Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Forest protection and Conservation is the careful practice of maintaining and
protecting the forest lands for the future generations and also for recreation and
Ecotourism. The conservation of forests can be done by regulated and planned
cutting of trees, by controlling over forest fire, by controlling over forest fire and
by proper utilization of forest products and forests. Forests are mainly important
because they stabilize climate, regulate the water cycle, and provides habitat to
thousands of life forms. Below are the leading reasons signifying the importance
of forest.

1.1 What do you mean by forests?

A forest is a large area of land that's covered in trees. The word forest can also
refer collectively to those trees. An area that's covered in trees can be described
with the adjective forested.

1.2What do you mean by forest conservation?

Forest conservation is the practice of planting and maintaining forested areas for
the benefit and sustainability of future generations. Forest conservation involves
the upkeep of the natural resources within a forest that are beneficial to both
humans and the environment.

1.3 How can we conserve and protect the forest?

The following steps should be taken for the conservation of forests:Regulated and
Planned Cutting of Trees, Control over Forest Fire, Reforestation and

1
Afforestation, Check over Forest Clearance for Agricultural and Flabitation
Purposes, Protection of Forest, Proper Utilisation of Forest Products and Forest

1.4What is the importance of forest conservation?

Forests have a variety of functions, including land conservation, securing of water
sources, control of climate change, and creation of natural environs essential to
human existence. The law gives new value to these “multifunctional” forests with
a view to achieving harmony between them and society.

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 Chapter 2
PRESENT SCENARIO OF FOREST PROTECTION AND
CONSERVATION

2.1 Introduction
Below are 9 reasons why forests are important and why should we protect forests
from getting axed. Supports Ecosystems and Habitat. Forests are habitats to
millions of animals and support numerous ecosystems. About 90% of all earth’s
species live in forests. Animals such as lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles,
alligators, insects, birds, butterflies and monkeys among other wild animals such
as lions and leopards all live in the forests or within the rivers and streams in
forest areas. Therefore, these animals form their food chains in the forests by
interacting with each other in their respective physical environments which
creates an ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems are critical for the flourishing of the
animal lives. Additionally, millions of indigenous people still live in the forests
and depend on them for survival.1

2.2 Protects Watershed Areas

Forests act as watershed regions since, approximately all the water merely comes
from forest-derived water tables and from within the rivers, lakes, and streams in
forest areas. Streams and rivers running through forests are protected from sun’s
radiation and drying by the forest cover.

1
Md. Jahid Hossain Dolon, International Environmental Law with Bangladesh Perspective,
2nd ed., (Dhaka: Tutu Publications, 2013), p. 381.

3
2.3 Supports Biodiversity
Forests serve as reserves for the genes of biodiversity. This is because forests
carry about 90% of all the earth’s species, both plants and animals, thereby
making up a diversity of plant and animal life forms in the various forest habitats.

2.4 Purifies the Air

Forests play an important role in the purification of the atmospheric air. During
the day, trees and plants absorb carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give out
oxygen. As such, they help in the purification of the air that we breathe. Forests
thus serve as an instrumental tool for reducing the amount of carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gasses in the environment which are responsible for global
warming.2

2.6 Stabilize Climate

Forests serve as climate stabilizers since trees and plants regulate atmospheric
temperatures through evapotranspiration and proving environmental breeze. In
urban settings, for instance, the presence of trees can reduce the dependence of air
conditioners. Large forests regulate regional temperatures by absorbing the sun’s
radiant heat and promote rainfall as well as cool climate as an effect of
evapotranspiration.

2.7 Enrich the Soil

Plants and trees help to recycle the soil nutrients through the shedding of leaves
and small branches. The plant and tree roots also break the soils in finer particles
and encourage water infiltration into the soil. The roots also absorb some water
from surface runoff and reduce the speed of flow, minimizing soil erosion which
normally degrades the fertility of the soil.

2.8 Regulates the Water Cycle

2
Md. Jahid Hossain Dolon, ibid, p. 382.

4
Forests also regulate the natural cycle of water evaporation and subsequent
condensation and precipitation as rain. Forests make this possible by absorbing
and redistributing rainwater pretty equally across the entire geographical
coverage, which is mostly termed as water economy. Forests also absorb
considerable amounts of water from runoff and pass it down into the aquifers,
replenishing groundwater supplies.

2.9 Medicinal Value

Forests are highly linked to medicinal research and pharmaceutical breakthroughs
due to their extensive plant life and animal life forms. A large percentage of the
drugs used for diverse medical treatments are extracted from the plants and
animals that live in the forests. Forests are comprised of numerous and incredible
cures including the drugs used to relieve the effects of cancers.

2.10 Economic Significance

Forests are of vast economic benefits to us. For instance, plantation forests
provide humans with wood and timber, which is used in construction and as
raw materials for numerous products. Also, whenever tourists visit the forest
areas to view the beautiful sceneries alongside the wildlife forms inhabiting the
forests, the hosting nations and communities get revenue from tourism.3
The forest fire destroyed about 1 acre of the Bangladesh Sundarbans in
Nangli, near Dhansagor Station forest camp of Chandpai range. On March 27,
2016, the local people first noticed the fire in the forest in the afternoon and
informed the nearest forest camp. The Forest Department and the local
community together tried overnight to control the fire. The Fire Brigade of
Morrelganj unit was called in when the local people and Forest Department failed
to manage the situation. The Fire Brigade brought the situation under control the
next day.

3
[https://www.longdom.org/scholarly/forest-conservation-journals-articles- ppts- list-
882.html and https://www.eartheclipse.com/environment/importance-of- forests.html, last
visited on 20.07.2020].

5
 This incident of the forest fire in the Bangladesh Sundarbans is not new.
Every year forest fire destroys a large area of the forest, and in most cases local
people and few corrupted Forest Department staff are responsible for this. In
2012, a similar forest fire in Kalamtezi destroyed a large area of the Bangladesh
Sundarbans. In Nangli, Kalamtezi, Gulishakhali, Dhansagor and other places of
Chandpai and Sarankhola ranges forest fire is now very common phenomenon.
But in most cases, the incidents remain unreported. It is reported that some
people of the area in collaboration with Forest Department staff grab forest land
illegally for fishing. The villagers complained that some Forest Department staff
take bribe from the local people and illegally lease the forest land to them for
fishing every year. This man-made forest fire usually breaks out just before the
monsoon in Bangladesh. At that time people set fire to the forest to clear the
land. The low land in the forest is usually chosen for fishing. People clear the
low land and collect water during monsoon. After storing adequate water for
fishing, they make a narrow channel to let in Cat fish (Clariasmagur) into this
land. After the monsoon they collect and sell fish from this land.
Present condition: At present the earth is occupied by 3.87 billion ha
forest having biomass 421.27 billion tons. Of the total world biomass Africa
shares 16.79%, Asia 17.86%, Europe 14.5%, and South America 22.89%. Brazil
has the largest biomass which is about 27% of the total world biomass Table 16.1
and Fig. 16.1.In developing countries like India forests play important role in
providing economic wealth, maintaining ecological balance and improving the
productivity of agriculture. With the rapid increase in human population more
and more areas of forests are converted into agricultural land. The consequences
of this are the increased soil erosion, frequent floods, drought and landslides. The
role of forests in sustaining agriculture must, therefore, be realized and the
conversion of forest areas into agricultural land must be checked.

2.11 The causes of deforestation

Deforestation causes can either be direct or indirect.

6
 Among direct causes are:
i. Natural causes as hurricanes, fires, parasites and floods
ii. Human activities as agricultural expansion, cattle breeding, timber
extraction, mining, oil extraction, dam construction and infrastructure
development.

2.11.1 Among indirect causes are

Insufficient political actions and governance failure as inadequate land tenure
system, corruption, wrong public administration investmentsPolitical and socio-
economic causes as population growth, military conflicts and climatic changes
The main causes of deforestation can actually be lead back especially
to:substitution of forest areas with cultivations and breedingtimber
extractionfirewood collection broad and infrastructure construction4

2.12 Cultivations and livestock farming

We should consider, infect, that with regards to the substitution of forest areas
with cultivations and livestock farms, the impact is much higher because after the
extraction of themost precious trees which are destined for timber
commercialization, forests are set on fire causing a great impact on local animals
and plants. The most disastrous year for the Amazon forest has been 1991 when
over 50,000 fires where registered by aerial views or satellite images.

2.13 Timber extraction

Centuries-old trees are cut down to make timber or cellulose for the furniture or
paper industry. Any system employed for wood cutting causes serious damage to
the ecosystem, and these damages are amplified by construction of roads required
for vehicles and to transport chopped timber to its destination. For this reason,
also many other economically unattractive trees which have an important
biological and ecological value are cut down.

4
[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/the basics/cities/dhaka/, Last visited on 20.07.2020].

7
2.14 Firewood collection
This activity is undertaken especially by native populations, which due to recent
population growth must provide energy sources for their survival. This
phenomenon adds to large-scale industrial timber exploitation.

2.15 Road Construction

Besides the construction of roads to transport timber, also dam construction
and industrial exploitation of mines contribute to massive deforestation.

