. Planting of hedgerows - Before planting, contour lines are prepared by
manually cultivating both sides to form a 0.5-meter-wide strip. Furrows with
enough depth are dug on both sides of the contour lines. Seeds of the
hedgerow species are sown at 20-30 seeds per linear meter or 2-3 seeds per
hill. The seeds are covered with a thin layer of soil around 2-3 times the
diameter of the seed. If seeds are not available, cuttings can also be used with
within-row spacing of 20-30 cm.
3. Species for hedgerows - One of the most promising candidates is kakawate
(Gliricidia sepium), which possesses many of the desirable characteristics of
Ipil-ipil. However, it’s harder to propagate because seed production is not as
prolific as Ipil-ipil. As such, cuttings are commonly used which usually take a
longer time to collect, transport and plant. Table below shows some other
species for hedgerows establishment.

Common Elevation Drought

Scientific name Uses
name (m) tolerance
A. Legumes
Callandra calothyrsus Red callandra EC/GM/FW/AF 0-2000 Moderate
Gliricidia sepium Kakawate EC/GM/FW/AF 0-2000 Good
Leucaena leucocephala Ipil-ipil EC/GM/FW/AF 0-1500 Good
Leucaena diversifolia Acid Ipil-ipil EC/GM/FW/AF 0-2000 Good
Desmodium renzoni Renzoni EC/GM//AF 0-1000 Moderate
B. Grass
Penniselum purpureum Napier grass EC/AF 0-2000 Moderate
Vetiveria zizanloides Vetiver grass EC 0-2000 Excellent
Panicum maximum Guinea grass EC/AF 0-2000 Good
EC= erosion control, GM= green manure, FW=fuel wood, AF= animal fodder
Drought tolerance: excellent=withstand long drought, Moderate=tolerant of extended day period,
Poor=require high evenly rainfall

4. Hedgerows interval - Hedgerows are generally planted at 4-8-meter

intervals although the requirement of following the contours means that the
width of the cropped alleys maybe variable. It is suggested that following the

18
 guide based on the rule that the steeper the slope the closer the hedgerows
should be.
Slope (%) Hedgerows Interval (m)
10-15 25-30
16-25 20-24
41-60 10-14
> 60 4-9

5. Pruning of hedgerows - The hedgerows must be pruned before planting the

crops at least once after crop emergence. Prunings may be placed on the
surface of the alleys, stocked between double rows, or harvested and feed to
livestock on a cut-and-carry basis. When the crops mature, the hedgerows can
be allowed to grow. In humid climate like the Philippines, a number of pruning
operations- three to four times are essential during the cropping period. Using
the SALT, the recommended cutting frequency is 10 times a year. This is
estimated to produce 20 tons/ha/year of fresh pruned leaves.
6. Maintenance of hedgerows - In the early stage, weeding should be done
to prevent suppression of growth of hedgerows. In exceptional cases, fertilizer
could be applied to hasten growth. Moreover, any substantial gaps in the
hedgerow should be replanted.
7. Agricultural crops in the alleys - Almost any agricultural crops being raised
by upland farmers can be grown in the alleys. Using the techniques employed
in SALT, woody perennials are planted in every third or fourth alley. Thus, the
land area allocation ratio is 20% hedgerows, 25% perennials and 53% annuals.

19
4. WINDBREAKS SYSTEM

Windbreaks (sometimes known as shelterbelt) are narrow strips of vegetation,

usually trees, shrubs and or grass strategically planted to protect an area from destructive
winds. When properly designed and maintained, windbreaks filter and slow down the
wind that enters the protected area. The primary benefits of planting windbreaks are:

✓ Improvement of the crop quality and yield by protecting crops from wind damage
✓ Conservation of moisture by reducing evaporation and transpiration
✓ Protection from extremes of salt spray or hot, dry winds and dust

Windbreaks are most effective when oriented perpendicular to the prevailing wind
direction. They should be semi-permeable, letting some wind through and blocking the
wind entirely. Very dense windbreaks can lead to severe turbulence over the protected
area. A permeable windbreak will shelter a longer stretch of area than the dense
windbreak.

