Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234

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Journal of Process Control

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jprocont

The long way toward multivariate predictive control of flotation processes

L.G. Bergh ∗ , J.B. Yianatos
Automation and Supervision Centre for Mineral Industry, Santa Maria University, Valparaiso, Chile

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Flotation processes are very complex, and after more than one hundred years of history, there are few
Received 26 April 2010 reports on applications of novel techniques in monitoring and control of flotation units, circuits and
Received in revised form 2 November 2010 global plants. On the other hand, the successful application of multivariate predictive control on other
Accepted 3 November 2010
processes is well known. In this paper, an analysis on how the characteristics of flotation processes, the
Available online 15 December 2010
quality of measurements of key variables, and the general lack of realistic dynamic models, are delaying
the appropriate use of predictive control. In this context, the applications of multivariate statistics, such
Keywords:
as PCA, to model the relationship between operating data for on-line diagnosis and fault detection and
Flotation
Modeling
to build causal models are discussed. Also the use of PLS models to predict target variables for control
Control purposes, is presented. Results, obtained at pilot and industrial scales, are discussed, introducing new
Predictive control ideas on how to obtain more valuable information from the usual available operating data of the plant,
Expert control and particularly from froth images.
© 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction strategy are: measurement instrumentation, data reconciliation,

McKee [1] reported the state of flotation control as follows.
The development of robust and lasting automatic control systems
for flotation circuits has proved difficult. Reasons for this include
the inherent complexity and unpredictability of the response of
most flotation circuits to upset conditions, unclear expectations of
what can be achieved by a control system, unrealistic objectives
for control systems and excessive complexity of the actual control
strategies. However, the interest in developing control systems has
persisted because the benefits to be gained in terms of improved
metallurgical performance are substantial.
Since early 1990s, it was generally accepted that stabilizing con-
trol must precede optimization, and the focus has shifted to a range
of increasingly sophisticated approaches to achieve stabilization by
the use of various model based control strategies. A recent devel-
opment is the application of expert systems as the crucial role and
knowledge of operators are being appreciated.
After 10 years, Hodouin et al. [2], reported: developments in
the mineral process industry have been made in hardware (sen-
sors, data transmission systems, computer platforms) as well as in
software (data management, process models, control algorithms).
However, problems inherent to the high level of complexity of the
processed material are still there, leaving process engineers with
more questions than answers. Some critical aspects in a control
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 32 2654229.
E-mail address: luis.bergh@usm.cl (L.G. Bergh).
pattern recognition, fault detection and diagnosis, soft sensors,
process, and controller performance monitoring. The successful
application of knowledge-based control strategies for grinding and
flotation processes depends mainly on the quality of information
and the process knowledge.
Hodouin et al. [2] also emphasize that mineral processing opti-
mization and control cannot be performed without a minimum
amount of information on the input disturbances (the material
properties), the process states, and the final product quality. This
is in fact the bottleneck of mineral process control. The operat-
ing strategy efficiency is totally dependent upon the quality of the
information used, since, on the one hand, it is used to build the
knowledge encapsulated in the models which the control strategy
is based on, and, on the other hand, it is the input to the real-time
optimization and control algorithms.
Measurement of ore composition, particle size distribution, and
flow rates is central in the control of mineral processing operations.
Instrumentation is available, as well as for less ore specific prop-
erties such as levels, motor power, rotation speed, pH, and slurry
density. However, the quality of these measurements depends
heavily on maintenance programs. Furthermore, essential proper-
ties such as grindability, mineral texture, liberation degree, surface
activity, slurry rheology, grinding media size distribution, bubble
size distribution, and loading are extremely difficult to measure
and even to infer from other measurements.
According to the industrial point of view of Thwaites [3],
optimum flotation performance relies on good level control, air
sparging, and flow control, as well as precise reagents addition.
Significant opportunities are found in flotation operations by atten-