2.16 Environmental Effects of Deforestation from Above

2.16.1 Loss of Habitat
One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of deforestation is the loss of
animal and plant species due to their loss of habitat; not only do we lose those
known to us, but also those unknown, potentially an even greater loss.
“Seventy percent of Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests, and
many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their homes.”
The trees of the rainforest that provide shelter for some species also
provide the canopy that regulates the temperature, a necessity for many others.
Its removal through deforestation would allow a more drastic temperature
variation from day to night, much like a desert, which could prove fatal for
current inhabitants.5

2.16.2 Increased Greenhouse Gases

In addition to the loss of habitat, the lack of trees also allows a greater amount of
greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere. Presently, the tropical
rainforests of South America are responsible for 20% of Earth’s oxygen and they
are disappearing at a rate of 4 hectares adecade. If these rates are not stopped and
reversed, the consequences will become even more severe.

2.16.3 Water in the Atmosphere

5
[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/the basics/cities/dhaka/, Last visited on 20.07.2020].

8
The trees also help control the level of water in the atmosphere by helping to
regulate the water cycle. With fewer trees left, due to deforestation, there is less
water in the air to be returned to the soil. In turn, this causes dryer soil and the
inability to grow crops, an ironic twist when considered against the fact that 80%
of deforestation comes from small-scale agriculture and cattle ranching.6

2.16.4 A Forestation:
A forestation is the process of planting trees, or sowing seeds, in a barren land
devoid of any trees to create a forest. The term should not be confused with
reforestation, which is the process of specifically planting native trees into a forest
that has decreasing numbers of trees. While reforestation is increasing the number
of trees of an existing forest, a forestation is the creation of a ‘new’ forest.
Our Earth has been constantly trying to cope with the way in which human
beings use natural resources, clear forest lands, cut trees, and contaminate the air,
land, and water. Industrial revolution, population bursts, and pollution create
permanent damage to the earth, and the result is global warming and climate
change. In such situations, something that can help extend the life of the planet
and its living organisms is the increase of natural resources and decrease of
exploitation of these resources.
By planting trees and creating forests, many of the commercial needs of
human beings are fulfilled, while not destroying what is left of the planet.
Afforestation is, therefore, a practice that has been propagated by government
and non-government agencies of many countries as a way to stop over-
exploitation of nature.7
Social forestry refers to the management of forests for the benefits of local
communities. It includes aspects such as forest management, forest protection,
and afforestation of deforested lands with the objective of improving the rural,

6
[http://www.biologydiscussion.com/forest/present-status-of-forest-wealth-of- the-
world/7042, last visited on 25.08.2020].
7
[https://matteroftrust.org/afforestation-meaning-importance-and-current-efforts/last visited
on 25.08.2020].

9
environmental, and social development. Unlike other forestry projects, in the
setting of social forestry, the needs of local communities come first.
For this reason, the main goal of social forestry is to grow trees and
plantations to meet the growing needs of people in reference to increased demand
for timber, wood, food, fuel, and food to reduce the pressure and dependency on
traditional forest areas. The practice also aims to protect agriculture from adverse
climatic conditions by improving the environment, increase the natural beauty,
and increasing the supply of forest produce for local use.8
Save
Although the concept and practice of social forestry have existed for
centuries, it is constantly gaining a new dimension because of its benefits
including its potential for tackling the challenges of global warming. Here, the
benefits and types of social forestry are explained in detail.

2.17 Benefits of Social Forestry

2.17.1 Increased Biodiversity
Growing of trees in barren lands within the community helps to increase the
biodiversity value. As trees grow larger, the nature of the habitat will change.
Well managed forests encourage biodiversity as they offer habitation for various
animals, plants, shrubs, insects and birds among others. In nature, wherever there
are trees, other plants and wildlife follow.
In social forestry, trees and associated plants become the source of food and
shelter for a variety of small animals and birds. Furthermore, mature trees create
an environment that encourages the growth of other plants that would otherwise
not be existent thereby increasing food varieties for animals and the local people.

2.17.2 Carbon removal trees act as carbon sinks

In the fight against global warming effect, trees play an essential role in the
removal of carbon from the environment. Trees use carbon dioxide when growing

8
Philippe Sands, “Principles of International Environmental law”, 2nd ed., (Cambridge :
University Press, 2003), p. 84.

10
and thus, removing it from the environment. Social forestry is seen as the best way
to reduce carbon dioxide in urban settings. Trees energy-saving effect also
indirectly lowers the carbon dioxide emissions by reducing the demand for power.
It is estimated that planting of 100 million trees would help save 22 billion
kilowatt-hours and about 33 million tons of carbon dioxide annually after ten
years according to a 1990 study by Akbari and others. However, it is worth noting
that the actual amount of carbon dioxide removed from the air depends on the
types of trees and vegetation in the forest.9
On its own, a mature Bradford pear can store up to 306 kg of carbon dioxide in
its aboveground biomass. Trees help to reduce carbon dioxide by acting as a
carbon dioxide sink and by reducing energy use. Neighborhoods well covered
with trees can be up to 6 to 10 degrees cooler than areas without tree cover.
2.17.3 Soil conservation
Another critical benefit of social forestry is soil conservation. Communities that
embrace social forestry enjoy significant benefits in terms of improved
agricultural activities. Tree roots prevent soil erosion by holding soil in place,
mitigating the negative effects of soil erosion.
In a medium-sized city, planting trees in parks and along paths and roads can help
save up to886 tons of soil annually. It is also worth noting that trees reduce soil
erosion by reducing the impact of raindrops on barren surfaces. Decaying tree
leaves also help form an organic layer on the ground that makes the soil rich while
also allowing water to percolate into the soil, reducing the likeliness of runoff and
soil erosion.
They also act as mulch reducing evaporation. Roots also reduce soil
compaction, increasing the rate at which rainfall infiltrates soil as well as the
capacity of soil to store water, reducing the likeliness of overland flow.

2.17.4 Health benefits

9
Philippe Sands, Ibid, p.86

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The effects of trees and nature on human health are well researched. Trees and
nature are natural remedies for stress and anxiety. When people are stressed, they
usually take a walk in the parks and other nature trails for the calming effect.
Therefore, bringing trees to human habitats can contribute to better health
and improved general wellbeing. It is also becoming common to find hospitals
growing trees due to the healing effect of trees. Studies have shown that hospital
patients with a view of trees outside their windows can help them recover faster
and with fewer complications.
Trees also absorb tailpipe pollutants that can have a negative effect on people
health such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and
particulate matter. Traditionally, trees and forests have been a source of medicinal
value for communities around the forest.

2.17.5 Community enrichment

Trees make the neighborhood more attractive and more serene. An area with an
abundance of trees is more likely to attract newcomers than an area without trees.
Furthermore, properties in an area with an abundance of trees are more valuable
than the same properties in an area without trees. Trees create shade that helps
improve the longevity of outdoor furniture and even pavement.
Studies have shown that providing 20 percent shade can help improve
the condition of your pavement by up to 11 percent resulting in up to 60 percent
savings in resurfacing costs. It is also worth noting recreational areas that are
well stocked with trees can help keep the community together at home.

2.17.7 Noise reduction

Noise is a big trigger of anxiety and stress. Loud noises can disrupt sleep, affect
how people relate with others, and even cause illness. In fact, prolonged exposure
to high levels of noise and noise pollution is considered a major cause of hearing
loss. Although rules and regulations are being put in place to reduce noise
pollution in many nations across the globe, embracing social forestry in urban
areas can mitigate the effects of noise pollution.

12
 Trees reflect and absorb sound energy reducing the noise pollution.
Furthermore, the noise of trees caused by branches and leaves as they swirl on a
windy day helps to mask man-caused sounds reducing the negative noise.10

2.1.7.8 Improve air quality

Although most people relate trees with the removal of carbon dioxide from the
environment, it is worth noting that trees also help to clean and improve the
quality of air. An acre of trees is adequate to generate enough oxygen for up to
18 people. Trees also absorb gaseous pollutants that negatively affect people
health by creating conditions such as asthma and breathing difficulties.
Particularly, trees help to clean air by absorbing gaseous pollutants into
their leaves and then trap and filter particulates on and through their stems,
leaves, and twigs. Some of the pollutants that can be controlled by trees include
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxides, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, ozone and
small particulates that are less than 10 microns in size.

2.17.9 Energy conservation and reducing overall atmospheric temperatures

Trees act as natural air conditioners. The evaporation from a single tree can
have the same cooling effect as ten room-sized, residential air conditioners
operating 20 hours a day. Planting two or three trees in the compound can
shade your home from the hot sun eliminating the need to cool your home and
thus, lowering the energy needed to heat the house. Trees can also make good
screens and act as windbreaks when placed in the path of the prevailing winds
improving heating efficiency.

2.17.10 Social benefits

Trees are associated with various social benefits that make the neighborhood
more attractive and valuable. Social forestry helps to create inviting and cool
areas for relaxation and recreation such as parks and playgrounds. Trees also add
exciting color and beauty to the neighborhood as seasons change.

10
Gazi Shamsur Rahman, the Minor Acts, 7th ed. (Dhaka: Kamrul Book House, 2007), p. 760.

13
 The color green creates a calming effect and helps relieve eye strain
contributing to the wellness of the community. Trees also help to screen
unattractive views and soften the harsh outline of metal, masonry, steel, asphalt,
and glass. Trees also encourage interaction with neighbors by providing areas
where people regularly meet.

