ECOSYSTEM

Living organisms interact with each other and with the environment within the ecosystem, which is the major structural and functional unit of ecology. Ecosystems, or the relationships
between organisms and their surroundings, are a chain of interactions. English botanist A.G. Tansley coined the term "ecosystem" in 1935.

Global ecosystems are considered by ecologists to be the entire biosphere. In fact, the size of these bodies can vary widely from a small pond to a sea or a forest. Such bodies tend to
be self-sustaining. Terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem can be classified as the two main kinds of ecosystems.
Aquatic ecosystems include pond, lake, wetland, river ecosystems, whereas desert, grassland, and forest ecosystems are part of the terrestrial ecosystem.

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Forest ecosystems are functional units composed of soil, trees, insects, animals, birds, and human as its interacting agents. The species diversity of a forest is greater since it is a large,
complex ecosystem.

In comparison to small ecosystems such as wetlands and grasslands, it is also much more resilient to adverse environmental changes.

Like any ecosystem, forests also contain biotic and abiotic components. Inorganic materials such as air, water, and soil are considered abiotic. Organisms based on living things include
producers, consumers, and decomposers are considered biotic.

As a result of the interactions among these components, the ecosystem is self-sustaining .

Forest Ecosystems: Structure and Function
A forest ecosystem consists of two main structural features:

• Species composition: It is the identification, enumeration, and classification of the species of plants and animals in a forest ecosystem.

• Stratification: The vertical distribution of species within an ecological system that consists of different levels. Biological organisms in ecosystems occupy
different places based on their sources of nutrition. The topmost level of a forest ecosystem is occupied by trees, followed by shrubs, and the bottom level
by herbs and grasses.

TYPES:
1. Tropical Evergreen Rainforest : Only a small portion of tropical forests are rainforests with an average annual rainfall of (80-400) inches. It features dense
and deep vegetation consisting of tall trees reaching different heights.
2. Tropical deciduous rainforests are known for their broad-leaved trees, along with dense bushes, shrubs, etc. Two distinct seasons can be observed, such as
summer and winter. Various types of flora and fauna live in these forests around the world.
3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: It contains fewer trees than temperate evergreen forest but ferns and mosses are present in adequate numbers.
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: The moist temperate regions with sufficient rainfall develop deciduous forests. Here, too, winter and summer are clearly
delineated, and trees shed their leaves during winter. Maples, oaks, peaches, etc., are dominant.
5. Taiga/Boreal: The Taiga lies just south of the Tundra, where the temperature is below freezing for almost half the year. Evergreen conifers are abundant in
Taiga.
Biodiversity:

Biological diversity in forested areas refers to the abiotic components of the ecosystem, including all organisms present in the area and
their ecological roles. Forest biological diversity therefore includes not only trees, but also the multitude of plants, animals, and microbes
that inhabit forest areas and their genetic diversity.

Diverse forest ecosystems, landscapes, species, populations, and genetics can be considered when examining forest biological diversity.
Within and among these levels there can be intricate interactions. Biological systems are complex, and this complexity allows organisms to
adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions and maintain ecosystem functions.

In the annex to decision II/9, the Conference of the Parties acknowledged that:
“Forest biological diversity results from evolutionary processes over thousands and even millions of years which, in themselves, are driven
by ecological forces such as climate, fire, competition and disturbance. Furthermore, the diversity of forest ecosystems (in both physical
and biological features) results in high levels of adaptation, a feature of forest ecosystems which is an integral component of their
biological diversity. Within specific forest ecosystems, the maintenance of ecological processes is dependent upon the maintenance of their
biological diversity.”
Resources:

Nature provides us with many natural resources in the form of forests, one of our most valuable resources. The flora and fauna within them are diverse, ranging
from animals to fungi, plants, and many microorganisms. Complex ecosystems, like forests, are a vital source of biodiversity as well as genetic resources.

For the benefit of society, forests perform a myriad of functions simultaneously, both actively and passively.

They offer a wide range of goods and services that benefit people in multiple ways: economically, mentally, physically, emotionally, and socially. There are many
Forest Ecosystem Services, or ways forests contribute to people, some of which might be more obvious than others.