0959-1524/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jprocont.2010.11.001
 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234
tion to these fundamental controls. Flotation is the process area of
significant upgrading of commodity minerals/metals.
In Section 2 a brief summary of model predictive control is
presented, highlighting under which conditions a successful imple-
mentation will be expected. Then in Section 3, some characteristics
of flotation plants are discussed. In Section 4, the control strategies
for flotation plants are discussed, focusing on the problems usually
found in both the regulatory and the supervisory controls. The role
of disturbances, instrumentation, process interaction and mainte-
nance programs are discussed for regulatory control. The problems
related to estimation of target variables, process and instrumenta-
tion constraints, the availability of process models, and the role of
peripheral tools are discussed for the implementation of supervi-
sory control. The discussion is centered on what else has to be done
to meet the requirements needed for model predictive control, and
to understand why so far the most common approach to flotation
control is knowledge based control (expert and fuzzy systems).
2. Model predictive control
Model predictive control (MPC) is defined as the family of
controllers in which there is a direct use of an explicit and sep-
arately identifiable process model to predict the future response
of the plant [4,5]. MPC has found wide acceptance in industrial
applications mainly because it can be operated without expert
intervention for long periods of time and because of their flexi-
ble constraint handling capability. These are significant advantages
in the context of the overall operating objectives of the process
industries.
It is a fact that in practice the plant operating point that satis-
fies the overall economic goals of the process will lie close to the
intersection of constraints. Therefore, in order to be successful, any
control system must anticipate constraint violations and correct
them in a systematic way: violations must not be allowed while
keeping the operation close to these constraints [4].
2.1. Historical development of MPC
The current interest of the process industry in MPC appeared
with the application reports of “model predictive heuristic control”
[6], and “dynamic matrix control” (DMC) [7]. In both algorithms an
explicit dynamic model of the plant is used to predict the effect
of future actions of the manipulated variables on the output. The
future changes of the manipulated variables are determined by
optimization with the objective of minimizing the predicted error
subject to operating constraints. The optimization is repeated at
each sampling time based on updated information (measurements)
from the plant.
Thus, in the context of MPC the control problem including the
relative importance of the different objectives, the constraints, etc.
is formulated as a dynamic optimization problem. It constitutes one
of the first examples of large-scale dynamic optimization applied
routinely in real time in the process industries.
More than 15 years after model predictive control (MPC)
appeared in industry as an effective means to deal with multi-
variable constrained control problems, a theoretical basis for this
technique has started to emerge. The issues of feasibility of the
on-line optimization, stability and performance are largely under-
stood for systems described by linear models. Much progress
has been made on these issues for non-linear systems but for
practical applications many questions remain, including the reli-
ability and efficiency of the on-line computation scheme. To
deal with model uncertainty ‘rigorously’ an involved dynamic
programming problem must be solved. The approximation tech-
niques proposed for this purpose are largely at a conceptual stage.
227
Among the main research needs the following areas are identi-
fied: multivariable system identification, performance monitoring
and diagnostics, non-linear state estimation, and batch system con-
trol. Many practical problems like control objective prioritization
and symptom-aided diagnosis can be integrated systematically and
effectively into the MPC framework by expanding the problem
formulation to include integer variables yielding a mixed-integer
quadratic or linear program. Efficient techniques for solving these
problems are available [8].
2.2. Present situation of MPC
The infinite prediction horizon of the LQG algorithm endows
the algorithm with powerful stabilizing properties. For the case of
a perfect model, it was shown to be stabilizing for any reasonable
real plant as long as Q is positive semi definite and R is positive
definite.
However, the low impact of LQG on control technology develop-
ments in process industries was mainly attributed to constraints,
process nonlinearities, model uncertainty, unique performance cri-
teria, and cultural reasons [5].
This environment led to the industrial development of a more
general model based control methodology in which the dynamic
optimization problem is solved online at each control execution.
Process inputs are computed so as to optimize future plant behav-
ior over a time interval known as the prediction horizon. In the
general case any desired objective function can be used. Plant
dynamics are described by an explicit process model which can
take, in principle, any required mathematical form. Process input
and output constraints are included directly in the problem for-
mulation so that future constraint violations are anticipated and
prevented. The first input of the optimal input sequence is injected
into the plant and the problem is solved again at the next time
interval using updated process measurements. In addition to devel-
oping more flexible control technology, new process identification
technology was developed to allow quick estimation of empirical
dynamic models from test data, substantially reducing the cost of
model development. This new methodology for industrial process
modeling and control is what we now refer to as MPC technology.
2.3. Implementation requirements for MPC