2.18Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry involves the growth of trees and agriculture in the same setting to
provide landowners with agricultural and tree products on a commercial basis.
The objective of agro-forestry is to gain positive interactions between the two
systems. The systems can be separate or fully physically integrated within a
single business enterprise.
This type of social forestry is ideal for an individual looking to venture
into farm forestry while maintaining the existing agricultural enterprise. Agro-
forestry offers businesses economic benefits, social benefits and increased
productivity as well as the provision of ecological goods and services.11

2.19 Farm Forestry

In the farm forestry setup, the objective is to manage trees for a specific purpose
within a farming context. The common purpose is usually timber plantations on
private land, but the setup can be applied to a range of enterprises that are
managed in a variety of ways using different parts of the trees.12
Farm forestry offers many benefits that include shelter and pasture for
animals, additional diversified earnings, improved living environments, increase
in the capital value of the plantation, improvement, and maintenance of soil and
water health, sustainable management of natural resources and increases in
biodiversity.13

2.20 Extension Forestry

11
Ibid, p.761.
12
Ibid, p.762.
13
Ibid, p.764.

14
Extension forestry is increasingly becoming common in urban centers and
most living estates. Extension forestry involves the planting of trees on the
sides of canals, roads, and railways as well as on wastelands. This type of
social forestry is beneficial in the creation of forests on the common village
lands, panchayat lands, and government wastelands.

2.21 Community Forestry

Community forestry refers to the management of communal land. The village
members collectively decide and implement projects on the communal land. The
local population takes part in planning, managing, and harvesting of forest crops.
The population also shares a proportion of the socio-economic and ecological
benefits from the forest. The purpose of community forestry is to increase the
involvement and reward for local people. It also seeks to provide a balance
between outside and community interests.

2.22 Evergreen forest

Over 800 species of flowering plants have been recorded in these forests. They
have more undergrowth than evergreen forests. Top canopy trees reach a height
of 25-57 m. In the valleys and moist slopes chapalish, telsur, chundul and narkeli
constitute the top canopy; gutgutya, toon, pitraj, nageswar, uriam, nalizam,
godajam, pitjam, dhakijam form the middle storey; and dephal and
kechuanconstitute the lower storey. On the hotter and dryer slopes and on ridges
different species of garjan, banshimul, shimul, shilkoroi, chundul, gujabatna,
kamdeb, buragamari, bahera and moose form the upper storey; gab, udal and
shibhadi form the middle storey and adalia, barmala, goda, ashoka, jalpai and
darrum constitute the lower storey. The common deciduous species are garjan,
simul, bansimul, batna, chapalish, toon, koroi and jalpai. The flora of these
forests resembles those of eastern Himalayas in the north and Arakan in the
south. These forests collectively occupy about 6,40,000 ha of land and supply about
40% of the commercial timber of the country. Recent introduction of rubber

15
plantation along with the previous exotic teak plantation is gradually changing the
natural character of the forests.14

Tropical moist deciduous forest Commonly known as sal forest, sal

(Shorearobusta) being the dominant species. These forests are now distributed in
Dhaka, Mymensingh, Dinajpur and Comilla regions. They constitute two distinct
belts (covering about 107,000 ha of land); the larger one falls between the
bhramaputra and the jamuna rivers with a length of about 80 km and a width of 7-
20 km. This part is known as MadhupurGarh. The other smaller belt is situated at
Sherpur district and lies along the foothills of the Garo Hills of India, having a
length of about 60 km and width of 1.5-10 km. There are some smaller remnant
patches of forest areas in Rangpur, Dinajpur, Thakurgaon, and Naogaon districts
(covering about 14,000 ha) with some remainings in ShalvanVihara, Mainamati
and Rajeshpur in Comilla (about 200 ha).

2.23 Deciduous forest, Gazipur

Until the beginning of the 20th century, these forests existed as a continuous belt
from Comilla to Darjeeling of India. At present, most of the forest area is under
occupation and the present remaining stands of sal are of poor stocking and
quality, consisting of degraded coppice and plantations. The present notified area
of this forest is largely honeycombed with rice fields. The forest forms more or
less a uniform canopy of 10-20 m, mostly with deciduous plants. Other than the
sal (about 90%), the other common trees are palash, haldu, jarul or shidah
(Lagerstroemia parviflora), bazna, hargoja, ajuli (Dilleniapentagyna), bhela,
koroi, menda (Litseamonopetala), kushum, udhal, dephajam, bahera, kurchi,
haritaki, pitraj, sheora, sonalu, assar, amlaki and adagash (Croton oblongifolius).
Climbers (mostly woody) like kanchanlata, anigota, kumarilata, gajpipal, panilata,
Dioscorea species, satamuli, and gila occur in these forests. A good number of
undergrowth is also recorded (about 250 species under 50 genera). The common
ones are assamlata, bhat, boichi, moinakanta and ashal. The significant grass is

14
Md. Jahid Hossain Dolon, ibid, p. 240.

16
sungrass. A few epiphytes are also recorded. Legumes, euphrobias and
convolvulous plants also occur.

2.24 Tidal forest in Sundarbans

There are certain forests localized to a particular habitat conditions. These are
actually secondary formations. They include: (i) The beach or littoral forest-
occurs along the sea beaches of Cox's Bazar, Chittagong, Barisal and Patuakhali
regions, adjoining to tidal forests. Jhau, kerung, ponyal, kathbadam, madar, paras
and nishinda are occasionally associated and form different shades of thickets. (ii)
Fresh water swamp forest- occurs in low-lying haor (large water bodies) areas in
Sylhet and Sunamganj and also in depressions within the hill forest area. The area
is subjected to flooding during rainy season and the soil is very moist. In Sylhet
area, the swamp forest is covered with grasses like ekhra, kaghra, and nal. Along
the bank of haor areas hijal trees often form a pure stand. Undergrowth in these
forests is mainly cane, lantana and many large grasses and sedges. Tree species
associated with savanna are koroi, shimul, kalhuza (Cordiadichotoma), bhatkur
(Vitexheterophylla), and jarul. The common undergrowth aretara (Alpinia),
costus, murta, melastoma, and nal. Other than these specialized forests, there are
some localized forests with distinctive floristic composition found along the
streams of hilly regions, locally known as charas. The trees that are commonly
found along this areas are chalet, pitaly, kanjal (Bischofiajavanica), jarul, ashoka,
bhubi (Baccaurearamiflora), jalpai, shera and dunus. Many epiphytes and ferns,
and also mosses are frequently found in the composition.

17
 Chapter 3
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR PROTECTION AND
CONSERVATION

3.1 Introduction

18
Forest and Forestry though not much fossil evidence is available, studies indicate
that extensive forest under tropical range existed in the tertiary period in parts of
Bangladesh. Glutaxylon, Dipterocarpoxylon, Cynometroxylon fossils, all from
Miocene beds, discovered in adjacent areas have affinities with species found
today in tropical conditions. A good amount of Angiosperm plant fossils have also
been discovered from areas adjoining Bangladesh. The tertiary period was
followed by a period of glaciation. Advances occurred during the Pleistocene
period, starting from about a million years ago, and ending at 25000 BC. The
advances were interrupted by interglacial periods, when the climate became less
cold. This lowering of temperature eliminated most mammals and also helped in
extinction of Tertiary and Siwalik flora.15
In the proto-historic period, civilization flourished in the Sind and Punjab
(dating 4000 BC to 5000 BC); people then were great users of timbers. No record,
however, is available about the forests of Bengal for the period. There are
evidence of a flourishing Dravidian civilization in 2000 BC. The forests had a
great role to play in the development of this civilization.
The early Aryans were pastoral people, interested in agriculture. They
cleared forests in certain areas to settle down, and maintained all their industries in
the sylvan surroundings of the forest. Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Puranas
throw light on the forest and forestry of the subcontinent during those period, and
their distribution and composition can be conjectured from the two literary
contribution of the post-vedic period, viz Ramayana, and Mahabharata. Frequent
references of Sal, Dhab (Anogeissuslatefolia), Billa (Aeglemarmelos), Kinsuka
(Buteamonosperma), etc have been made which are common species in
Bangladesh forests. In the epics it is recorded that dense forests existed along the
Ganges but it is difficult to ascertain from the description where the forest was
located.
The next period to take into consideration is the period of Greek invasion
and the Maurya Kingdom. Megasthenes described the period as one when 'many

15
Birnie.P And Boyle, “International Law And Environment”, 3rd ed., (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1992), p.20.