We can rely on forests for many different things: food, such as honey, nuts, fruits, and mushrooms; timber; cork; wood biomass; aromatic and medicinal plants.
People can earn income from these things, though this is not always the case: most of these items are common goods.

There is no better place than the forest to relax, to enjoy nature, and to enjoy recreational activities such as biking, running, tree climbing, and walking. Depending
on their purpose, these activities could contribute to tourism or to the well-being of both the physical and mental well-being of humans. The forests are
associated with people's cultures and spirituality, whether they are formal or personal.

The Forest Ecosystem Services (FES) are forest goods and services that benefit mankind in direct or indirect economic, materialistic, physiological, psychological,
emotional or social ways.

Forests are the world's second biggest carbon store, after oceans. They absorb carbon dioxide and store it in wood, leaves and soil, while replenishing oxygen.
(Forests, after the oceans, are the world's biggest carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide and storing it in wood, leaves, and soil, and producing oxygen for human
consumption. ) Forests are regarded as "carbon sinks" since they are capable of absorbing and storing carbon over an extended period of time.

Through tree roots, forests absorb and return water to the atmosphere as part of the global water cycle. Diverse trees and plants enhance and maintain soil
quality, which plays a vital role in nutrient cycling and water filtering.
Global population growth is also resulting in an ever-increasing need for food, which drives countries to clear forests in order to create more agricultural land. UN Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) data show that more than 40% of earth's surface now supports agriculture, whereas a bigger percentage of those lands were once covered by
forests. The results are devastating, as follows:
1. Agriculture
i) Destruction of Wildlife
The agricultural practices have adversely affected forest ecosystems, which form the critical habitat for wildlife and support the intricate interrelationship between living and non-
living things.

ii) Global Warming and Climate Change

The Union of Concerned Scientists estimates that the deforestation-induced deposition of CO2 into the atmosphere is the cause of three billion tons of CO2 released each year. 33
million hectares are lost every year due to deforestation, according to the union. It raises the global temperature and disrupts the cycle of condensation and evaporation, which
affects the ecosystem.

Temperature rises and changes in the atmospheric water cycle affect various ecosystems, such as the Polar regions.

iii) Aquatic Resources Degradation

Fertilizer use has altered ecosystems, created vast amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients, and expanded aquatic dead zones due to large-scale injections of phosphorus and
nitrogen nutrients.

2. Deforestation
The process of deforestation involves taking away a forest or stand of trees, converting the land into a non-forest use. Forests can be deforested as a result of harvesting timber or
clearing land to cultivate, profit, or live on. This alters the ecosystem dramatically and results in a major loss of biodiversity. The exponential growth in the population has resulted in
a surge in the manufacture of food, materials, and shelter, mostly by the forestry industry.
It causes the atmosphere to hold more greenhouse gases, which further increases global warming. Aridity and erosion may occur as a result of biodiversity loss and the loss of trees.
Besides resulting in extinction and climate change, it can also cause desertification if the impact is significant enough

3. Overpopulation & Overconsumption

Due to decreasing mortality rates, medical advances, and industrial farming methods, overpopulation has grown into a serious epidemic. Humans are living longer than ever before,
and so the population is increasing.

An adverse consequence of overpopulation is environmental degradation. Whether it is for farming or industries, humans need a lot of space. The increase in population means
more clear-cutting and worsening ecosystem damage. Whenever CO2 levels rise, it threatens every single organism on Earth. If enough trees aren't growing to filter the air, CO2
levels increase.
5. Emission of Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases
By burning fossil fuels and utilizing man-made products, human-induced greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide and methane, are generated. The
world relies on carbon-rich fossil fuels such as gas, oil, and coal to generate energy.
Approximately 400 billion tons of CO2 was released into the atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels between 1870 and 2013. The current level of carbon
dioxide is said to be the highest ever recorded. In turn, global temperatures are rising, causing sea-level rise and extreme weather events such as heatwaves, floods,
and tsunamis.