The wind protection from windbreaks should be effective from the ground to the
crowns of the tallest trees. This usually requires at least three rows of vegetation. An
ideal windbreak consists of a central core of fast and tall-growing species and two rows
medium-sized trees and/or shorter spreading species. Tall trees will protect a larger area,
but they usually have high canopies which can create understorey gaps. Thus, smaller
trees and/or shrubs are normally planted in additional row to fill this gap. The windbreak
will therefore consist of approximately 65% shrubs and vines and 35% tall and medium
sized trees. Table below shows ideal trees for windbreaks:

20
Species Common name Scientific name
Tall Trees (cover 15m)
Agoho Casuarina equisetifolia
Narra Pterocarpus indicus
Gmelina Gmelina arborea
Molave Vitex parviflora
Antipolo Artocarpus blancoi
Teak Tectona grandis
Medium-sized trees (5-15 m)
Kamachile Pithecellobium duice
Banaba Lagerstroemia speciosa
Kasoy Anarcardium occidentale
Kakawate Gliricidia sepium
Ipil-ipil Leucaena leucocephala
Kamagong Diopyros philippinensis
Duhat Syzigium cumini

21
5. TAUNGYA SYSTEM

“Taungya” is a Burmese word which means hill (taung) cultivation (ya) (Blanford,
1958 as cited by Nair, 1993). The taungya system is widely used by forestry department
in the tropics as an efficient method of plantation establishment. Essentially, the
practice consists of growing agricultural crops in-between newly planted tree
seedlings. Farmers are required to maintain the tree seedlings and in return, retain the
agricultural produce. This would last for two to three years because as tree canopy begins
to close, competition with the tree (for light, etc.) prevents further growth of agricultural
crops. The farmers then transfer to another reforestation are, if any are available, and
the trees are left as pure stands.

22
 Classification of Taungya
1. Partial: predominantly the economic interests of its participants
2. Integral: meant to invoke the idea of a land-use practice that offers a more
complete and culturally sensitive approach to rural development

Types of Taungya
1. Departmental Taungya: agricultural crops and plantation are raised by the
forest department by employing a number of laborers on daily wages. The main
aim of raising crops along with the plantation is to keep down weed growth.
2. Leased Taungya: The plantation land is given on lease to the person who
offers the highest money for raising crops for a specified number of years and
ensures care of tree plantation
3. Village Taungya: This is the most successful of the three taungya systems.
In these crops are raised by the people who have settled down in a village
inside the forest for this purpose. Usually, each family has about 0.8 to 1.7 ha
of land to raise trees and cultivate crops for 3 to 4 years.

THE PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE

In the Philippines, taungya was pioneered by the Bureau of Forest Development

or BFD (now Forest Management Bureau) under its Family Approach to Reforestation
program. The concept was tried in a 500-hectare area in two sites, namely, Malaybalay,
Bukidnon and Pantabangan, Neuva Ecija (Regadio, 1977).

In Malaybalay, the area was subdivided into five hectares per family. Benguet pine
(Pinus kesiya) was the forest species planted. The farmer was responsible for site
preparation, planting of Benguet pine at 2m x 2m spacing and maintenance. The BFD
provided seedlings and, as an incentive, farmers were allowed to interplant agricultural
crops. The contract ran for two years, after which, they were given another area to plant.
The project was a complete success after two years.

In Pantabangan, Ipil-ipil and Mollucansau (P. falcataria) were used with a spacing
of 3m x 3m. Each family was allotted three to five hectares. In addition, the families were
given Php 417/hectare in six installments. The contract ran for two years. However, for
some reasons, taungya did not succeed there.

23
A. Benguet pine (P. kesiya) in Benguet (Bravo, 1986) - In this study,
Benguet pine seedlings were planted at 2m x 2m spacing. In between rows,
coffee, kadios (Cajanus cajan), potato, taro and ginger were planted in
separate experimental plots. All of the crops had good survival. From the cost
and return analysis, a very high investment and labor are required.