19
huge mountains abounded in fruit trees and many vast plains of great fertility
more or less beautiful but all alike intersected by multitudes of rivers'. Emperor
Ashoka was a great lover of forests and wildlife and took steps to preserve them.
hiuen-tsang visited India between 629-645 AD. His memoir gives extensive
information on the distribution of forests at that time. He recorded deep forests in
Sravasti, Kapilabastu, and nearby regions including Ramgram. From Ramgram 'he
went north-east through a great forest road being a narrow dangerous path with
wild oxen and wild elephants, and robbers and hunters always in wait to kill
travellers, and emerging from forests he reached the country of Krishnagara'. The
great traveller crossed PUN-NA-FA-TAN or Pundrabardhana (Pabna according to
Cunningham, and Rangpur according to Ferguson). He mentioned that
Pundrabardhana was a low country with moist, prosperous, fertile soil and
jackfruit trees. Then Hiuen-Tsang came to Samatataie present Jessore, Dhaka and
Faridpur districts, where the land was low, and the climate was moist and full of
trees and wild animals.
During the Mughal period, incentives were given to reclaim forest areas
for agriculture. Babar in his diaries noted that Bengal Suba had 24 Sirkars
including 5 in Orissa. Sir JN Sirkar made a table showing an approximate
equivalence between the 16 Sirkars of Bengal Suba in Akbar's time and the
Bengal districts of the last age of British rule.
Abul Fazal mentions presence of forests in Jannatabad, Khalifabad and
Bazuha. In Khalifabad he mentions abundance of wild elephants; while in Bazuha
thick long timbers suitable for masts. Jannatabad was grassy and full of wild
buffaloes. The present sundarbans, according to the description, extended further
north up to northern Nadia and northern Jessore, and as full of crocodiles and
tigers.16
The Mughal policy on forest was one of indifference. They used the
forests mostly as game reserves for the purpose of sports. They were interested in
trees from the gardening point of view, and also for avenue planting. In short, it
may be said that they had an aesthetic and utilitarian outlook on plants, rather than

16
Ibid, p. 21

20
any comprehensive policy on problems of forestry including its preservation,
propagation, protection or improvement.
The end of the Mughal period was followed by the beginning of east
Indiacompany and later the British rule. Initially, ie in the 18th century up to the
middle of the 19th century, the forests were subjected to exploitation on a gigantic
scale for ship building and railway sleeper production. There was no real attempt
at forest preservation. The first attempt to protect the forests in India was taken in
the southern part of India. On 3rd August 1855, Lord Dalhousie, Governor
General of India, issued a memorandum where for the first time he proclaimed a
plan for forest conservancy for the whole of India. According to Stabbing it may
be called the 'Charter of the Indian Forests'. Brandis in 1856 was appointed as the
Inspector General of Forests. A Forest Department was established during British
Rule for the first time on 1st November, 1864.17
Scientific Forest Management in India started under Brandis. He was
assisted by Cleghora. In 1865 the Indian Forest Act was passed, and the Forest
Service was organised in 1869. By 1870 the foundation of the Forest Department
may be said to have been laid by Brandis. A regular forest service began to exist
and definite progress in forestry started between1871-1900. Forests were
demarcated and in 1878 the Forest Act was revised (Act VII of 1878). Between
1871 and 1900, steps were taken to organize technical education and training of
personnel to fill up the executive and controlling branches of the forest service.
The first Forest School was opened in Dehradun, India in 1878. In 1906, lord
curzon opened the Imperial Forest Research Institute at Dehradun.
In 1879, 4856 sq km (1875 sq miles) of Sundarbans were declared as Protected
Forest and in 1893 Heinig prepared a working plan of the Sundarbans. In 1880
closure to shooting, hunting, and fishing was first applied. In 1867 Leeds joined as
Conservator of Forests after the resignation of Anderson. In 1872 Schlich joined
as Conservator of Forests. During his time the following 5 forest divisions were
created: (i) Cooch Bihar Division- corresponding with the boundaries of Cooch
Bihar Commissionership. (The Forest Officer was under a Conservator of

17
Ibid, p. 23

21
Forests), (ii) Dacca Division (Sylhet and Cachar)- The Forest Officer was under
the Conservator, (iii) Assam Division with the boundaries of Assam
Commissionership. (Forest Officer was under a Commissioner but a Conservator
of Forests could inspect and control accounts), (iv) Chittagong Division-
corresponding with the Commissionership. The Commissioner was the
conservator of forests. The Conservator of Forests of Bengal had no control but
could be asked to give advice, and (v) Bhagalpore Division- comprising Patna,
Chotanagpur, and Bhagalpore.
In 1925 EO Shebbare started systematic inquiry into private forests.
Although Cox's Bazar Division was formed in 1919-20, Dhaka-Mymensingh
Division was established in 1925-26. In 1927 the Bengal forests circle was
divided into two circles (northern and southern). In the same year the Forest Act
1878 (Act VII of 1878) was revised and Forest Act 1927 became effective.
Sundarbans, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox's Bazar, and Dhaka-Mymensingh formed
the southern circle (now part of Bangladesh). The entire northern circle was in
West Bengal, India. On the 15th August 1947, Bengal was partitioned into West
Bengal and East Bengal (East Pakistan). The Forest Divisions belonging to the
southern circle (Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Dacca-Mymensingh, and
Sundarbans falling in Khulna district) became part of the East Bengal forests.
Sylhet Division of Assam also became part of East Pakistan.
The forest administration of East Pakistan was reorganised. First into two,
and then into three circles, namely, Eastern, Western, and Development circles.
Chittagong, Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet constituted the
Eastern Circle; Sundarbans, Dacca, and Mymensingh the Western Circle; and the
Working Plan, and Utilization Divisions remained under the Development Circle.
A school to train foresters was established at Sylhet.
In 1960, the post of Chief Conservator of Forests was created. A college
for training Forest Rangers was also established in Chittagong. The Forest
Research and Training of Superior Service Officers remained as a Central
Government subject and was controlled from Rawalpindi by the Inspector General
of Forests. Through a resolution, the government of Pakistan transferred the

22
Forest Research Institute to the East Pakistan Government and provided funds to
convert it into a full-fledged Forest Research Institute in East Pakistan.
The political changes followed by the creation of Bangladesh in 1971 led
to a new forest policy. Efforts began in 1972 to implement the policy. 'Forestry for
all' became the call, and more emphasis was placed to extend tree resources
beyond the 'reserve forests' and steps adopted to plant trees in fallow, marginal
lands, and in village groves. Measures to protect the biodiversity were also taken.
Remarkable changes have occurred in the administrative setup of
Bangladesh forests since 1980. Social forestry has got more importance and
districts with no or least forests have been brought under the canopy of social
forestry. New forest divisions were created in Rangpur, Pabna, Bogra, Kushtia,
and Faridpur. Two new circles at Bogra and Jessore were established. Similarly,
in the Hill Tracts, forest divisions were created in Khagrachari, Bandarban, Kaptai
and Rangamati to create plantations in the treeless unclassed state forests. Forest
administration in the headquarters was also geared up and 3 posts of Deputy
ChiefConservator of Forests were created to assist the Chief Conservator.
Currently, there are seven circles and 31 divisions. The circles are headed by a
conservator and the divisions by an officer in the rank of Deputy Conservator of
Forests. In addition, full-time conservators are now appointed to National
Botanical Garden, Forestry Development and Training Centre, Kaptai, and to
Forest College, Chittagong.
Forest type Based on their ecological characters, the forests of Bangladesh
can be divided into tropical wet evergreen, tropical semi-evergreen, tropical moist
deciduous, tidal, and planted forests.
Tropical wet evergreen forest Evergreen plants dominate with rich
biodiversity; few semi-evergreen and deciduous species also occur but do not
change or alter the evergreen nature of the forests. They occur in hilly areas of
Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Cox's Bazar in the SE, and Maulvi
Bazar in the NE.
The top canopy trees reach a height of 45-62 m. Due to humidity,
epiphytic orchids, ferns and fern allies, climbers, terrestrial ferns, mosses, aroids,

23
and rattans are found as undergrowth in moist shady places. The shrubs, herbs and
grasses are fewer in number.
About 700 species of flowering plants grow in this type of forest. Trees
like kaligarjan, dhaligarjan, civit, dhup, kamdeb, raktan, narkeli, tali, chundul,
dhaki jam are the common evergreen species which constitute the uppermost
canopy. Champa, banshimul, chapalish, madar are some of the semi-deciduous
and deciduous trees that grow sporadically. Pitraj, chalmoogra, dephal, nageswar,
kao, jam, goda, dumur, koroi, dharmara, tejbhal, gamar, madanmasta, assar,
moose, chatim, toon, bura, ashok, barmala, dakrum occupy the second storey.
Sometimes Gnetum species and Podocarpus, two gymnosperms, are met with.
Several species of bamboo are also found in these forests.
Tropical semi-evergreen forest Generally evergreen in character but
deciduous plants also dominate. These forests range in the hilly regions of Sylhet
through Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox’s Bazar, and also in some
parts of Dinajpur district in the NW. Most of them are subjected to jhum (slash
and burn) cultivation.18
Plantation forest These are raised forests and are grouped into two
categories: Planted state forest- Initial attempts to raise plantation forests started in
1871 with teak at Kaptai in the CHT using seeds from Myanmar. Since then
plantation forestry has become a part of the overall clear-fellingsilviculture
system. Until 1920 it remained confined to the CHT. Then it was extended to
Chittagong and Sylhet divisions. The plantation rate per year was about 400 ha.
After teak, the other common introduced plant species are gamar, chapalish,
garjan, mahagoni, jarul, toon, painkado and jam. In the 1950s and 1960s wide
plantation programmes were undertaken. In 1974, the Forest Department started
planting fast growing species like gamar, Albiziafalcata, kadam, Acacia species,
Eucalyptus species and pine on a large scale to produce fuelwood. Planted private
forest- Traditionally homesteads grow trees and many other crops in an effective
way. Now this forest type is developing at a faster rate compared to the rate of

18
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1992).

