COVER STORY /EV BATTERY

SECURITY IN
RECYCLING
Electric vehicles are key to decarbonise
mobility. India’s ambitious electrification
programme supported by upscaled domestic
battery manufacturing will require a secured
supply of battery materials. But the country
does not have enough mineral reserves. At
present, its electric vehicle sector is almost
entirely dependent on imported battery cells.
Recycling retired batteries can help the sector
hedge geopolitical risks, build material
security, while minimising environmental
hazards from the e-waste and staying on the
path to net-zero emissions. India needs to
revamp its Battery Waste Management Rules of
2022 for efficient and economic extraction of
the critical minerals through recycling.
An analysis by
Anumita Roychowdhury
and Moushumi Mohanty

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 R
AJAT VERMA is a new-age scrap merchant. In 2018, he set up a
facility in Greater Noida, 30 km south of Delhi, which collects
lithium-ion batteries that have reached the end of their useful
lives in everything from consumer electronics such as laptop
computers and mobile phones to electric vehicles. Engineers and
scientists at the facility, Lohum, then carefully dismantle the batteries and
extract a variety of valuable materials locked up inside the complex
electrical components. Verma says in 2018, when the facility was set up,
consumer electronics used to be a major source of lithium-ion batteries. But
since early 2022, they have started receiving a significant volume of electric
vehicle batteries. Exigo Recycling at its plant in Panipat, Haryana, has
also started receiving lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles. In
Gurugram, Siddharth Banerji, general manager at Battery Smart, which
runs India’s largest network of battery swapping stations for electric two-
and three-wheelers, tells Down To Earth (dte) that several electric two- and
three-wheelers are beginning to experience quicker deterioration in
performance, requiring early battery replacement.
The trickle of spent batteries has started even though India’s electric
vehicle market is at a nascent stage—most of the 3 million electric vehicles

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 COVER STORY /EV BATTERY
in the country have been introduced largely
in the past two to three years after the
Union government increased consumer
subsidy under the second phase of Faster
Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric
Vehicles in India (fame-ii) in 2021, and their
batteries are not expected to have ap-
proached end of life.
Though no official data is available to
gauge the quantum of electric vehicle
batteries that have been retired so far, the
volume is expected to explode with India’s
rising ambition for electric mobility.
Amitabh Kant, India’s G20 Sherpa, during
the convenings around the recently
concluded G20 Summit, stated that the
country plans to achieve 100 per cent
electrification of two- and three-wheelers
and 65-70 per cent electrification of buses
by 2030. India is also one of the 130
signatories to the Zero Emissions Vehicle
Declaration made at a side event at the UN
Climate Conference (cop26) in Glasgow in
2021. Though not legally binding,
signatories to the declaration will ensure
that only zero-emission cars and vans are
sold by 2040.
niti Aayog in its 2022 report, “Advanced
Chemistry Cell Battery Reuse and Recycling
Market in India”, estimates that the
cumulative potential of lithium-ion batteries
in India during 2022-30 will be around 600
GWh across all segments in the base case.
Of this, 128 GWh will be available for
recycling by 2030 with 46 per cent (59 GWh)
coming from electric vehicles alone. These
retired batteries have enormous potential to
power India’s clean energy transition.
TRASH TO TREASURE
Under its “Make in India” initiative, the
country aims to become a manufacturing
hub for electric vehicles. Companies are al-
ready scaling up their operations at home
and abroad. However, this ambition is
fraught with concerns, particularly around
the battery supply chain. Most electric
vehicles use lithium-ion batteries because
they are energy-dense and offer improved
vehicle performance.
28 DOWN TO EARTH 16-31 OCTOBER 2023 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN
26-35Cover story_EV battery.indd 28
These batteries are actually packs of
lithium-ion cells that provide electricity.
These cells have three essential compo-
nents: two electrodes (an anode and a cath-
ode) and a medium called electrolyte (that
transports ions between these electrodes,
thereby generating current). Typically, the
anode is made from copper foil with graph-
ite on it, while the cathode is made up of alu-
minium foil coated with lithium metal ox-
ides (lithium along with other minerals such
as cobalt, manganese, iron and nickel, de-
pending on the cell chemistry). The electro-
lyte is a lithium salt solution such as lithium
hexafluorophosphate.
The problem is India does not have
reserves of raw materials like lithium,
cobalt or nickel to hedge against
uncertainties in the battery supply chain.
Currently, most of India’s lithium-ion
battery requirements are met through
imports, especially from China. This makes
India’s electric vehicle sector vulnerable to
geopolitical turmoil. For instance, the
Russia-Ukraine war have brought about
uncertainties in the supply chain increasing
costs. Even before the war started, battery
metals experienced a fair amount of
volatility. Prices of nickel, cobalt and lithium
increased by 37 per cent, 41 per cent and 48
per cent, between February 2021 and
February 2022, says a policy brief,
“Recycling EV Battery Material: Towards
material security and sustainability”, by
Centre for Science and Environment, Delhi.
For self-reliance in batteries, the indus-
try needs unbridled access to these critical
minerals. India is already working towards
securing overseas access to lithium mines
and global supply chains and is also devel-
oping its own new mines. In June this year,
it joined the Minerals Security Partnership
of the Critical Mineral Club, to catalyse in-
vestments from foreign governments and
private sector in the critical mineral supply
and value chain.
While considerable focus is on sourcing
virgin raw material from mines, yet another
source of supply that is drawing significant
attention globally is reusing the material
10/10/23 4:04 PM
 rers
u factu
m an
e ll
oc
e st
Go
CELL MANUFACTURERS
India currently does not have
cell manufacturers, though a few
companies are in the pipeline