A detailed comparison between different MPC algorithms can be
found in [4,8]. All of them have at least the following requirements
to be implemented:
(i) Local objectives must be under regulatory control with accept-
able performance.
(ii) Target variables must be measured or estimated with a fre-
quency related to process dynamics, with high quality and
availability.
(iii) To minimize the variance of target variables, process con-
straints should be explicitly stated.
(iv) A dynamic model (or at least a static model) between local reg-
ulatory control set points and target variables should be known.
This model should be valid in a well established area of opera-
tion.
(v) Existence of complementary mechanisms to promote robust-
ness to process-model mismatch and instrumentation faults.
The next question is to know what are the characteristics of
a flotation plant, how well the local objectives can be achieved
by regulatory controls, what are the problems associated with the
estimation of target variables, what are the process and instrumen-
tation constraints, which kind of models are available and which
complementary mechanism can be used to promote robustness
228 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234
Feed Rougher
Tailings
Concentrate Regrinding
Cleaner
Scavenger
Fig. 1. Layout of a typical flotation plant.
to process-model mismatch and instrumentation faults. In other
words, how far is the state of art of flotation plant control from a
successful application of MPC.
3. General description of flotation plants
The separation of minerals by flotation processes is so complex
that an adequate final product can never be achieved in one single
stage. Several consecutive cell arrays form a circuit and more than
a circuit is needed to achieve high metal recoveries at commercial
metal grades.
3.1. Typical flotation plant
A typical flotation plant, shown in Fig. 1, is composed at least
for the following circuits: Rougher, Regrinding, Cleaner, and Scav-
enger. The output of the grinding plant is fed to the Rougher circuit.
Usually pulp level control is available for each bank of the circuit.
Air flow rates may be controlled or have no regulation, depend-
ing on cell design. The collected Rougher concentrates are sent to
a regrinding stage and after classifying the undersize stream is fed
to the Cleaning circuit. This circuit is generally composed by flota-
tion columns operating in parallel. Froth depth, wash water and
air flow rates usually are under control. The collective column con-
centrates form part of the final concentrate. The tailings from both
columns are fed to a Scavenger circuit. Again, usually pulp level
control for each bank is available and air flow rate control depends
on cell design. This concentrate is returned to the regrinding stage,
while the tailings join the collective Rougher tailings to form the
final tailings.
3.2. Modified circuits
Sometimes, it may be convenient to treat separately the con-
centrate of the first cells of a Rougher circuit from the concentrate
obtained in the last cells [1]. In this case the Rougher is broken in
two circuits: a Prerougher and a Rougher. The motivation for such
an array is to add flexibility for plant operation. This new degree
of freedom attempts to adapt the plant layout to the time variant
characteristics of the feed and the process constraints presented in
every circuit. This alternative plant layout is shown in Fig. 2.
The Prerougher concentrate is fed to a Prerougher cleaner cir-
cuit. This last concentrate forms part of the final concentrate of the
plant, while the tailings are pumped to the regrinding stage. The
Prerougher Rougher
Tailings
Feed
PR cleaner
Regrinding
Concentrate
Cleaner
Scavenger
Fig. 2. Prerougher and Rougher split.
Prerougher tailing is fed to the Rougher circuit. Usually the Rougher
tailings are subject to economical constraints (forced to be at least
below a target). Now a new target must be chosen: the concentrate
grade of the Prerougher circuit. The selection of this grade will influ-
ence the feed to the Rougher, and therefore will allow splitting the
mineral separation between the two circuits. If the feed grade to
the plant changes very often (for example a sudden increment in
grade), then there may occur that the Prerougher capacity is not
enough to pull out all the concentrate mass. In this case, one can
add to the Prerougher circuit the first banks of the Rougher circuit.
4. Control strategies for flotation plants
The overall control strategy of a flotation plant relies first on
good control of local objectives (pulp levels, flow rates), usually
implemented as a distributed control system (DCS). When these
local objectives are satisfactory achieved, then the next level is to
be able to modify the operation of each circuit (Rougher, Clean-
ers, Scavenger) in order to obtain specific concentrate and tailing
grades. This demands the capability of changing the set points of the
local controllers in such a manner that the operation of the circuit is
corrected every time. Then the specific knowledge on how the tar-
get variables are related to the local inputs is needed. If this second
level of control is possible, then to satisfy the overall target of the
plant (final concentrate grade in a specific band and plant recovery
over a minimum value) one needs to know what to ask of each cir-
cuit. Which is the best combination of circuit targets to maximize
the benefits? How will it depend on the feed characteristics and
plant constrains?
4.1. Regulatory control
In this section the role of process disturbances, available
instrumentation and process dynamics characteristics on regula-
tory control is discussed. A brief summary of the main control
algorithms used in flotation plants are presented. Finally, how
maintenance programs may constraint the benefits of stabilizing
control is discussed.
4.1.1. Disturbances
The main disturbances coming into the Rougher circuit are the
feed characteristics, such as feed rate, solid percent, particle size
and surface composition distribution, grades of valuable metals,
and mineralogical species. These characteristics are a result of pre-
 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234 229