24
deforestation of state forests. About 160 species are known to occur in homestead
forests. This forest has been proved to be highly productive. 19
Forest distribution The total forest area in Bangladesh including unclasped
state forest land is about 2.25 million ha. A large part of the area, however, has no
tree cover. Over the last three decades forest cover declined by 2.1 percent
annually. Village groves or village forests play a very important role in the
economy of the country. These provide a significant portion of the wood and
firewood supply of the country. Besides wood production, village forests have
several important uses. They provide fruit, fodder, fuel, raw material for small and
cottage industries, house construction materials, agricultural implements, cart
wheel, etc. The area covered by village groves or forest is estimated to be about
0.27 million ha. This is not forest as per definition. However, in the Bangladesh
context this tree cover is very significant in many ways.20

3.2 Legal framework for protection and conservation

(1) This Act may be called the Forest Act, 1927. 2[ (2) It extends to the whole of
Bangladesh.] (3) [Omitted by the Bangladesh Laws (Revision And Declaration)
Act, 1973 (Act No. VIII of 1973), section 3 and 2nd Schedule.]
Interpretation clause . In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject
or context,- (1) "cattle" includes elephants, camels, buffaloes, horses, mares,
geldings, ponies, colts, fillies, mules, asses, pigs, rams, ewes, sheep, lambs, goats
and kids; (2) "Forest-officer" means any person whom the Government or any
officer empowered by the Government in this behalf, may appoint to carry out all
or any of the purposes of this Act or to do anything required by this Act or any
rule made there under to be done by a Forest-officer; (3) "forest-offence" means
an offence punishable under this Act or under any rule made thereunder;- or not,
that is to say: timber, charcoal, cuatchouc, catechu, wood-oil, resin, natural
varnish,found in or brought from, a forest, that is to say:

19
The New Age, (May 23, 2015),p.9
20
The Environmental Sustainability Act 2003

25
(i)trees and leaves, flowers and fruits, and all other parts or produce not
hereinbefore mentioned, of trees, (ii) Plants not being trees (including grass,
creepers, reeds and moss), and all parts or produce of such plants, (iii) wild
animals and skins, tusks, horns, bones, silk, cocoons, honey, and wax, and al other
parts of produce of animals, and (iv)peat, surface, soil, rock and minerals
(including limestone, laterite, mineral oils and all products of mines or quarries);
3[ (4A) "owner" includes a Court of Wards in respect of property under the
superintendence or charge of such court;] (5) "river" includes any stream, canal,
creek or other channels, natural or artificial; (6) "timber" includes trees when they
have fallen or have been felled, and all wood whether cut up or fashioned or
hollowed out for any purpose or not; and (7) "tree" includes palms, bamboos,
stumps, brushwood and canes.21

3.3 Power to reserve forests

The Government may constitute any forest-land or waste-land 4 or any land
suitable for afforestation which is the property of Government, or over which the
Government has proprietary rights, or to the whole or any part of the forest-
produce of which the Government is entitled, a reserved forest in the manner
hereinafter provided.
Whenever it has been decided to constitute any land reserved forest, the
Government shall issue a notification in the official Gazette (a) declaring that it
has been decided to constitute such land a reserved forest; (b) specifying, as nearly
as possible, the situation and limits of such land; and (c) appointing an officer to
inquire into and determine the existence, nature and extent of any rights alleged to
exist in favour of any person in or very any land comprised within such limits, or
in or over any forest-produce, and to deal with the same as provided.

3.4 Ecosystem and Biodiversity:

21
Md. Iqbal Hossain, International Environmental Law Bangladesh Perspective, 2nded.
(Dhaka: Ain Prokashan, 2008), p. 13.

26
The conservation of Biodiversity (CBD) defines an ecosystem as a `dynamic
complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living
environment interacting as a functional unit`. Ecosystem is the living thing (plant,
animals and microorganism) in an area with their interaction with each other the
as well as interaction with the nonliving environments like weather, soil, climate
and atmosphere. As Bangladesh lies in between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic
of Capricorn and the per capita water availability in Bangladesh is more than three
times than that of the world average, Bangladesh is very rich is ecosystems and
biodiversity.22
Ecosystem is very complex and sensitive for its wonderful interaction of
living things and their environment. Any change of living things or external
factors like temperature rise can cause serious damage to ecosystems. The biotic
members of an ecosystem, together with their abiotic factors depend on each
other. Therefore, the absence of one biotic member or one abiotic factor can affect
all partners of the ecosystem. Natural calamities like cyclone, flood, and storms
also affect the ecosystem seriously. The biodiversity of all flora and fauna
including the microorganisms depend on this ecosystem.

3.5 Policy and Institutional Framework:

Ecosystem and biodiversity are directly linked as well as dependent on each other.
Conservation of ecosystem improves biodiversity and degradation of biodiversity
affects the ecosystem directly. As a signatory to Convention of Biodiversity
(CBD), Bangladesh is committed to develop necessary policies, legal and
regulatory framework to conserve biodiversity as per the provisions of the
convention. Bangladesh ratified this convention in 1994. The conservation efforts
started in this land with the enactment of Forest Act, 1927. The then East Pakistan
Government created ‘The East Pakistan Water Pollution Control.23

22
G. Handl, ‘Environmental Security & Global Change: The Challenge of International
Law’, Journal of Yearbook of International Environmental Law, vol. no. 5 (1990), p.80
23
The Daily Star, (13th December, 2015), p.4.

27
3.6 Ordinance, 1970`to control water pollution
Before that some provisions of Penal Code, 1860 was the only legal and
regulatory base, though inadequate, for natural resource conservation. The efforts
further enhanced its coverage with the enactment of ‘The Environment Pollution
Control Ordinance, 1977’. The Environment Conservation Act, 1995 mainly
played the pivotal role in conserving the ecosystem, forest, biodiversity and other
component of environment. The Environment Conservation Act 1995 with its
amendment in 2000, 2002 created the opportunity to promulgate different rules to
conserve ecosystem, biodiversity and total environment in this land. The
biodiversity conservation efforts got an accelerated momentum with the
formulation of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2004. The
Conference Parties of CBD in its 6th meeting (Cop-6) adapted the Biodiversity
Target 2010 for promoting biodiversity of this earth. The World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johanesburg, South Africa in 2002,
described biodiversity as essential to our planet, human well being and to the
livelihood and cultural integrity of people. It endorsed the 2010 Biodiversity target
for sustainable development and poverty alleviation. In this context, Bangladesh
developed its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action plan in 2004 to achier
significant reduction of current rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. Accordingly,
Bangladesh prepared and submitted the 4th National report in 2010 stating the
status of Biodiversity, target as well as achievement. The 10th Conference of
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) held in Aichi, Japan, in
2010 recognizing the need for biodiversity promotion, adopted the Strategic Plan
for Biodiversity 2011-2020 with 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Bangladesh has
prepared and submitted the 5th National Report describing the status, actions,
achievements and program to reach the target.24
In practical, management of ecosystem and biodiversity is related to
different legal and institutional arrangements associated with the ecosystem and
biodiversity of forests, agriculture, inland water, wetland, marine, coastal, hill,
homestead and the like administered by different Ministries and Departments.

24
The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.

28
Climate change has started affecting the ecosystems and biodiversity as a whole.
The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995 was enacted for fulfilling
three major objectives namely: conservation of environment, improvement of
environmental standards and the control and mitigation of environmental
pollution. The Act was formulated on the basis of the policy framework provided
by the Environment Policy of 1992 and the National Environment Management
Action Plan (NEMAP) of 1995.
The BECA also defines certain environmental offences and prescribes for
their punishments. Moreover, to supplement and fulfill the objectives of the Act,
the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Rules (BECR), 1997 was adopted in
accordance with section 20 of the BECA, 1995.
Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995Rules, 1997 are not free
from a number of loopholes or shortcomings. There is a maxim that ‘prevention is
better than cure’, but the BECA of 1995 by the terms ‘improvement of
environmental standards’ and ‘mitigation of environmental pollution’ in its
preamble indicates that it is cure-oriented and it only copes with the curative
measures rather than the preventive measures. The BECA, 1995,in true sense,
deals with the post-harm situations.
The Act does not entail any obligation on the state to conserve the environment
despite the fact that the extended meaning of the term ‘right to life’ includes the
‘right to safe and healthy environment’. It is notable here that in the latest
Bangladeshi statute Wildlife (Conservation and Safety) Act, 2012, there is a clear
statement as to state’s obligation under Article 18A of the Constitution about
conservation and safety of wildlife of Bangladesh. However, the Articles 31 and
32 of the Constitution safeguard ‘right to life’ as the fundamental right. The High
Court Division (HCD) in the legendary case Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque vs
Bangladesh and others25 declared that “right to life” includes right to fresh air and
water and a situation beyond animal existence in which one can expect normal
longevity of life. Though the ‘right to safe environment’ is proved to be a
fundamental right by the legal and judicial activism of the higher judiciary of our