CELL INGREDIENTS
Cathode active material, used
in cells, is manufactured.
Ideal loop of BATTERY MANUFACTURERS
Most Indian producers fall in this
Companies in India in the
process of setting up such plants
circularity category. They import the cells to
assemble batteries
The material locked inside a
lithium-ion battery can have

Usage
NON-BATTERY
SECTORS infinite life if it can be extracted,
separated and recycled

SPENT BATTERIES
Generated from various
sources, such as
MATERIAL consumer goods and
o
ct i
n

EXTRACTION electric vehicles

Using a chemical process, olle
C
lithium, cobalt, nickel,
manganese, graphite, copper
and aluminium present in cells Source: Based on interactions with lithium-ion
are extracted battery recyclers in India

that is already locked inside the batteries in
use and recycling them. Studies have estab-
lished that these materials can have an infi-
nite life if they can be extracted, separated
into battery-grade materials and recycled.
SECOND-LIFE OPTION
In electric vehicles, a battery is retired once
its performance degrades to 70-80 per cent
of its original capacity. “These batteries can
still be reused for non-automotive
applications, such as stationary energy
storage,” says Verma. At Lohum, the spent
batteries are first inspected for any damage
and then tested in the laboratory to assess if
they can be reused. Lohum has set up a
solar charging station for electric vehicles at
its entrance which uses retired batteries.
DISMANTLING Those battery packs that do not pass the
Using a mechanical laboratory testing are dismantled to the cell
process, spent level. The cells are tested for capacity,
batteries are
internal resistance and other vital electrical
discharged,
dismantled, crushed properties, which are used to predict the
and shredded to remaining useful life of the cell. Those found
create a black mass fit for reuse are put into second-life usage
such as grid storage; others are sent for
recycling. In this phase, the cells are first
deep discharged using a salt solution and
then passed through a crusher and a
shredder after drying. The resultant
material, called black mass, is a mixture of
all the valuable materials contained in a
lithium-ion cell. The black mass is checked
for quality and relevant batches go through
extraction, which is essentially a chemical
process in which first graphite is recovered,

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 COVER STORY /EV BATTERY
Prime reserves
Around 45% of global copper, 80% of cobalt and 75% of lithium reserves are concentrated
in just three countries
Top three countries, by share of global production and reserves for selected metals (percentage points, 2020)
Chile Russia Peru China DR Congo Australia Cuba Argentina

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Production Reserves Production Reserves Production Reserves

