1: SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- first to formalize the concept of a true
SCIENCE
- a discovery, it is the universal research
for truth, a constant search for information
and answer
- a human attempt to generate testable
theories and concepts which explains
natural phenomena and have predictive
capabilities
- a systematized body of knowledge
about anything in the universe, determined
by study, observation & experimentation
BIOLOGY
- study of life
ANATOMY
- field in the biological sciences concerned
with the identification and description of the
body structures of living things
- it deals with the structural organization
of living things
PHYSIOLOGY
- the study of the functioning of living
organisms, and of the functioning of their
constituent tissues or cells or body
structure’s functions
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
- a method of research in which a problem
is identified, relevant data are gathered, a
hypothesis is formulated from these data,
and the hypothesis is empirically tested
FRANCIS BACON
reasoning, without any assumption of its
scientific method; a successful lawyer and
influential philosopher who did much to
reform scientific thinking
- In his "Instauratio Magna“ (great
knowledge), he proposed a new approach
to scientific inquiry, which advocated
inductive reasoning as the foundation of
scientific thinking. It was published in 1621
as the "Novum Organum Scientiarum“
(new or true interpretation/direction).
STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM
- must be SMART: specific, measurable,
attainable, relevant, time-bound
> PROBLEM:
- a matter or situation regarded as
unwelcome or harmful and needing to be
dealt with and overcome
- an inquiry starting from given conditions to
investigate or demonstrate a fact, result/law
2. GATHERING OF DATA
- ways to gather data: survey, interviews,
experimentation, observation, focused
group discussion, RRL
> DATA:
- facts and statistics collected together for
reference or analysis
3. FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS
> HYPOTHESIS:
- a supposition or proposed explanation
made on the basis of limited evidence as a
starting point for further investigation
- a proposition made as a basis for
truth
- “the hypothesis that every event has a
cause”
4. EXPERIMENTATION
- the process of performing a scientific
procedure, especially in a laboratory, to
determine something
- the action or process of trying out new
ideas, methods, or activities
> Parts of an experiment:
a. Procedure
b. Materials - quality, quantity & relevance
c. Standard Value
5. OBSERVATION AND ANALYZATION
> OBSERVATION:
- the action or process of observing
something or someone carefully or in order
to gain information
> ANALYZATION:
- act or an instance of analyzing something
6. CONCLUSION
- a judgment or decision reached by
reasoning
7. REPORTING OF THE RESULT
--------------------------------
 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
1. DEFINITE ORGANIZATION
- living things are highly organized,
meaning they contain specialized,
coordinated parts
- Kingdom: Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, Animalia
- Organic molecule: synthesized; inside
- Inorganic molecule: cannot be
synthesized; outside
2. METABOLISM
- chemical reactions needed to support
organism’s life
> Anabolism: the building of larger,
complex molecules from smaller, simpler
ones, and require an input of energy
> Catabolism: break the chemical bonds in
larger, more complex molecules
3. RESPONSIVENESS
- ability of organisms to respond to stimuli
4. MOVEMENT
- ability of the organism to transfer or
change position from one place to another
> Tropism: directional growth in response
to a stimulus
> Phototropism: directional growth in
response to light
> Thigmotropism: movement or change in
orientation of a plant’s growth as a reaction
to touch
5. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
> Growth: an irreversible constant
increase in size
> Development: growth in psychomotor
capacity
- Both processes are highly dependent on
genetic, nutritional, and environmental
factors.
6. REPRODUCTION
- ability of an organism to produce its own
kind
> Asexual reproduction: involves a single
parent; results in offspring that are
genetically identical to each other and to the
parent
> Sexual reproduction: involves two
parents; parents produce reproductive cells
called gametes that unite to form an
offspring
7. GENETIC CONTROL
- also known as Gene regulation
- In single celled organisms: it directs the
efficient use of cellular resources in
response to the cell's environment
- In multicellular organisms: defines the cell,
its structure and function, and ultimately
the whole organism
> In the process of Reproduction - Genes
are passed from parents to offspring and
contain the information needed to specify
physical and biological traits.
> In Gene Coding - Most genes code for
specific proteins, or segments of
proteins, which have differing functions
within the body. Humans have
approximately 20,000 protein-coding genes.