25
48 DLR, p. 438

29
country, the BECA is altogether silent about the state’s obligation to conserve the
environment.26
In section 3, the term ‘Government’ is a vague one. It creates the question
in our minds – who is the Government under the BECA, 1995? There is no
reference to any specific criteria for determining the ‘Government’ who would set
up the Department of Environment (DoE) headed by the Director General (DG).
Section 3(2) of the BECA, 1995 speaks about the appointment of the
Director General (DG) in the Department of Environment, but it does not state any
definite qualifications upon which the DG will be appointed. The appointment
process is totally dependent upon the satisfaction of the Government.
Section 4 of the Act gives unfettered and unlimited powers to the Director
General (DG) of the Department of Environment (DoE). The wording ‘may’ in
section 4 denotes that the DGis not bound to take necessary measures in order to
conserve the environment and the DG can do anything at his sweet will. It is
noteworthy that under section 4 the DG is empowered to take immediate action
against any industry and to close the industry without giving any “prior notice” to
the industry, if he ‘considers’ that the industry is likely to endanger public life.
Taking any action against any person or any industry or corporation without
giving any prior notice absolutely goes against the principles of natural justice.
Also, such a closure of the industries is totally dependent on the DG’s satisfaction.
This most often creates rooms for DG to resort to corruption.
Section 5 of the Act requires the Government to declare the ‘ecologically
critical areas‘. It is palpable that the environment experts can play a vital role in
declaring the ecologically critical areas. Section 5 has no reference to the matter.
According to section 6B, the hill or hillock may be cut for ‘inevitable
national interest’. The term ‘inevitable national interest’ is a vague one. There are
no specific objective criteria to determine ‘inevitable national interest’. In the
prominent case Dr. Mohiuddin Farooquevs Bangladesh27 the question of national
26
Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque and S. RizwanaHasan, Laws Regulating Environment of
Bangladesh, Published by Ministry of environment and forest, govt. of Bangladesh, BELA,
and UNDP, 2004.
27
49 DLR (AD) 1997, p.1

30
interest was a central issue. In that famous case, the legality of an experimental
structural project of the ‘Flood Action Plan (FAP 20)’ at Tangail, Bangladesh was
questioned on this very point of national interest. For so called inevitable national
interest, restrictions on the wetlands may be relaxed under the section 6E of the
BECA, 1995.
Though the section 6C speaks about production, import, stock,
transportation of hazardous waste, it does not speak about reuse, recycling and
reduction of waste.28
Section 12 of the Act speaks about ‘Environment Clearance Certificate’. It
is yet unclear what will happen if the Department of Environment (DoE) is unable
to meet the timetable to grant the Environment Clearance Certificate (ECC).
Section 12 is silent about the standards and parameters upon which the ECC
should be obtained.
Section 12 also speaks about the formulation of Environment Impact Assessment
(EIA) report, but it does not prescribe the role of environment experts in preparing
the EIA report. However, it provides for EIA report only of the industrial projects
not of the non-industrial projects. As per Rule 7 of the Bangladesh Environment
Conservation Rules (BECR), 1997, the industries belonging to highly polluting
Red categories must obtain ‘No Objection Certificate (NOC’ of the local
government authority. But the Conservation Act or Rules does not provide any
procedures to be followed by the local government authority in issuing such a ‘No
Objection Certificate
However, India and some other countries prescribe ‘public hearing’ which
means that before establishing any industry, the people of the locality will be
convened by the concerned government local authority in order to know whether
they have any objection to the erection of the industry and what are the harms and
risks which they think, will occur to the environment. On the other hand, Principle
10 of the Reo Declaration, 1992 provides for the participation of all concerned

28
O. McIntyre and Thomas Mosedale, ‘The Precautionary Principle as a Norm of
Customary International Law’, Journal of Environmental Law, vol.?, no.6 (1997), pp. 221-41.

31
citizens in environmental issues as well as an opportunity for all concerned
citizens to participate in decision making processes. Unfortunately, any single
provision concerning such a public hearing and public participation have not yet
been incorporated in BECA, 1995 and BECR, 1997.29
Section 14 of the Act ousts the court’s jurisdiction in terms of entertaining
appeal from an order or direction issued under the Act. Only the Appellate
Authority constituted by the Government has the jurisdiction to entertain appeal
under the Act. The decision of such Appellate Authority shall be final. No review
and revision against the orders of such an Appellate Authority will be allowed.
The Act under section 15 prescribes no strict penalty measure against the
multi-national companies. The natural persons and the juristic persons are treated
alike under this Act. Section 15 of the Environment Conservation Act, 1995
substantiates that the court can impose the maximum penalty of 10 lac taka both
for natural and juristic persons irrespective of the gravity of offence or torts. It is
worth citing here that the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 of India provides for
maximum penalty of 10 crore and 25 crore rupees for a natural person and legal
person respectively.
The insertion of the ‘Good Faith Clause’ in section 18 is an inevitable
stumble. The DG can do anything he wishes under the veneer of good faith.
In compliance with section 20 of the BECA, 1995, the Government has
made rules under the Environment Conservation Rules, 1997 for the purpose of
determining the standards of air, water, sound, soil and other components of the
environment. Regarding management of toxic and hazardous substances, the
Rules have broadly defined guidelines for disposal of waste from different
categories of industries. But unlike the Environment Protection Rules (EPR) of
India, the ECR, 1997 have not specified the permissible extent of emissions or the
obligations of corrective actions.30
The parallel environmental conservation rulings of many countries such as
the Environment Conservation Act, 1989 of South Africa reaffirm the spirit of the

29
The Environment Conservation Rules, 1997.
30
The Minor Acts, 1970.

32
international conventions, treaties, agreement etc. relating to the environment
which have been ratified by them. But the BECA, 1995 makes no reference to the
international instruments relating to environment to which Bangladesh is a party.
The Canadian Environment Protection Act (CEPA), 1999 lays emphasis
on the ‘public participation’ in environment conservation regime. The CEPA,
1999 also puts stress on conducting research and studies relating to pollution
prevention, nature, effects, control of pollution. Besides, it provides for publishing
information respecting pollution prevention and a periodic report on the state of
Canadian environment. The CEPA under sections 166 and 175 speaks about the
determination of “international air pollution” and of “international water
pollution” respectively. But the BECA, 1995 does not refer to these important
aspects.

3.8 Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is an important environmental

issue.
The term “Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)” can be defined as the
organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) whose genetic characteristics
have been altered by the insertion of a modified gene or a gene from another
organism using the techniques of genetic engineering. The environment
conservation regimes of many countries include the provisions relating to GMO.
The Environment Protection Act, 1990 of the UK under section 106 and the
Environmental Management Act, 2004 of Netherlands under section 2.25 speak
about “Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)”. But the BECA, 1995 is
unfortunately silent about GMO.
Public awareness is a must to protect the environment. Principle 10 of the
Reo Declaration, 1992 provides for public awareness regarding environmental
issues. The Environmental Management Act, 2004 of Netherlands under section
4.7 provides for drawing up an ‘annual national environmental program’ in order

33
to raise public awareness in terms of environment conservation. The BECA, 1995
makes no reference to such an exigent aspect.
The Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1990 of the UK depicts both the
hazardous and non-hazardous waste. The EPA, 1990 also portrays the powers and
functions of the waste disposal authorities and of the waste collection authorities.
The BECA, 1995 only speaks about the hazardous waste. It does not refer to the
municipal waste which is not deemed to be hazardous. Municipal waste generally
includes that waste generated by households, shops, offices and also includes
paper, glass, plastic, metals. It is completely silent about the waste disposal
authorities and the waste collection authorities let alone their powers and
functions.31
Noise is a major environmental factor. Noise emitted from vehicles,
machineries on highways, roads, footways etc. may grimly affect the environment.
Several countries included this environmental factor within the ambit of their
environmental legislations.
Section 79 of the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1990 of the UK and sections
326 and 327 of the Resource Management Act, 1991 of New Zealand can be
mentioned here as the appropriate examples. But this important point remained
out of touch in the BECA, 1995.
In this age of digitalization, radiation from mobile phones or towers may
cause a bigger health hazard for citizens. Both the BECA, 1995 and the BECR,
1997 do not speak about this important point.
Sight pollution is a common problem in Bangladesh. Sight pollution
means any unwanted sight that mentally or physically affects the community or
creates any health hazard. For example, at midday, you are riding a motorcycle to
your home hungry for your lunch. While approaching your home, you see an ugly
scene of huge mountains of waste on the roadside, including wasted food, used
banana leaves, putrefying fruits, etc. After seeing that, can you enjoy your lunch at
home? Also, Excessive advertisements, signboards or billboards etc. in the public
places are the common forms of sight pollution. In our modern life, especially in

31
Forest Act, 1927

34
cities, the hazards of sight pollution are many. The BECA, 1995 does not point
out such an environmental phenomenon.
In our modern life, light pollution has now become a dangerous problem.
The inappropriate or excessive use of artificial light – known as light pollution –
can have serious environmental consequences for humans, wildlife, and our
climate. The BECA, 1995 does not deal with such an environmental factor.
The BECA, 1995 and the BECR, 1997 are not exhaustive and the both are
incompatible with the demands of time. They should be amended as per the
demands of time. The BECA, 1995 should encompass all the environmental issues
which are still out of the touch. All the ambiguities and lacunas in the both should
be removed. People’s participation in environmental decision making must be
ensured and protected by law.
Bangladesh is a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climatic Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol, the Convention on
Biological Diversity the United Nation Convention to Combat Desertification,
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its Montreal
Protocol, the Ramser Convention on Wetland and other international agreements.
To face the consequence of climate change through mainly mitigation and
adaptation activates, Bangladesh has developed Bangladesh Climate Change
Strategy and Action Plan, 2009 and enacted Climate Change Trans Fund Act,
2010. Development of Climate Change Trust Fund and regular budgetary
allocation from own recourses earned acclamation in the international community.
The international community also contributed to develop Climate Change
Resilience Fund administered by the World Bank to improve resilience capacity
and face the consequences of climate change.
Bio-safety issues have come up as an important dimension for
conservation of biodiversity as well ecosystem. In this context, Bangladesh
developed Bio-safety Guidelines in 2007 promulgated and Bio-safety Rules in
2012.