Copper Cobalt Lithium

Source: Perspectives of Global and Domestic Companies on Advanced Chemistry Cells Battery Reuse and Recycling released, NITI Aayog, July 2023

followed by lithium, nickel, cobalt and and finally to synthesise cathode material
manganese in that order. These materials that goes into making a battery. Of the
can then be used to manufacture anode and handful of companies involved in recycling
cathode and are ready to enter the supply of lithium-ion batteries in the country, only
chain again. seven, such as Exigo, Attero, Rubiman and
The International Council on Clean Lohum, have ultra-refining facilities (see
Transportation, a US-based non-profit, esti- ‘Limited footprint’). That is also because
mates that globally, 1.2 million electric vehi- lithium-ion battery recycling is capital in-
cle batteries are expected to reach their end tensive. “Setting up a unit requires an in-
of life in 2030, increasing to 50 million in vestment of `100-300 crore for end-to-end
2050. Reusing 50 per cent of these batteries processing. Every batch of processed black
and recycling them efficiently can reduce mass and extracted salts needs to be sam-
the annual demand for new lithium, cobalt, pled, which is expensive. Testing, grading,
nickel and manganese mining by 3 per cent and crushing each cell is also a laborious
in 2030, and 28 per cent in 2050. and expensive task,” says Shambhavi
There is no denying the fact that retired Srivastava, business development manager
lithium-ion batteries can help India of Reteck Envirotech, an e-waste recycler
strengthen its battery material security. in Mumbai.
But this requires its recycling and refining
capacity to increase manifold. Currently, MARKET AMISS
most lithium-ion battery recyclers in the What’s worse is that in the absence of a
country deal with pre-treatment of spent strong domestic market pull—currently
batteries to extract black mass. There is lit- India does not have cell manufacturing
tle capacity for high-end refining for separa- capacity and domestic battery manufactu-
tion and recovery of battery-grade materials rers import cells and assemble them—

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 recyclers face a double jeopardy. They Limited footprint
depend on the global market for buying India currently has just seven players who can recycle spent
feedstock as well as for selling their final lithium-ion batteries to extract metals that can be reused
products, which defeats the very purpose of Exigo Attero
strengthening battery material security Panipat, Haryana Roorkee, Uttarakhand
through recycling. 7,200 tonnes/year 4,000
Gaurav Dolwani, chief executive officer
of Lico Materials, a lithium-ion recycler Ziptrax
with a plant in Raigad, Maharashtra, says Lohum New Delhi
the country does not have enough battery Greater Noida, 350
Uttar Pradesh
scrap or black mass to run the plants at full
10,000
capacity. So recyclers rely on diversified
sources of batteries, such as consumer
electronics, and on imports, which is a
cheaper source. Verma of Lohum claims
that his company has a licence to import
battery scrap. Most recyclers however prefer
importing black mass as the cost of freight TATA Chemicals
Maharashtra Batx
for battery scrap is high. A L N Rao, chief
1,200-1,400 Sikandrabad,
executive officer of Exigo Recycling, says
Uttar Pradesh
that in a shipment, it is difficult to ascertain
4,000-5,000
whether the batteries are fully discharged
Eco Tantra
and that can add to safety concerns. Battery Pune, Maharashtra LICO Materials
scrap has to be thus transported in special Applied for Raigad, Maharashtra
containers meant for dangerous goods and lithium-ion recycling 10,000
only a certain kind of vessel can carry them.
This makes the freight cost about twice the Source: Compiled by Centre for
cost of normal freight. Science and Environment, Delhi

On the face of it, importing battery scrap

or black mass for recycling appears to help
lock in more resources for recovery and
reduce the requirements for virgin raw
material. However, given the current
protectionist trends in the global market,
most countries are trying to restrain export
of black mass to build their own battery
recycling industry. According to the UK-
based analytics firm Fast Markets, Europe
may stop black mass exports by 2025.
Besides, importing is not going to help
India as long as the recycling industry sends
the final products to other countries. “The
black mass is mostly exported for refining to
the global market, where it is priced
according to the international price index,”
says Srivastava.
“Our finished product basically caters to
two sets of customers, export customers in
the battery industry and domestic custom-
ers in non-battery industry,” says Verma.
Cobalt, lithium and nickel retrieved through
recycling can be used in domestic industries
such as steel and paints, he adds.
Dolwani of Lico Materials also says that
his company is able to extract cobalt sul-
phate, nickel sulphate or lithium carbonate
from recycled batteries. But in the absence
of domestic cathode and anode manufactur-
ers, he exports those to China or South Ko-
rea. Lico Materials is working with a domes-
tic player, Epsilon Advanced Materials, for
manufacturing anode materials. “Once the
entire ecosystem is built, it will be possible
to keep minerals in India and keep reusing
them,” he adds.
Several domestic battery manufacturers
such as tdsg International, Reliance Indus-
tries and Exide are also in the process of set-
ting up cell manufacturing. These compa-
nies should be able to produce lithium-ion
cells in the next three to four years.