--------------------------------
3: STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:
> Atom - Molecule - Organelle - Cell -
Tissue - Organ - Organ System - Organism
1. ATOMS
- basic building blocks of matter;
composed of 3 isotopes:
a. PROTONS: carry a positive electrical
charge
b. ELECTRONS: carry a negative electrical
charge
c. NEUTRONS: carry no electrical charge
at all
ex.: Hydrogen (H), Iron (Fe), Calcium(Ca), O
(symbol for a single atom of oxygen)
> ATOMIC NUMBER: number of protons
inside the nucleus of atom
> ATOMIC MASS: sum of all the isotopes
(P+E+N) in atom
> ELEMENT: has only one type of atom;
pure substance
2. MOLECULES
- formed when two or more atoms form
chemical bonds with each other; it doesn't
matter if the atoms are the same or are
different from each other
ex.: H2O (water), N2 (nitrogen), CaO (calcium
oxide), NaCl (table salt), O3 (ozone)
3. ORGANELLES
- structures within a cell that perform
specific functions
a. Nucleus: central processing unit of the
cell, containing the DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid); also sends out messages to tell the
cell to grow, divide, or die
b. Nucleolus: contains the RNA(ribonucleic
acid); it produces and assemble ribosomes
c. Nuclear envelope: membrane which
serves as the covering of the nucleus, it
separates the nucleus from the rest of the
cell
> Nuclear pores within the membrane allow
small molecules and ions to cross back and
forth the nucleus.
d. Plasma membrane: (also called cell
membrane) semi-permeable membrane
that covers the cell; ensure each cell
remains separated from its neighboring cell
- specificity: knows that characteristics of
immune or molecule that lets it enter the cell
- The plasma membrane contains a range
of receptors, which carry out a number of
tasks, including being:
> Gatekeepers: allow certain molecules
through and stop others
> Markers: act as name badges, informing
the immune system that they are part of the
organism and not foreign invaders
> Communicators: help the cell to
communicate with other cells and the
environment
> Fasteners: help bind the cell to its
neighbors
e. Cytoplasm: the interior of the cell that energy (ATP) in the process of cell
surrounds the nucleus; contains the respiration
organelles and a jelly-like fluid called the
j. Ribosomes: responsible for the synthesis
cytosol; many of the important reactions that
of protein
take place in the cell occur in the cytoplasm
k. Lysosome: the suicide bag of the cell;
f. Centrioles: paired barrel-shaped
they break down excess or worn-out cell
organelles located in the cytoplasm of
parts; has hydrolytic enzymes
animal cells near the nuclear envelope; play
- They may be used to destroy invading
a role in organizing microtubules that serve
viruses and bacteria. If the cell is damaged
as the cell's skeletal system; they help
beyond repair, lysosomes can help it to
determine the locations of the nucleus and
self-destruct in a process called
other organelles within the cell and
programmed cell death, or APOPTOSIS.
important for cell division
l. Peroxisome: protects cell from oxidative
g. Endoplasmic reticulum: processes
damage, has anti aging and detoxifying
molecules within the cell and helps transport
functions to the cell
them to their final destinations; it
- It contains a variety of enzymes, which
synthesizes, folds, modifies, and transports
primarily function together to rid the cell of
proteins
toxic substances, and in particular,
a. Rough ER: involve in production and
hydrogen peroxide (a common byproduct
synthesis of proteins and has ribosomes
of cellular metabolism).
b. Smooth ER: involve in the production of
lipids and fats > Vacuole: hold or store substances and
molecules; in plant cell, this organelle is
h. Golgi apparatus: considered as the post
larger because they store water and help
office of the cell, where items go through
the plant remain upright
packaging and labeling, and is involved in
> Plant cells have a cell wall and a cell
the transportation of materials within the cell
membrane while animal cells have cell
- Once the ER processes the molecules,
membrane only. Moreover, plant cells have
they travel to the golgi apparatus. Once
chloroplasts that give green pigment to
materials leave, they may be useful inside
plants.
or outside the cell.
i. Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell; 4. CELL
help turn energy from food into energy that - the basic unit of life that contains the
the cell can use: adenosine triphosphate: fundamental molecules of life and of which
glucose molecule is being transformed into all living things are composed
- Cell functions:
a. Provide structure for the body.
b. Take in nutrients from food, convert
those nutrients into energy, and carry out
specialized functions.
c. Cells also contain the body’s hereditary
material and can make copies of
themselves.