Reactives [12]. The computation of the relative gain array presented by Per-
Air Air sechini et al. [13], leading almost to an identity matrix, is valid only
FC Air Air for steady state. One alternative to deal with this problem in a DCS
FC FC
structure is to perform some detuning decoupling. For example,
LC FC FC
AI
LC the bias control can only be attempted if the froth depth control is
stable on its target.
AI

4.1.4. Control algorithms

FI
Feed
Concentrate
Fig. 3. Typical distributed control of a flotation circuit.
vious mining and grinding stages, and usually very little is done to
modify these characteristics to favor flotation operation.
4.1.2. Instrumentation
Usually, pulp level control, precise chemical reagent addition,
air, pulp, and water flow rate controls are achieved in most flota-
tion plants. Fig. 3 shows a common P&ID for a flotation circuit, while
Fig. 4 illustrates the case of a flotation column. Sensors for measur-
ing local target and actuators (control valves and peristaltic pumps)
are available with reasonable performance.
4.1.3. Process interaction
Some difficulties have been observed in the coordination of pulp
level control in a circuit such as the one illustrated in Fig. 3, when it
is composed by several banks. The main disturbance for these con-
trollers is the change in feed flow rates to each process unit. Feed
forward–feedback control schemes [9,10] have been proposed and
successfully tested in plants to deal with this coordination problem,
when the quality of measurements and actuators are well main-
tained. In general, for given controller set points the plant operation
is stable.
Bergh and Yianatos [11] have presented a general discussion
about column flotation control, covering process and instru-
mentation issues. Dynamic interaction between the three classic
controllers, shown in Fig. 4, is expected from a physical analysis
of the system, and from experimentally obtained dynamic models
FC
Tailings Apart from distributed PID control of local objectives, several
AI studies have been conducted at this level. For example, gain sched-
uled control, fuzzy control, dynamic matrix control, generalized
predictive control, global predictive control, and others, have been
implemented and tested in flotation columns. A complete discus-
sion on this can be found in Bouchard et al. [14]. Even when the
improvement in local control performance has been demonstrated
using more complex control techniques, the important problem of
how to select the best set points of these local targets to optimize
the global performance of the process units and the whole plant
still remains unsolved. In other words, model predictive control
has not been used in any of its formulations to directly control the
metallurgic performance of one unit. Control strategies based on
metallurgical objectives have been implemented as expert systems
to supervise the column operation by manipulating froth depth,
air flow rate and wash water flow rate set points [15–17]. Besides
illustrating the benefits of improving control strategies, the latter
papers show the overall work associated with industrial imple-
mentations, including a pre-diagnosis step to detect and correct
operation and maintenance problems.
4.1.5. Maintenance
Plant operation on target can be stable if the quality of mea-
surements and actuators can be assured by adequate maintenance
programs. Problems with wash water and process air distributions
will change the relationship between these local set points and
the principal targets as concentrate grade and recovery. The use of
gas hold up on-line measurement and control has been proposed
and applications on pilot columns have demonstrated its benefits
[18,19]. However, in a three phase system, which includes solids,
it is difficult to maintain the quality of the measurement. More-
over, assuring a certain gas hold up is not synonymous with having
the right bubble size distribution, and therefore, once again the
relationship between hold up and concentrate grade is not unique.
One can conclude that regulatory control of local objectives is not
always achieved with acceptable performance.
4.2. Supervisory control

Wash water Concentrate and tailings grades represent the main target vari-
ables in a flotation unit and plant. Process recovery is a steady state
AI concept and therefore it can only be used when this condition is
achieved or when large periods of data are considered.