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 COVER STORY /EV BATTERY
REVAMP
RECYCLING
RULES
Battery Waste Rules,
2022, only ensure that
retired batteries reach
recyclers. The rules need to
be revamped to make
recycling more efficient
and economic
A
s electric mobility is set to overhaul
the transportation sector, it offers a
rare chance to make the system sus-
tainable from the ground up—to maximise
the recovery of battery material while en-
suring that heavy metals and other problem-
atic toxins from this e-waste do not end up in
a landfill and contaminate the environment.
A big step in this direction has been the
notification of the Battery Waste (Manage-
ment and Handling) Rules, 2022, which ad-
dress concerns around lithium-ion batteries
from electric vehicles. The Rules bring with-
in its ambit all manufacturers, producers,
collection centres, importers, re-condition-
ers, refurbishers, dismantlers, assemblers,
dealers, recyclers, auctioneers, vehicle ser-
vice centres, consumers and bulk consum-
ers. The Rules say producers, which include
battery manufacturers, importers and au-
tomakers that produce products with batter-
ies, “shall have the obligation of Extended
Producer Responsibility (epr) for the Battery
that they introduce in the market to ensure
the attainment of the recycling or refurbish-
ing obligations”. This means they will have
to collect, either directly or through third-
party vendors, waste batteries from the
market and ensure the collected batteries
reach authourised recyclers and not end up
being landfilled or incinerated. Producers
32 DOWN TO EARTH 16-31 OCTOBER 2023 DOWNTOEARTH.ORG.IN
26-35Cover story_EV battery.indd 32
will also be required to file an annual record
of sales and buyback with the state pollution
control board (spcb) and ensure safe collec-
tion and transportation of batteries to au-
thorised/registered recyclers.
The Rules have for the first time defined
measurable targets for collection and recy-
cling within a compliance timeframe. They
have set a target of 90 per cent recovery of
the battery material—70 per cent by 2024-
25, then 80 per cent by 2026, and 90 per cent
after 2026-27 onwards (see ‘Recovery tar-
gets’). Producers will also have to include 5
per cent of recycled material in the total dry
weight of a cell by 2027-28, expanding to 20
per cent by 2030-31. In case of imported
cells, the producer has to meet the obligation
by getting the same amount of recycled ma-
terials utilised by other businesses or by ex-
porting a similar amount of materials (see
‘Old meets new’).
To ensure compliance with the obliga-
tions as well as safe and formalised recy-
cling of batteries that are in use, the 2022
Rules mandates that epr registration sys-
tem will be managed online on a portal by
the Central Pollution Control Boards (cpcb).
The portal, which is yet to be operational,
will enable producers to engage a third-par-
ty or recycler to collect and process the
waste and will empower recyclers to issue
10/10/23 4:04 PM