B. Bagras (Eucalyptus deglupta) in Leyte (Penafiel and Bautista, 1977)

- This study was conducted in Babatngon, Leyte. The site was open grassland
dominated by Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica. Bagras
seedlings were planted at 2.5m x 3m spacing. In between, taro, pechay,
eggplant, bitter gourd (ampalaya), onion and pineapple were planted. Three
years later, it was found out that Bagras under taungya had a higher rate of
survival (90.63%) than Bagras alone (53.13%). In addition, the seedlings
under taungya system posted a better height growth (5.22m) compared to
pure Bagras (2.45m).

C. Hanga (Pitosparum resiniferum) in Baguio City - One year-old hanga

stand with a spacing of 2m x 2m was interplanted with pechay, taro, baguio
beans, white potato, chinese cabbage, corn and ginger. At the end of the study,
the hanga seedlings with taungya showed better height growth (2.26m)
compared to hanga alone 90.95m).

24
 The continuing practice of shifting cultivation, logging and animal grazing reduce
the vegetation cover of the soil which results into surface run-off, water loss and soil
erosion. In the Philippines, it is estimated that 100,000 hectares of one-meter-deep soil
is washed into the sea every year (Lasco, 1994). A total gross erosion in the country
based on geographic information database is estimated at 2.135 million tons/year or an
average gross erosion of 73 t/ha/year for the total land area (Master Plan for Forestry
Development, 1990 as cited by Baconguis, 1994). The extent of soil erosion depends on
the various land uses.

Adverse Effects of Erosion and Water Loss

1. Deterioration of farm land
2. Silting of reservoirs, canals, rivers
3. Destruction of infrastructures
4. Flooding
5. Drought

Types of Soil Erosion

1. Wind erosion
1.1. Common in wide plain of low rainfall
1.2. Winds loosen soil particles and transport them
2. Gravity erosion
2.1. Movement of soil due to its own weight
2.2. Two types:
2.2.1. Soil creep – movement is slow, hardly perceptible; - entire mass of soil
moves downhill as a unit; occurs on steep slopes
2.2.2. Landslide – great masses of soil and rocks suddenly rush down leaving
behind a large opening in landscape due to:
- Prolonged and heavy rain
- Faulty drainage
- Undercutting along stream banks
- Road cuts
- Cutting of trees
- Earthquakes
- Geological movements
3. Water erosion - Water is the most active force that cause erosion.
3.1. Types of water erosion
25
 3.1.1. Raindrops or splash erosion – caused by raindrops
3.1.2. Sheet erosion – the removal of soil in thin layers from the surface due to
surplus flow; generally slow and hardly visible, too late when it becomes
apparent; aggravated by splash erosion
3.1.3. Rill erosion – caused by water flow in small and shallow canals
3.1.4. Gully erosion – advanced stage of rill erosion; cannot be leveled by
plowing shape; u-shaped, v-shaped
3.1.5. River bank erosion – erosion of banks caused by flowing water, generally
on the outside of the bank

Factors Affecting the Rate of Erosion

1. Rainfall
1.1. Monthly distribution
1.1.1. Affect development of vegetation
1.1.2. Gives indication of intensity
2. Topography
2.1. Size of the catchment – the larger the catchment, the higher the runoff
2.2. Length of the slope – the longer the slope, the higher is the rate of erosion
2.3. Gradient of the slope – the steeper slope, the higher are the velocity and the
erosive power of runoff
3. Soil properties
3.1. Soil texture – sandy soil has higher infiltration rate but has less resistance
against erosion
3.2. Soil structure – granular or crush less liable to erosion
3.3. Soil chemical properties
3.3.1. Higher organic matter content promote infiltration
3.3.2. Ca, Mg ions have favorable influence on soil structure
3.3.3. High Na may cause unstable soils
4. Vegetation cover – dense vegetation cover provides the best protection against
erosion.
5. Land-use – human activities are the main cause of erosion. These include the
following:
5.1. Logging
5.2. Upland farming
5.3. Forest fires
5.4. Overgrazing
5.5. Road construction
5.6. Mining
26
Mechanical/Engineering Measures for Erosion Control

1. DRAINAGE SYSTEM - Used for removal of excess water from rainfall and
underground seepage. Excess water could damage crops and structures.