- Types of cell:
a. Prokaryotic cell: has no true nucleus,
instead it has a region within the cell where
the genetic material is freely suspended
called nucleoid
- No membrane bound organelles and are
single-celled microorganisms which
generally reproduce by binary fission, a
form of asexual reproduction
Examples: archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria
(only kingdom monera)
b. Eukaryotic cell: has a true nucleus; has
membrane bound organelles; can be
single-celled or multicellular organisms and
can reproduce both asexually or sexually
depending on the specie of organism
> Phagocytosis: ability to engulf waste
product of the cell and foreign bodies
> Catalyst: boost chemical reaction
> Enzymes: break down larger complex
molecules into smaller molecules
5. TISSUE
- groups of cells that have a similar
structure and act together to perform a
specific function
- Types of tissues:
a. Nervous tissue: allows the body to
respond to stimuli; responsible for
coordinating and controlling body activities
- made up of neurons
b. Epithelial tissue: form the covering of all
body surfaces, line body cavities and hollow
organs, and they perform a variety of
functions that include protection, secretion,
absorption, excretion, diffusion, and sensory
reception
c. Muscle tissue: composed of cells that
have the special ability to shorten or
contract in order to produce movement of
the body parts
- Cardiac: heart, autonomic/involuntary
- Smooth: muscles of internal organs like
stomach/intestine
- Skeletal: muscles attached to the bones,
voluntary
d. Connective tissue: functions: supporting
organs and cells, transporting nutrients and
wastes, defending against pathogens,
storing fat, thermal insulation and repairing
damaged tissues
- Loose (Areolar)
- Dense
- Adipose (Fat)
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Vascular (Blood)
6. ORGAN
- part of the body that has a particular
purpose or function
7. ORGAN SYSTEM
- group of organs that work together to
perform one or more functions
8. ORGANISM
- any biological living system that
functions as an individual life form
- can be an individual animal, plant, or
single-celled life form
- a whole with interdependent parts, likened
to a living being
--------------------------------
4: BIOMOLECULES
MACROMOLECULE
- a very large molecule important to
biological processes
- composed of thousands of covalently
bonded atoms
- Many macromolecules are polymers of
smaller molecules called MONOMERS.
ORGANIC MOLECULES
- molecules that are made of carbon and
hydrogen, and can include other elements
- must contain carbon atoms covalently
bonded to hydrogen atoms (C-H bonds)
- usually involve oxygen and can also
contain nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, and
others
 4 CLASSES OF ORGANIC MOLECULES
1. CARBOHYDRATES
- Function: primary energy source of the
body
- Elements present: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)
- Monomer (building block):
Monosaccharides (Glucose is most
common)
- Polymer: Polysaccharides (starch,
Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin)
ex.: Chocolate, Bread, Pasta, Fruits, Vegetables
(ALL FROM PLANTS)
> Sugars that make up carbs:
- Single sugar: monosaccharide
ex: glucose , fructose (in fruits)
- 2 monosaccharides: disaccharide
ex: maltose = (2 units/molecule of glucose)
sucrose = (1 unit/molecule of glucose and
1 unit/molecule of fructose)
- 3+ monosaccharides: polysaccharide
ex: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and Chitin
> Types of polysaccharides:
- Starch: used for energy storage in plants;
they provide a quick form of energy for the
body like potatoes, pasta and rice
- Glycogen: formed in liver; used for energy
storage in animals
- Cellulose: provides structural support in
plants (found in the cell wall)
- Chitin: found in exoskeletons of
arthropods (insects, spiders); found in cell
wall of some fungi; gives us fiber
2. LIPIDS 5: WATER, VITAMINS AND MINERALS
- Function: store energy, insulate your
body, and make up the cell membrane > Main function of vitamins and minerals: to
- Elements: C-H-O regulate body functions
- Monomer (Building blocks): glycerol & 3 > Foods are many of the vitamins and
fatty acids minerals we need found in: Fruits and
- Polymer: Phospholipids, triglycerides Vegetables
ex.: Steroids, cholesterol, fats, Oils, Nuts, > How can we ensure that we get all the
Waxes, and make up part of the cell membrane different vitamins and minerals that we
need?: Eat a variety of fruits and
3. PROTEINS vegetables
- Function: transport molecules in and out > Which vegetables have the most vitamins
of the cell; used for growth and repair and minerals?: Red, Orange, Dark Green
- control the speed of chemical reactions > Nutrients: Calories per gram:
- make up the structure of living things: hair, - Carbohydrates 4
nails, skin, bones, muscle, etc. - Fats 9
- found in: fish, eggs, meat - Proteins 4
- Elements: C-H-O-N - Vitamins 0
- Monomer (Building Block): amino acids - Minerals 0
(20 different ones) - Water 0
ex.: hemoglobin in red blood cells,
albumin in eggs, enzymes that control > Deficiency: not enough of something
reactions in the body, and antibodies (shortage)
> Toxicity: too much of something (can
4. NUCLEIC ACIDS become toxic/poisonous)
- Function: provide our genetic information > Water-soluble: dissolves in water
- holds the instructions to make proteins > Fat-soluble: dissolves in fat
- Elements: C-H-O-N-P > Macro: large / big amount
- Monomer: nucleotides > Micro/Trace: small / tiny amount
> A nucleotide is made up of: > Electrolyte: minerals that help maintain
- Sugar fluid balance in the body
- Phosphate
- Nitrogen Base: A, T, G, C, or U WATER
- Polymer: DNA, RNA - Functions of Water:
a. Carries water soluble vitamins
-------------------------------- b. Regulated body temperature through
perspiration
c. Carries waste products through and out
of the body
d. Prevents dehydration
- How much water should we drink every
day?: At least 8 cups a day (or 64 fl. oz.)