5%
2027-28
Recovery
targets
Electric
vehicle battery
manufacturers
are now bound
by law to collect
70%
spent batteries and
put them in the
recycling channel 2024-25
Spent batteries producers need to recover as % share
of new batteries they release in the market in a year
Source: Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022
epr certificates to producers based on the
quantity of battery they send for recycling.
“When producers file their returns, they
will have to declare how many batteries
they released in the market and how many
were collected and recycled to obtain epr
certificates. cpcb will charge a fee for the
upkeep of the portal management and reg-
istration of producers. We are currently de-
veloping standard operating procedures
about the entire process and guidelines on
labels. spcbs are expected to audit the recy-
cling centres and also monitor compliance,”
a cpcb official told Down to Earth (dte).
The portal will even allow producers who
have surplus epr certificates to trade them
26-35Cover story_EV battery.indd 33
Old meets new
Starting 2027-28, domestic battery manufacturers will have to use
domestically recycled materials in new electric vehicle batteries
20%
15%
10%
2028-29 2029-30 2030-31 and onwards
Share of recycled materials to be used in manufacturing new
electric vehicle batteries (% of total dry weight of a battery)
Source: Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022
with other producers who have not fulfilled
their epr commitments.
The Rules require cpcb to lay down guide-
lines for imposition and collection of “envi-
ronmental compensation” on producers and
recyclers who are non-compliant. Currently,
59 automakers and 11 battery recyclers have
90% registered for recycling battery waste.
80%
NEED FURTHER REJIG
2025-26 2026-27 Though a step in the right direction, the
and onwards
2022 Rules suffer from a few critical gaps
that unless addressed can impede efficient
and effective recycling. The labels on batter-
ies in India currently require to carry an
icon (a crossed bin) which indicates that the
batteries cannot be disposed of in regular
bins. The labels should also provide informa-
tion on the metals in the lithium-ion battery
to help recyclers identify what all can be re-
covered. Some of the recyclers that dte spoke
to said that they employ chemists to ascer-
tain the chemical composition of the battery,
which is time- and resource-consuming.
There is also a need to tweak the current
policy so that it allows recycling-friendly de-
sign of cells and batteries. Battery packs, for
instance, are screwed, welded and have
module pieces stuck together with adhesive.
This makes separation of parts difficult. If
screw connections and other joining tech-
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 COVER STORY /EV BATTERY
niques are standardised, it will enable auto- teries at vehicle dealer networks. As the vol-
mated disassembly of cells. Materials could ume of spent batteries increases, the infor-
also be designed for easier end-of-life man- mal sector may directly approach dealers
agement. For example, a water-based binder handling multi-brand products by outpric-
for electrode materials can reduce the use of ing formal collectors. This may lead to haz-
toxic solvents to separate the current collec- ardous practices in recycling.
tor from the active material during recy- Recyclers are also worried about the
cling. There are other concerns among the changing chemical composition of lithium-
industry. The epr strategy does not talk of ion batteries. After a series of incidents of
the budget battery manufacturers should electric two- and three-wheelers catching
earmark for collecting and recycling spent fire, domestic electric vehicle manufacturers
batteries. In the absence of this, the price are migrating towards safer, but less energy-
that producers might end up paying to dense lithium iron phosphate (lfp) batteries.
recyclers under epr might be too low, as These batteries are cheaper because they do
has been seen in the case of other e-waste not contain expensive metals such as cobalt
streams. “epr is linked to the actual produc- and nickel. From a recycling perspective, it
tion and the numbers need to be verified and is only lithium in these cells that brings val-
audited. What is happening in other e-waste ue. But the proportion of lithium is also min-
streams is that epr rates have come down to imal. If the recycler is only capturing lithium
single digits per kg. This means they are not carbonate (the form in which lithium is in-
processing the e-waste. They are just show- cluded in the cell) from lfp cells, it will be-
ing documentation and moving the same come unviable for the recycler, says Verma.
shipments round and round. Such low epr It might be financially challenging for
rates are not feasible,” says Dolwani. He says recyclers to handle lfp in India until the
in the absence of a mandatory budget, man- government comes up with a framework that
ufacturers at most agree to pay the spot can encourage original equipment manufac-
price which is set by informal recyclers and turers to pay recyclers, says Srivastava. He
this leads to leakages in the waste collection adds that recyclers in the US and European
chain as they typically lack infrastructure to Union are paid by vehicle manufacturers to
manage battery waste. recycle lfp as it has negative value.
This might not be a problem with electric The industry is also concerned over the
vehicle batteries initially as the market is lack of rules for storage, transport and
largely formalised right now with vehicle handling of electric vehicle batteries that
owners typically replacing their spent bat- may lead to serious safety concerns,