Interceptors/cross canals
✓ 0.70 to 1 meter wide; at least 0.50-meter-wide along field boundary
✓ Follows boundary even if sloping
✓ Every 15 to 20 vertical meter if no other contour canals
✓ Check dams to slow water flow
✓ Planting Napier grass or legume trees along sides
✓ Should direct rainfall runoff into natural waterways such as streams
✓ If no natural waterways, cross canals are constructed along edges of field
or every 50 to 100 meters
✓ Check dams constructed along canals

Contour canals - These are canals constructed along the hillside to drain excess
water into natural drainage systems of diversion canals and trap some of the
water. These canals are designed to solve excess rainwaters on the field.

27
 Stabilization
✓ Involves stabilization of soil removed from the canals so that it will later
form a bench terrace riser
✓ Grasses are the fastest means to stabilize soil
✓ Napier can also be used to forage
✓ Tree legumes can also be planted

2. ROCKWALLS - Stones and rocks piled along the contours preferably reinforced with
grass on the upslope portion and fast-growing tree legumes on the downslope portion.
Usually, rockwalls are built in areas with abundant rocks.

Advantages of rockwalls”
✓ More permanent structures
✓ Facilitates field preparation by removal of rocks
✓ Trees and grasses could be used as feed, firewood, fertilizers, and breaker

28
3. CHECK DAMS - These structures consist of small “fences” made of sticks driven into
the canal or stream bed. The bamboo or branches are driven through the upright base
of the dam. These structures can be placed in the drainage canals or in areas where
gully erosion has begun. Check dams can prevent gully erosion by slowing down the
water flow in the hillsides. Species that can withstand moist condition (e. g. pandan)
may also be planted behind the check dams.

29
4. BENCH TERRACING - These measures include a series of level or nearly level strips
running across a slope supported by steep risers. These risers are built by either earth
protected with grass or by rockwalls. There are two types of bench terraces – the
level bench terrace, which is used to plant rice and the reverse type slope which is
suited for drainage excess water.

30
5. RIPRAPPING - Riprapping involves fitting and piling of rocks on top of each other
to form retaining wall. This is done by covering the whole area with a protective layer
of concrete rocks. Primarily, the ripraps are established to protect the soil from impacts
of raindrops and stabilize hillside, roadbanks and streambanks. The thickness of the
wall may vary from ¼ to one meter.

31
VEGETATIVE MEASURES OF SOIL EROSION

Cheapest and most natural way in which vegetation is utilized as a means of

control. Effectively varies with types of vegetation, species and stands. In general,
practically all plants are useful for a protective cover.

32
Desirable Characteristics
✓ Ability to grow on degraded and eroded soils
✓ Rapid development
✓ Deep and widespread root system
✓ Dense, shallow root system ca also have favorable “matting effect”
✓ Dense and wide-spreading crown
✓ Ease of establishment
✓ High production of litters

Suitable plants should be selected among the local species growing in

the area. Example;

✓ Trees – ipil-ipil, kakawate, tibig, paper mulberry, kamachile

✓ Shrub – guava, Lanatana camara
✓ Bamboo
✓ Vines – kudzu, centrosema
✓ Grasses – Bermuda grass, kikuyu grass

Advantages:
✓ Cost is low
✓ Little or no maintenance
✓ By-products possible
✓ Becomes increasingly more effective

Classification of vegetation:
✓ First group – those plants which would give prompt and effective control by
reason of their quick growth, fibrous and ability to endure unfavorable site
(grasses, vines, herbaceous plant)
✓ Second growth – semi-permanent vegetation which includes those that will be
replaced later (shrubs, pioneers)
✓ Third group – permanent vegetation, usually the native woody species

33