Feed Concentrate 4.2.1. Target variables estimation

X-ray fluorescence has been the universal method for on-
LC line solid composition measurement in mineral processing plants.
Equipment vendors now offer more efficient, compact, flexible, and
FC reliable devices. The sampling device as well as the technique for
presenting the sample at the analyzer window is critical, since the
very small quantity of ore to be analyzed must be representative of
Air tons of an inherently heterogeneous material.
Usually, several process streams are multiplexed to one XRF
detector in order to minimize the investment. These complex pro-
cedures may produce significant time delay in grade estimation,
Tailings as it is compared with the process time constant of a flotation
unit. Furthermore, the accuracy and reliability of the estimation
Fig. 4. Typical distributed control of a flotation column. is strongly related to the quality of the calibration method. These
230 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234
characteristics put a lot of constraints in building reliable dynamic
models between the local set points of the regulatory control and
the target variables. This has been a motivation to research on how
to use some related properties of the froth to these target vari-
ables. The long sampling interval of XRF has been reduced also by
reflectance spectrum analysis of the slurries [20].
After improving flotation fundamental measurements and
controls, and the consolidation of on-line XRF analyzers, the intro-
duction of flotation cameras has been a major issue. New variables,
such as froth texture, froth velocity and bubble size, were available
to the control engineer. In the flotation field, many investigations
have been made for froth image utilization [21–24]. However, the
captured information is quite complex and requires the develop-
ment of correlation equations with process variables that have to
be controlled. These authors found a large uncertainty in the grade
predictions because of the influence of external sources of varia-
tions, such as light brightness, camera position. Even when these
factors were studied and their effect practically eliminated, no
models are currently useful to predict grades. Bergh and Niada [25]
proposed to jointly study the froth characteristics with the state of
operating variables to find the correlation between these variables
through the principal component analysis technique. Other studies
of froth image analysis relating air recovery and bubble loading to
describe flotation bank performance can be found in Barbian et al.
[26].
Interesting sensors are under development for flotation
columns for measuring the air hold-up, the location of the
froth–pulp interface, and the water split bias [18,19]. However, no
industrial applications have claimed a significant improvement on
the overall column control. This is mainly due to the difficulties
found in maintaining the quality of these estimations over time,
and the lack of reliable relationships between these intermediate
objectives and the target metallurgical variables.
4.2.2. Process and instrumentation constraints
The usual practice in flotation control was to ignore the con-
straint issue at the design stage and then to consider it in an ad
hoc way during the implementation. Since each process unit is
unique one cannot exploit the population factor as in other indus-
tries (e.g. aerospace). That is, one cannot afford extreme expenses
in designing an ad hoc control system that one knows will not work
in another process and therefore its cost cannot be spread over a
large number of applications.
The design and maintenance costs of ad hoc control systems usu-
ally more than offset their profitability. In conclusion, economics
demand that the control systems must be designed, when possi-
ble, with transparent specification of performance criteria such as
process constraints. In this sense, MPC methodology currently can
reflect most directly many performance criteria of relevance to the
process industries, and is capable of utilizing any available process
model. This is the primary reason for the success of these techniques
in numerous applications in the chemical process industries.
Other common constraints often found in flotation plants are the
operation and instrumentation problems that have to be detected
and solved prior to the implementation of any control strategy, as
was discussed in [16,17].
On stream analyzers usually provide grade information every
10–20 min, depending on the complexity of the process [20]. Most
disturbances coming into the process units typically occur at high
frequency, making extremely difficult to capture from the experi-
mental data the information needed to obtain dynamic models of
the process.
4.2.3. Models
The theory of MPC has matured considerably. However,
according to the practitioners, what limits the performance and
applicability of MPC are not the deficiencies of the control algo-
rithm, but difficulties in modeling, sensing, state estimation, fault
detection, diagnosis, etc. [8].
Model development is by far the most critical and time-
consuming step in implementing a MPC. It is estimated that, in
a typical commissioning project, modeling efforts can take up to
90% of the cost and time. Unlike the linear case, however, there is
no established method to construct a non-linear model through a
plant test. Recognition of the need has made empirical modeling of
non-linear systems a focal research topic within the process control
community.
In Chile, there are more than one thousand cameras installed
from different suppliers. Faster dynamics (typically less than
1 min), as compared to XRF technology (10–20 min), open the pos-
sibility of building better flotation models, and therefore the use of
predictive control.
A wide review of the fundamentals of process flotation mod-
eling in mechanical cells has been presented by King [27] and in
flotation columns by Finch and Dobby [28] and Rubinstein [29].
King [27] brings the issue that flotation models do not generally
incorporate variables such as pH, pulp Eh, and chemical reagent
(collector, frother) concentration. Pyke et al. [30] presented a
general flotation model describing the flotation process fundamen-
tals (particle–bubble attachment and detachment in a turbulent
regime). Recently, Koh and Schwarz [31] reported a CFD simulation
of the particle–bubble attachment process, where they showed that
the bubble surface area flux Sb is one of the flotation parameters
that constrain the transport at the level of the pulp–froth interface.
The recent findings in flotation modeling related to air recovery is
discussed by Neethling and Cilliers [32]. All these approaches are
commonly used for design and simulation of flotation circuits but
not for control purposes.
A common alternative, in the absence of mathematical models,
is to use the cumulative process knowledge and operators experi-
ence to build a supervisory expert control system. In some sense,
basic knowledge-based rules are applicable to most flotation pro-
cesses. However, process constraints usually vary from plant to
plant. Moreover, control decisions depend drastically on infrequent
on-stream analyzer measurements, making it almost impossible
to consider the process dynamics. Therefore, most expert systems
are designed to supervise the process by making changes on local
set points of regulatory controls from one steady state to another
[11,17]. Fuzzy logic has become a powerful tool to choose most
precisely the control actions [33,34], but the frequency of decisions
has not changed.
4.2.4. Complementary tools
When a good process model is available, the benefits of MPC can
be sustained over a long period of time if a mechanism to detect an
abnormality and diagnose its root cause is available. The results
can be communicated to engineers and can also be used to adapt
control parameters. Harris et al. [35] and other researchers have
proposed performance measures for existing loops.
4.2.4.1. Application of statistical methods in fault detection. Failure
and fault detection is a complementary area to process control,
allowing for higher levels of operational prediction and perfor-
mance optimization. The successful example of the application of
multivariate statistical analysis in smelters to alert operators when
furnace run out conditions are being approached, is discussed by
King [36]. This system is based on principal component analysis
(PCA) models. This kind of applications to flotation processes are
discussed later in this paper.
A more general approach using multivariate statistics have been
proposed by MacGregor and his coworkers [37–39]. Successful
application of principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least
 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234 231