7. Production of Black Carbon

Human activities have beecn generating black carbon particles for centuries. Smoke contains black carbon particles which are emitted into the atmosphere as a
byproduct of cooking with solid animal fuels or burning firewood, as well as diesel car exhausts or burnt trees. By absorbing heat from the atmosphere, these
particles cause global temperatures to rise, thus causing the global warming to worsen.

Developing nations heavily dependent on diesel fuel, coal, and wood or cow dung fuels for heating and cooking are among the biggest producers of black carbon.

8. Draining Streams/Rivers and Destruction of Critical Freshwater Aquifer Recharge Areas (Water Pollution)
The degradation of freshwater supplies as a result of anthropogenic activities has been substantial. Chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and other agrochemicals found in
intensive agriculture are a major cause of water pollution.

In addition to utilizing water intensively, intensive agriculture also overdrains rivers and degrades freshwater aquifer recharge areas. Water diversion and dam
construction for irrigation or during infrastructure construction have also adversely affected the natural flow of water in rivers and streams.
This has resulted in a gradual loss of freshwater recharge, an increase in salt intrusion, and a change in local weather patterns, all of which affect local ecosystems
such as forests, lakes, and wetlands.

. Overhunting and Overexploitation

There has been an overall reduction in the diversity of plants and animals due to overhunting, overfishing, and mining. As a result, diversity in animal and plant
species in various habitats has been greatly impacted by overhunting and overexploitation. A human activity that exploits or harvests resources does not allow for a
regrowth, growth, or a new development of those products.
An overhunted species may suffer extinction, lose its natural reserves and breeding areas, and affect the food chain. Therefore, whenever any living things or native
species that contribute to an ecosystem are removed in large numbers or become extinct, the entire ecosystem suffers and can be permanently altered.
Steps Taken By Government for Biodiversity Protection
Indian Government has taken various biodiversity protection steps. Important measures include:
1. The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 was enacted by the Central Government, among other things, it provides for the designation of Protected Areas for the
protection of wildlife, and punishment for hunting specific fauna as specified in its schedules I to IV.
2. To protect wetlands, the States have adopted the Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules 2010.
3. State plans for the management of wetlands, including Ramsar sites, in the country are also included in the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-System.
4. For the control of illegal wildlife trade, including the trade of endangered species, the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau was formed.
5. In India, research on wildlife conservation is conducted by a number of research organizations including Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History Society
and Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History.
6. The Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats‘ has been modified by including a new component namely ‘Recovery of
Endangered Species‘ and 16 species have been identified for recovery viz. Snow Leopard, Bustard (including Floricans), Dolphin, Hangul, Nilgiri Tahr, Marine
Turtles, Dugong, Edible Nest Swiftlet, Asian Wild Buffalo, Nicobar Megapode, Manipur Brow-antlered Deer, Vultures, Malabar Civet, Indian Rhinoceros, Asiatic
Lion, Swamp Deer and Jerdon’s Courser.
7. Protected Areas, viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves all over the country covering the important habitats have been
created as per the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to provide better protection to wildlife, including threatened species and their habitat.
8. Financial and technical assistance is extended to the State Governments under various Centrally Sponsored Schemes, viz, ‘Integrated Development of Wildlife
Habitats’, ‘Project Tiger’ and ‘Project Elephant’ for providing better protection and conservation to wildlife.
9. The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) has been empowered under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to apprehend and prosecute wildlife offenders.
10.The State Governments have been requested to strengthen the field formations and intensify patrolling in and around the Protected Areas.
Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio Diversity
Fisheries Act 1897.
Indian Forests Act 1927.
Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957.
Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960.
Wildlife protection act 1972.
Water (prevention and control of pollution) act 1974.
Forest Conservation Act 1980.
Air(prevention and control of pollution) act 1981.
Environment Protection Act 1986.
Biological Diversity Act 2002.
Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) act 2006.

Policies related to Environment and Bio Diversity

National Forest Policy.
National Conservation Strategy and Policy statement on Environment and Development.
National Policy and macro-level action strategy on Biodiversity.
National Biodiversity Action Plan (2009).
National Agriculture Policy.
National Water Policy.
National Environment Policy (2006).
 Trees

Shrubs

Herbs & grasses