A PASSPORT FOR BATTERIES

It is an electronic record that each battery will carry in order to assist battery producers,
users, and recyclers in making informed judgements about battery life and quality
IN JUNE 2023, the European durability characteristics and informa- decisions and reliable verification of
Parliament adopted the Digital Battery tion regarding recycling. The informa- environment, social and governance
Passport that mandates battery tion is collected all along the battery’s credentials of suppliers. For recyclers
passport deployment by 2027. lifecycle. The concept envisions a it will allow for more efficient
A battery passport is an electronic multi-stakeholder consensus on scope disassembly and higher material
record for each battery in the market of data collection, access rights and recovery through better process
which carries information such as data ownership. The batteries can be control. These are important steps,
supplier information, material stamped with a QR code which can considering 17 per cent of the global
composition, manufacturer lead users to this information. battery demand by 2030 is believed to
information, performance and It improves material sourcing be coming from the EU.

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 especially if the informal The EU’s “Fit for 55”
sector becomes more active in
FROM TAX REBATES, package has further
this. The 2022 Rules allow FINANCIAL INCENTIVES TO promoted automakers’
informal collectors and STRICT ENFORCEMENT OF interest in recycling by
transporters to be registered
EXTENDED PRODUCER requiring the publication
on the central portal. But they of battery carbon foot-
need to be organised as an RESPONSIBILITY, COUNTRIES prints, as well as by set-
entity as well as audited for ARE INNOVATING WAYS TO ting collection and recy-
environmental safeguards. CREATE A ROBUST ECOSYSTEM cling targets including
The other challenge lies in minimum recycled con-
the fact that several state gov-
FOR RECYCLING ELECTRIC tent requirements for
ernments have released their VEHICLE BATTERIES newly built batteries.
electric vehicle policies that In December 2022,
also talk of battery recycling. There is little the EU introduced new regulatory reforms
clarity right now on how these state-level aimed at building a circular economy for
policies will work in tandem with the 2022 electric vehicle batteries. The European
Rules. Delhi’s electric vehicle policy, for in- Commission has introduced new reforms
stance, promotes the reuse of batteries through a digital tool called “battery pass-
through private sector participation and en- port”. The tool seeks a carbon footprint dec-
courages establishment of recycling busi- laration for batteries sold in Europe start-
nesses. Punjab is promoting automakers to ing 2024 (see ‘A Passport for batteries’ p34).
issue buyback schemes for used battery Meanwhile, China has heavily incentiv-
packs. The state is also creating an e-mar- ised battery recycling with the intention of
ketplace to encourage resale of used batter- using recycled raw material available within
ies along with incentives to promote resale. the country. The regulations encourage
Telangana’s electric vehicle policy focuses standardisation of battery design, produc-
on reuse of lithium-ion batteries in stationary tion and verification to improve assembly
energy storage applications and promotes and dismantling of used batteries. This also
collaborations between battery and vehicle makes a provision for repairing and repack-
manufacturers, recyclers and energy storage aging for second life utilisation. Considera-
operators. It also provides incentives to ble recycling scale has been attained. Fos-
recycling businesses for ultra-processing. han-based Guangdong Brunp in China has
a capacity of recycling 120,000 tonnes of bat-
TAP GLOBAL LEARNING CURVE teries per year. This is the equivalent of
The country can learn from the experiences what would be used in over 200,000 cars.
and interventions brought in other countries Thus, global research efforts are looking
globally. The US Inflation Reduction Act, at improving the process to make recycled
2022, allows recycled battery materials lithium economically attractive. As the tar-
(lithium, cobalt, and nickel) to qualify for get for zero-emission transition gets more
significant tax credits available through the ambitious, and domestic electric vehicle
domestic materials clause, even if those ma- manufacturing and market grow, more
terials were not originally mined in the US spent batteries will flood the recycling mar-
or in countries with which the country has ket. Recovering the valuable material locked
free-trade agreements. Additionally, Califor- inside the batteries has to be the priority to
nia is bringing about policy reforms for end- improve material security, minimise waste
of-life reuse and recycling of batteries and and control environmental hazards. Battery
very stringent labelling regulations. The EU waste material is the new oil. D T E
has also instituted its End-of-Life Vehicles @down2earthindia
Directive that mandates automakers to take (With inputs from Rohit Garg, Mrinal
back vehicle owners’ end-of-life batteries. Tripathi and Rohan Malhotra)

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