35
3.9 The major legal and regulatory instruments that contribute to
conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems
i. The Forest Act, 1927
ii. The Environment Conversation Act, 1995
iii. The Environment Conservation Rules, 1995
iv. The Ozone depleting substance (control) rules 2004
v. Hazard waste and ship breaking waste management rules, 2011
vi. Brick kiln control Act, 2001
vii. Brick kiln control rules, 200132

3.10 Environment Conservation Act, 1995.

Water Pollution Control Board was the first institutional arrangement to control
water pollution, which had a direct contribution for conservation of ecosystems
and biodiversity. The dimensions of this initiative have been widened establishing
Environment Pollution Control Board and then Department of Environment in
1995. Forest Department is the oldest institutional arrangement in this land to
conserve forest as well as forest biodiversity including wildlife. The Water
Development Board and Bangladesh Inland Water transport Authority work for
inland water conversation and maintain environment flow. The land management
run by the Ministry of land through District Administration and land officeshave
also significant role to conserve the land, water bodies and forest, which are the
major components ecosystems and biodiversity.33
The Department of Fisheries with its organizational resources contributes
to increase fisheries production and conserve the fisheries diversity. Different
R&D organizations like Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Bangladesh
Livestock Research institute (BLRI), Bangladesh Fishery Research institute
(BFRI),
Institute of Water Modeling, Centre for Environment and Geographical
Informal Service (CEGIS) also play important role to conserve and promote

32
The Forest Act, 1927
33
Section 9 of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995

36
ecosystems and biodiversity. R&D initiatives of different public and private
Universities need also to be mentioned are this respect. IUCN Bangladesh, UNDP
Dhaka, GIZ, water aid, USAID and some international organizations either take
initiatives or support the local initiatives significantly to conserve ecosystem and
biodiversity. The participation of some environmental and wildlife NGOs, Civil
Society Organizations and participation of community people through co-
management and cooperatives are also contributing to conserve ecosystem and
biodiversity in this land.34

3.11Power function:
The DBH-class distribution in natural deciduous broad-leaved forests was
elucidated with a power function. A power function (y D axb, y: stem density, x:
represents DBH class, a and b: constants) fits the distribution better than an
exponential function. The parameter b in the power function is approximately.
This means that the natural forests studied have a patch-mosaic structure and that
tree cohorts regenerate from gaps. Parameter implies the number of juveniles, and
b means size-dependent mortality. The value of 2 for parameter b means that
when trees in a given DBH class double their DBH, the density of the size class
should decrease by one fourth. This phenomenon results from self-thinning and is
caused by horizontal space competition among trees, called the ‘tile model’. The
parameter describing DBH-class distribution for a forest with self-thinning
patches should be approximately. I call this the ‘2 power law’ for DBH-class
distribution. In a typical natural forest dominated by deciduous broadleaf tree
species, trees are recognized as pioneer or climax species by the parameters
describing their regeneration patterns. When I applied the power functional model
to the DBH-class distribution of each dominant species, in pioneer species
parameter a was high and b was less than, suggesting that there are many
juveniles, but mortality is high. On the other hand, in climax species parameter

34
[http://moef.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/moef.portal.gov.bd/page/8593534d_101
e_46 c9_b82d_97d442e46de5/SF%20Rules_January2010.PDF, last visited on
28.08.2020].

37
was low value and the value of b was larger (negative, but closer to zero),
suggesting that there are not many juveniles, but mortality is low. A power-
function analysis of DBH-class distribution can be used to clarify the patch
mosaic structure of a forest, and to clarify the regeneration pattern of pioneer and
climax species by applying the function for each species.
The policy suggested for extended effort to bring about 20% of the
country's land under the afforestation programs of the government and private
sector by year 2015 by accelerating the pace of the program through the
coordinated efforts of the government and NGOs and active participation of the
people in order to achieve self-reliance in forest products and maintenance of
ecological balance. The policy viewed equitable distribution of benefits among the
people, especially those whose livelihood depend on trees and forests; and
people's participation in afforestation programs and incorporation of people's
opinions and suggestions in the planning and decision-making process. The
people centered objectives of the policy are: creation of rural employment
opportunities and expansion of forest-based rural development sectors; and
prevention of illegal occupation of forest lands and other forest offences through
people's participation. The policy statements envisage: massive afforestation on
marginal public lands through partnerships with local people and NGOs;
afforestation of denuded/encroached reserved forests with an agro forestry model
through participation of people and NGOs; giving ownership of a certain amount
of land to the tribal people through forest settlement processes; strengthening of
the Forest Department; strengthening of educational, training and research
facilities; and amendment of laws, rules and regulations relating to the forestry
sector and if necessary, promulgation of new laws and rules. Thus, over time the
policy has shifted somewhat from total state control to a management regime
involving local communities in specific categories of forests.
Because of limited amount of forestland, the policy underscores for
effective measures for afforestation in rural areas, in the newly accreted chars, and
in the denuded Unclasped State Forest areas of Chittagong Hill Tract and northern
zone of the country including the Baring tract. The policy also encourages the

38
private sector participation in afforestation. Because there are so few international
agreements that directly control natural resources management within the borders
of sovereign nations, domestic law is far more important in shaping incentives that
affect forestry. However, because forests play a wide variety of roles in natural
and economic systems, international agreements that affect those systems are
relevant to understanding forest management throughout the world. First, forests
provide habitat. Therefore, international agreements that relate to biological
protection may be relevant to forestry.35
Second, forests serve as sources (if burned) and sinks (if growing) for
greenhouse gases. Therefore, the Climate Change Convention may be relevant to
forestry. Third, forests provide fuel, food, construction material, water quality
improvement, erosion/flood control, and other services for local residents.
Therefore, international development agreements that seek to improve the quality
of life in developing countries may have policies relevant to forestry. Sustainable
development, now the watchword of international policy, requires maintenance of
forests. Fourth, forests provide export commodities, most importantly, lumber.
Therefore, international trade agreements may be relevant to forestry.
Most international agreements require national implementing legislation.
Therefore, a survey of a country’s national law will encompass the statutes that
give effect to the international agreements. Because international environmental
enforcement mechanisms are weak, at best, the greatest contribution international
law makes to forest protection is whatever national legislation it instigates.

35
. McIntyre and Thomas Mosedale, ‘The Precautionary Principle as a Norm of Customary
International Law’, Journal of Environmental Law, vol.?, no. 5 (1997), pp.221-41.

39
 Chapter 4

INTERNATIONAL LAW FOR CONSERVATION OF FOREST

4.1 Preamble
The policy suggested for extended effort to bring about 20% of the country's land
under the afforestation programs of the government and private sector by year
2015 by accelerating the pace of the program through the coordinated efforts of
the government and NGOs and active participation of the people in order to
achieve self-reliance in forest products and maintenance of ecological balance.
The policy viewed equitable distribution of benefits among the people, especially
those whose livelihood depend on trees and forests; and people's participation in

40
afforestation programs and incorporation of people's opinions and suggestions in
the planning and decision-making process.36 The people centered objectives of the
policy are: creation of rural employment opportunities and expansion of forest-
based rural development sectors; and prevention of illegal occupation of forest
lands and other forest offences through people's participation. The policy
statements envisage: massive afforestation on marginal public lands through
partnerships with local people and NGOs; afforestation of denuded/encroached
reserved forests with an agro forestry model through participation of people and
NGOs; giving ownership of a certain amount of land to the tribal people through
forest settlement processes; strengthening of the Forest Department; strengthening
of educational, training and research facilities; and amendment of laws, rules and
regulations relating to the forestry sector and if necessary, promulgation of new
laws and rules. Thus, over time the policy has shifted somewhat from total state
control to a management regime involving local communities in specific
categories of forests.37
Because of limited amount of forestland, the policy underscores for
effective measures for afforestation in rural areas, in the newly accreted chars, and
in the denuded Unclassed State Forest areas of Chittagong Hill Tract and northern
zone of the country including the Baring tract. The policy also encourages the
private sector participation in afforestation. Because there are so few international
agreements that directly control natural resources management within the borders
of sovereign nations, domestic law is far more important in shaping incentives that
affect forestry. However, because forests play a wide variety of roles in natural
and economic systems, international agreements that affect those systems are
relevant to understanding forest management throughout the world. First, forests
provide habitat. Therefore, international agreements that relate to biological
protection (such as the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International
36
Weiss Edith Brown, ‘In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common
Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity,’ Vermont Journal of international Law (New
York: Transnational Publishers, 1989), p. 103.[Internet link]
37
G. Handl, ‘Environmental Security & Global Change: The Challenge of InternationalLaw’,
Journal of Yearbook of International Environmental Law, vol.? no. 1(1990), p.80.