squares (PLS) models have been reported for different kinds of Concentrate grade
chemical processes [37] and particularly for flotation processes Tailings grade
Design parameters:
[25,40,41]. Recovery
Diameter, high,
Bias rate
4.2.4.2. PCA method. The key feature of principal component anal- geometry…
ysis (PCA) method is its ability to mathematically project high Gas holdup
dimensional process and quality data into smaller dimensional,
summary data sets via the development of linear models.
The practical value of the PCA modeling method is that this
technique allows for the systematic examination and interpreta-
tion of the model outputs. Examination of the model outputs can Feed characteristics:
provide insight into the operation of an industrial process during Process species, density, solid
froth depth
monitoring and quality assurance activities. With PCA, the sys- Metallurgic percentage, particle size,
tematic interpretation of dominant patterns in the data and the air flow rate
Simulator grades, kinetic
isolation of the most important contributors to these patterns are water flow rate
possible. This allows the classification of data relationships accord-
ing to normal and abnormal operation. Some of these numerous
advantages the PCA method has over traditional monitoring and Fig. 5. Flotation column simulator structure.
prediction technologies are: provision for data dimension reduc-
tion and robustness to highly correlated, noisy and missing data
grades are predicted. The empirical model parameters were fitted
[38].
using experimental data. More details can be found in Bergh et al.
The concept of a latent variable model is that the true dimension
[33].
of a process is not defined by the number of measured variables,
The column control is similar to that shown in Fig. 4. There are
but by the underlying phenomena that drive the process. The latent
three tertiary control loops: air flow rate, tailings flow rate and
variables themselves are modeled as mathematical combinations
wash water flow rate. Feed flow rate is also measured and con-
of the measured variables and describe directions of variation in
trolled. A hydro dynamical supervisory control is implemented to
the original data. A latent variable model can contain much fewer
control gas hold up in cascade with air flow rate, froth depth in cas-
dimensions than the original data, it can provide a useful simpli-
cade with tailings flow rate and bias in cascade with wash water
fication of large data sets, and it can allow better interpretation of
flow rate. All the operating variables are measured and communi-
the measured data during analysis [39].
cated to a PLC, where the DCS has been implemented. All signals are
In a typical industrial data analysis application, k process vari-
communicated to a PC network, where the monitoring and hydro
ables, x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , are measured simultaneously and are combined
dynamical supervisory control is running under Intouch software.
into a vector associated with each observation of the k variables. If
In the PC network, the steady state test is performed on-line.
N observations are made, an (N × k) matrix X, can be constructed,
When the process reaches a steady state, the predicting model is
where each of the rows correspond to an observation of the k vari-
solved on-line to estimate the concentrate and the tailing grades.
ables, and each of the columns correspond to a specific variable
All data is displayed on PC screen.
over the N observation.
The original X matrix consisted of sixteen variables, shown in
On-line tests can be implemented based on the following crite-
Table 1, and 2550 observations of steady state data. The experi-
ria:
ments were designed to cover the maximum possible variation of
the main independent variables, and were conducted under closed
(i) It is a normal operation if the new set of data satisfies the PSE
loop control. The data was processed using PLS Toolbox from Eigen-
and T2 test.
vector Research.
(ii) It is an abnormal operation if the T2 test is failed. If the PSE test is
A PCA model was built from 1800 sets of data corresponding
passed then the model is considered to adequately represents
to a normal condition. A model with 6 latent variables was found
the process. If the PSE test is also failed then either the model
to explain at least 92% of the variance in the centered and scaled
is no longer appropriate or a measurement problem occurred.
pretreated data. For monitoring the process the Hotelling T2 limit
(iii) If only T2 test is satisfied then a measurement problem or a
lack of fit of the PCA model occurred.

In this way a diagnosis of the operation can be accomplished for Table 1

Operating and quality variables considered.
steady state data. Furthermore, the residuals are informative of the
principal process variables affecting the abnormal situation. No. Variable Tag

1 Froth depth z
4.2.4.3. Case study. A pilot column [40] was operated for the 2 Gas hold up E
air–water (and frother) system coupled with an on-line steady state 3 Dp/cell low PL
model to predict output stream grades. The convenience of the 4 Dp/cell high PH
5 Pressure to air control valve PA
approach of combining on-line process measurements and models
6 Pressure to tailings control valve PT
to empirically test strategies for process control, monitoring and 7 Bias superficial velocity Jb
diagnosis, was recently discussed by Bergh [42]. 8 Air superficial velocity Jg
A flotation column model structure was developed, following 9 Tailings superficial velocity Jt
Finch and Dobby [28]. Following Fig. 5, first the gas holdup, the 10 Feed superficial velocity Jf
11 Wash water superficial velocity Jw
bias rate and the kinetic constants for each mineralogical species 12 Cu recovery R
are estimated from empirical models, depending on operating vari- 13 Concentrate Cu grade CCG
ables such as feed flow rate, gas flow rate, wash water flow rate and 14 Feed particle size d80 D
froth depth. Then, dispersion number, residence times, froth and 15 Feed Cu grade FCG
16 Feed solid percentage S
collection recovery are estimated. Finally concentrate and tailings
232 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234