41
Importance) may be relevant to forestry. Second, forests serve as sources and
sinks (if growing) for greenhouse gases. Therefore, the Climate Change
Convention may be relevant to forestry. Third, forests provide fuel, food,
construction material, water quality improvement, erosion/flood control, and other
services for local residents. Therefore, international development agreements that
seek to improve the quality of life in developing countries may have policies
relevant to forestry. Sustainable development, now the watchword of international
policy, requires maintenance of forests. Fourth, forests provide export
commodities, most importantly, lumber. Therefore, international trade agreements
may be relevant to forestry.
Most international agreements require national implementing legislation.
Therefore, a survey of a country’s national law will encompass the statutes that
give effect to the international agreements. Because international environmental
enforcement mechanisms are weak, at best, the greatest contribution international
law makes to forest protection is whatever national legislation it instigates.
4.2. Habitat Conservation
4.3 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora
The 1973 CITES seeks to ensure that international trade in wildlife, and wildlife
parts, does not threaten the conservation status of declining and/or threatened
species. Species protected under CITES are listed in one of three appendices. The
most vulnerable species, for which trade requires both export and import permits.
Lists species that could become threatened with extinction unless certain
restrictions on trade are imposed. CITES prohibits trade in Appendix II species
without an export permit. Species may be designated unilaterally by any party to
the Convention. Trade in species requires an export permit only if the exporting
nation is responsible for listing the species. Permits may not be issued if doing so
will be detrimental to the survival to species. CITES is widely considered one of
the most effective international environmental treaties.38

38
F D. Bodansky and Jutta Brunnee, ‘The Role of National Courts in the Field of
Environmental Law’, Review of European Community and International Environmental

42
 Unlike the other international agreements discussed in this section (2.1),
CITES focuses on trade, not habitat protection. However, implementing national
legislation, such as the United States Endangered Species Act, may address
habitat concerns. To the extent that CITES promotes sustainable trade in
endangered species dependent on forest habitat, it might discourage deforestation
by linking a stable market with a stable source of the species. One the other hand,
as CITES can be used to prohibit trade in endangered species dependent on forest
habitat, it might remove the motivation to retain forest that could supply the
species.

4.4 The Biodiversity Convention

Although the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
restricts trade in species threatened with extinction, it does little to preserve the
habitats on which the species depend (e.g. forests). The Biodiversity Treaty seeks
to address this habitat concern and to protect natural systems for their own sake.
Biodiversity is a term that encompasses more than just species diversity. It also
describes genetic diversity within a species, community diversity within larger
ecosystems, and ecosystem diversity within larger regional landscapes.
Still, species are the fundamental building blocks and measuring sticks of
biodiversity. A forest will more likely be protected due to international pressure to
enforce a treaty obligation if there is a dependent species at risk of extinction.
Even if the risk is not extinction, but just extirpation of particular populations
(such as the monarch butterflies that migrate from forests in Mexico to the USA
and Canada), then the Biodiversity Convention may affect implementation of
forestry.39
Opened for signatures at the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (the Rio “Earth Summit”), the biodiversity
convention commits nations to incorporate protection of species diversity in

Law, vol. 7 (1998), pp. 11-13.

39
G. Handl, ‘The Challenge of International Law’ Journal of Yearbook of International
Environmental Law, Vol. No. 3 (1990), p.24 .

43
economic and social planning. Parties agree to develop strategies, protected areas,
and monitoring programs. The convention calls for technology transfer and
financial grants from rich nations to poor ones. The convention is rife with
qualifying language, such as “as appropriate,” or “as far as possible.” These
qualifiers will make it difficult to enforce the literal terms of the agreement. Still,
signing the convention may be an important declaration of national policy which
can direct forestry to be more protective of biodiversity.

4.5 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage
Each party to this 1972 Paris treaty has a duty to identify and protect the cultural
and natural heritage which lies within it territory. Parties to the Convention agree
to protect cultural monuments and natural sites that are of such outstanding values
as to concern humanity as a whole. World Heritage sites tend to be popular
destinations for tourists and so serve the dual function of providing tourism
income as well as preserving humankind’s heritage. Although the Convention
addresses the world’s natural and cultural heritage, most sites on the World
Heritage list are cultural. However, natural preserves do occur in forests
ecosystems, such as the Redwoods National Park World Heritage site in the USA.
In such areas, forestry is shaped by the terms of protective management under the
convention. The World Heritage Fund makes grants to developing countries to
assist nominations and management of listed sites. There are over 40 World
Heritage tropical forests that can take advantage of this help.40

40
[http://moef.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/moef.portal.gov.bd/page/8593534d_101
e_46 c9_b82d_97d442e46de5/Forest%20Act%201927.pdf, last visited on 28.08.2020].

44
 Chapter 5
CONCLUSION

6.1 Recommendations
i. Massive afforestation work should be undertaken to cover large areas of
land with useful plants.
ii. Large scale cutting of forest tress should be stopped. If it is essential to cut
a few tress, them make sure that you plant more trees in their place.
Unauthorized cutting of forest is a punishable crime.
iii. Forest fire should be prevented. Huge forest areas are destroyed by fire
every year. Fire may cause due to carelessness of the people or by natural
methods. People should avoid smoking and cooking in the forest areas.
iv. Overgrazing by cattle, horses, sheep’s and goats should be prevented.
v. Forest must be protected from insects and pest. The infected plants should
be removed or treated with suitable pesticides.
vi. All activities leadings to soil erosion should be controlled.

45
vii. Air water and soil pollution should be reduced so that the trees and other
vegetarian can survive and develop in the forest.
viii. Forest nurseries should be established on a large scale
ix. Plants should be given free of cost to the people for growing them near
their house
x. People should be made aware of the impacts of the forest on their life
through advertisements TV, radio and social media.
xi. Existing laws to protect national parks wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere
reserves should be properly implemented. Guidelines of international
organizations like WWF and UNESCO for forest conversation should be
followed.
xii. Van mahotsava which is celebrated every year should be made more
popular, meaningful and effective.

6.2 Conclusion
It can be concluded that the population is at a consistent increment as the death-
rate has decreased due to the advancement in the field of medical science.
However, the birth-rate has further increased. Therefore, at the present time, we
must make sure that forest conservation is provided maximum attention and effort
so as to keep this planet of ours viable and nourishing for the future generation
too. Losing forests at the same rate will keep on making a number of species-
which are common today- extinct in the near future. Not only this, but the
resources like wood, oxygen, and more will deplete at a faster rate. So, "save
forests" must be the most common ideology and promotional notion at present.

46
 REFERENCES

Books
1. Md. Jahid Hossain Dolon, International Environmental Law with Bangladesh
Perspective, 2nd ed., (Dhaka: Tutu Publications, 2013).
2. Gazi Shamsur Rahman, The Minor Acts, 7th ed. (Dhaka: Kamrul Book House,
2007).
3. Birnie.P And Boyle, International Law And Environment, 3rd ed., (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1992).
4. Md.Iqbal Hossain, International Environmental Law Bangladesh Perspective,
2nd ed., (Dhaka: Ain Prokashan, 2008).
5. Philippe Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law, 2nd ed.,
(Cambridge : University Press, 2003).

Journals.

47
1. Weiss Edith Brown, ‘In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law,
Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity,’ Vermont Journal of
International Law (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1989).
2. G. Handl, ‘Environmental Security & Global Change: The Challenge of
InternationalLaw’, Journal of Yearbook of International Environmental Law,
vol.? no. 1(1990).
3. F D. Bodansky and Jutta Brunnee, ‘The Role of National Courts in the Field of
Environmental Law’, Review of European Community and International
Environmental Law, vol. 7 (1998).
4. O. McIntyre and Thomas Mosedale, ‘The Precautionary Principle as a Norm
of Customary International Law’, Journal of Environmental Law, vol.?, no.6,
(1997)
Reports
1. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio Declaration
on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro: United Nations, 1992).
2. Dr. Mohiuddin Farooque and S. Rizwana Hasan, Laws Regulating
Environment of Bangladesh, Published by Ministry of environment and
forest, govt. of Bangladesh, BELA, and UNDP, 2004.

Statutes
1. The Environmental Sustainability Act 2003
2. The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.
3. The Environment Conservation Rules, 1997.
4. The Minor Acts, 1970.
5. The Forest Act, 1927
6. Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995

Cases
1. 49 DLR (AD) 1997.(Mention the name of the case for example – Md. Abul
Mia vs Rahim Mia)

48
2. 48 DLR (AD) 1997 .(Mention the name of the case for example – Md. Abul
Mia vs Rahim Mia)

Newspapers
1. The New Age, (May 23, 2015).
2. The Daily Star, (13th December, 2015).

Web Link
1. [https://www.longdom.org/scholarly/forest-conservation-journals-articles-
ppts-list-882.html and https://www.eartheclipse.com/environment/importance-
of- forests.html, last visited on 20.07.2020].
2. [http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/the basics/cities/dhaka/, Last visited on
20.07.2020].
3. [http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/the basics/cities/dhaka/, Last visited on
20.07.2020].
4. [http://www.biologydiscussion.com/forest/present-status-of-forest-wealth-of-
the-world/7042, last visited on 25.08.2020].
5. [https://matteroftrust.org/afforestation-meaning-importance-and-current-
efforts/last visited on 25.08.2020].
6. [http://moef.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/moef.portal.gov.bd/page/859
3534d_101e_46 c9_b82d_97d442e46de5/SF%20Rules_January2010.PDF, last
visited on 28.08.2020].
7. [http://moef.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/moef.portal.gov.bd/page/859
3534d_101e_46 c9_b82d_97d442e46de5/Forest%20Act%201927.pdf, last
visited on 28.08.2020].

49