8 150

Froth depth [cm]

6
100
PSE

4
2 50

0
0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Sample number Sample number
30
Fig. 8. Froth depth over the whole period.
Hotelling

20

10 to the extension of the fail, measured in percentage of error. Errors

less than 5% on pressure to control valves, 7% on dp/cells, 15% on
0 flow meters and 10% on virtual measurements of concentrate grade
0 200 400 600 were detected. These error limits were found for a large number of
Sample number
different operating conditions. One example is shown in Fig. 9 for
33 90 the virtual measurement of copper concentrate grade.
The same PCA model was used to test abnormal operation either
85
31 because of decision based on failed sensors or process variable
Recovery %
80
Conc. grade

deviations. The PCA model relies on the selected data. If the data
29 75 collected represents a narrow band of operation around the tar-
70 gets, it may be expected that abnormal conditions, as a result of a
27 combination of process variable deviations, will be easily detected.
65
Concentrate grade Recovery A model built on such selected data will be less useful to identify
25 60 measurements problems. The model used in this work was based on
0 200 400 600 data corresponding to a wide operation zone, favoring the detec-
Sample number
tion of sensor failures. Other approach to be tested is the use of
Fig. 6. Operating condition test A. different PCA models, based on different data, for each purpose.
The example of the application of multivariate statistics analysis
in flotation of a Rougher circuit is presented in Bergh and Niada [25].
was found to be 12.6, while the PSE (prediction squared error) limit
The PCA model was built based on operating variables and image
was 3.81.
characteristics at steady state, and may be used to alert operators
Experiments were carried on to test when the process is out of
of abnormal operating conditions, indicating the most probable
control and an abnormal operating condition is met. Two results
inputs that cause the problem. Similarly the application of mul-
are presented: when the process is at steady state and during the
tivariate statistics to flotation columns was previously discussed
transient period. One example is shown in Fig. 6, where the T2 and
[40]. A PCA model was used to detect and isolate instrumentation
PSE test has been followed for over 600 samples, taken every 5 (s).
faults and abnormal operating conditions.
One can see that most of the time the PSE test is satisfied, while
These PCA models can be effectively used as part of a supervisory
T2 test is failed at intervals 130–200, 300–430 and 480–560. On
control strategy, especially when control decisions are infrequently
these same periods, the concentrate grade is too low and recov-
made, that is the case when steady state PCA models are used.
ery is high or concentrate grade is too high and recovery is low,
then an abnormal operation has been detected. To identify which
4.2.4.4. Soft sensors. Other area of application of multivariate
variables are causing this, the individual contribution to the T2
statistics is in estimating (soft sensors) the values of unmeasured
residuals, for sample 512, are shown in Fig. 7 (the nomenclature
variables. PLS models have been built to predict concentrate grades
is described in Table 1). One can see that the main contributions
based on operating variables and froth characteristics [43]. More
were the froth depth and the high and low dp/cells. All variables
work is under development and some new results will be available
consistently showed that the problem is due to a low froth depth,
soon.
causing high recovery and low concentrate grade. Fig. 8 shows the
froth depth changes during the whole period.
If the froth depth were change from 50 to 100 cm, as is shown 4.2.5. Some advances in flotation control
at sample 600, the column operation is driven back to a normal As mentioned earlier, literature on flotation control using
condition, as can be seen from the previous figures. machine vision is very limited. Ylinen et al. [44] reported basic test
When only the PSE residuals test fails, the device measuring
the isolated variable must be recalibrated or replaced. Several tests 15
were carried out on to find the sensitivity of the monitoring test

30
10
% residual Ti

SPE

20
5

10
0
0 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
z E PL PH PA PT Jb Jf Jg Jt Jw R CCG D FCG S Error %

Fig. 7. Contributions to abnormal operation A. Fig. 9. Failure detection on virtual concentrate grade.
 L.G. Bergh, J.B. Yianatos / Journal of Process Control 21 (2011) 226–234
results from zinc rougher flotation circuits. Image features included
in their control strategy were the red color of froth, bubble col-
lapse rate, and froth bubble size. Xanthate and CuSO4 addition
rates were used as manipulated variables. In [44], the applicabil-
ity of those image variables in flotation control was demonstrated
through real plant tests. A continuation of this work can be found
in Kaartinen et al. [45]. FrothmasterTM is the first commercial
machine vision system to report flotation control tests [46]. A sim-
ple rule-based master controller included one image variable (froth
speed) and three manipulated variables (level, frother addition
rate, and aeration rate). Control results showed that the quality
of concentrate obtained could be stabilized when froth speed was
controlled. Froth velocity has been used as a more direct indi-
cator of concentrate mass pull, to adjust pulp level. An example
of this kind of control application is described by Supomo et al.
[47].
Although it is very limited, the literature regarding froth-based
flotation control confirms the possibility of the use of image
features in controlling flotation processes. Froth image features
reflect important process characteristics and respond to changes in
manipulated variables. Therefore, by employing image features as
process outputs, it is possible to build a causal process model that
can predict image features from the given values of manipulated
variables, and furthermore any model-based control technique can
be applied to froth-based flotation control using the causal model.
The use of a model-based control technique will provide better con-
trol performance compared to simple PID or rule-based controllers
[48,49]. Liu and MacGregor [48] discussed and illustrated a new
method for froth-based flotation modeling and control that can be
used as part of comprehensive flotation control systems. The new
method is based on the causal process model predicting future froth
appearances (e.g. bubble size distribution, clear windows, and black
holes) from the given values of manipulated variables and observed
values of the process variables. With this model, the new values
of manipulated variables for achieving specified froth appearances
can be obtained via optimization. The novelty of this approach con-
sisted that instead of using a concentrate grade as a target variable,
the method used the scores of a PCA model, whose values rep-
resent a froth appearance [50,51]. Since this model was obtained
from operating data and image characteristics, no grade measure-
ments are needed. Simulation using the steady state causal model
provided control performance that was very satisfactory in achiev-
ing a specified froth appearance. It is important to note, that froth
appearance represents a time variant target that strongly depends
on feed characteristics. Therefore, a new target represented by a
new froth appearance must be set, based on the available grades of
relevant streams. When a dynamic process model is used to predict
future froth status within a fixed time horizon, then an optimizer
can find sequences of the manipulated variables, which is essen-
tially MPC.
5. Conclusions
MPC is ideally the solution for high quality control. However,
to be applicable without losing its benefits, good measurements,
acceptable regulatory control of local objectives (DCS), reliable
dynamic models, explicitly stated process constraints and new
methods to promote robustness are needed. Flotation processes
have weaknesses in most of those aspects.
Regulatory control of local objectives in flotation plants presents
at least the following problems. First, maintenance programs to
assure quality of measurements and actuators are insufficient. Sec-
ond, a higher interaction of flotation, comminution and mining
processes is needed, in order to decrease the important effect of
time variant disturbances coming into the flotation plants. Finally,
233
a better knowledge of process dynamics, to effectively handle pro-
cess interactions in DCS, is needed.
Supervisory control of flotation plants, on top of stabilizing con-
trol, has been implemented in the form of sub-optimal expert
systems. The major drawback of this approach is the difficulties
found in replicating a particular solution from one plant to another
plant. However, this approach presents the advantage of flexibility,
where the lack of accuracy and availability of key measurements
such as grades can be considered in the control strategy, as well as
the particular inclusion of some operating constraints.
In the last years several contributions are decreasing the actual
gap. The use of multivariate statistics may open new opportunities
to deal with infrequent grade measurements, and to obtain more
valuable information from the thousands of cameras that have been
installed around the world. Froth image analysis and reflectance
spectroscopy analysis can be integrated with operating variables
to build better and more useful models.
Statistical methods seems to provide a general framework to
build models in latent variables related to froth characteristics at
short sampling intervals, and as a complementary tool to better
identify different operating scenarios and to opportunely detect
faults in key instrumentation. All these advances may lead to cre-
ate the minimum conditions necessary to successfully implement
MPC algorithms. However, most work has to be done to assure that
the theoretical benefits of MPC are not lost with the actual plant
constraints.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thanks Santa Maria University (Project
271068), Conicyt (Project Fondecyt 1100854), and NEIM, Project
P07-087-F, ICM-Mideplan for their financial support.
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Professor Bergh is chemical engineer from Santa Maria
University (1976), holds a M.Eng. (1983) and a Ph.D. (1987)
from McMaster University, Canada. He gives courses in the
undergraduate and graduate chemical engineering pro-
grams in the area of process control and applied statistics.
He is author of a great number of scientific publications,
and he is very active in the organization and participation
of international conferences on the subject. He is the vice-
chair of the international technical committee of the IFAC
chapter of Automation on MMM processes and he has par-
ticipated as consultor for the mineral industry in Chile and
abroad.
Professor Yianatos is chemical engineer from PUCV
(1974), holds a M.Sc. (1979) from lÉcole Polytecnique,
Montreal University, Canada, and a Ph.D. (1987) from
McGuill University, Canada. He gives courses in the under-
graduate and graduate chemical engineering programs in
the area of flotation. He is author of a great number of
scientific publications, and he is very active in the orga-
nization and participation of international conferences on
the subject. He is a member of the editorial committee of
Minerals Engineering and he has participated as consultor
for the mineral industry in Chile and abroad.