> Water is the MOST important nutrient our
body needs. If you’re thirsty, you’re already
dehydrated.
DEHYDRATION
- happens when the water in your body
drops below the level needed for normal
body functions
- Common causes of dehydration:
> Vomiting or diarrhea > Excessive urinating
> Excessive sweating > Fever
- Signs of dehydration:
> Increased thirst > Sluggishness
> Dry mouth > Fainting
> Swollen tongue > Inability to sweat
> Weakness > Heart palpitations
> Dizziness > Decreased urine output
> Confusion > Dark urine
- Hyponatremia is overhydration.
- For short duration (less than 60 min)
water is a good choice to drink before,
during and after exercise.
- For moderate to high intensity activities
(more than 60 min.), sports drinks will help
replace carbohydrate loss and electrolyte
balance.
- Drink 8-20 oz. of water an hour before
exercise.
- Continue drinking water during exercise,
up to 16-24 oz. of fluid per hour (4-6 oz.
every 15 min.).
VITAMINS - Deficiency: Pellagra (Skin disorder),
> Water-soluble means these vitamins -Dermatitis
dissolve in and are carried by water. - Toxicity: Diarrhea, Heartburn, Nausea,
Ulcers
VITAMINS C (Ascorbic Acid):
- Functions: protects the body against
B5 (Pantothenic acid)
infection
- Functions: helps produce antibodies;
- Food source: Citrus fruits, Strawberries,
helps in production of cortisol,
Broccoli, Tomatoes
epinephrine, acetylcholine; help in the
- Deficiency: SCURVY (breakdown of
breakdown of fats and carbohydrates
collagen, bleeding gums, skin hemorrhages)
- Food source: Meat, Fish: Salmon,
- Toxicity: Kidney stones
lobster, and shellfish; Grains, Dairy
products: Egg yolk, milk, yogurt, and
B1 (Thiamine)
milk products; Legumes: Lentils, split
- Functions: coenzyme; used for energy
peas, and soybeans
metabolism; nerve function and helps
- Deficiency: fatigue, insomnia,
digestive system
depression, irritability, vomiting,
- Food source: Milk, Bran, Whole grains,
stomach pains, burning feet, and upper
Poultry, Fish, Dried Beans
respiratory infections
- Deficiency: BERIBERI (swelling in legs,
sore muscles, stiffness and weakness)
B6 (Pyridoxine)
- Functions: supports brain function, the
B2 (Riboflavin)
immune system, and the transportation
- Functions: coenzyme; promotes growth;
of oxygen around the body; also helps
used for energy metabolism
create serotonin and dopamine
- Food source: Milk, Yogurt, Cheese,
- Food source: chickpeas, tofu, beef liver
Green leafy vegetables
- Deficiency: inflammation of the skin
- Deficiency: Premature aging; Cracks in
(dermatitis) and a red, greasy, scaly rash;
the corner of mouth; Inflammation of
the hands and feet may feel numb and
tongue and mouth
prickling like pins and needles; the tongue
may become sore and red, and cracks
B3 (Niacin)
may form in the corners of the mouth,
- Functions: coenzyme; maintains nervous
people may become confused or irritable
system; used for energy metabolism
- Toxicity: Peripheral sensory neuropathy:
- Food source: Milk, Eggs, Meat, fish,
causes weakness, numbness and pain,
poultry, Whole grains, Enriched grains
usually in the hands and feet
B7 (Biotin)
- Functions: important part of enzymes in
the body that break down substances like
fats, carbohydrates, and others
- Deficiency: hair loss or ALOPECIA (a
scaly, red rash around the eyes, nose,
mouth, and genitals); depression;
lethargy; hallucinations; numbness and
tingling in the hands and feet; ATAXIA
(loss of control of bodily movements)
B9 (Folate/Folic Acid)
- Functions: helps the body make new cells
- Food source: Dark green leafy
vegetables
- Deficiency: SPINA BIFIDA (neural tube
defect that affects the spinal cord during
fetal development)
- Toxicity: masks B12 deficiency
B12 (Cobalamin)
- Functions: helps make new cells;
maintains nerves and cells
- Food source: whole grains, animal foods
- Deficiency: insomnia, fatigue, poor
nerve function
- Toxicity: water retention
> Fat-soluble means these vitamins
dissolve in and are carried by fat (KADE)
Vitamin A (Retinol)
- Functions: for vision, nerves, growth
- Food source: Milk, Liver, Cantaloupe,
Sweet Potatoes, Yellow fruits and
vegetables
- Deficiency: Blindness, stunted growth, liver can break it down and pass it from the
impaired immune system body.
- Toxicity: loss of appetite, blurred vision, - Phototherapy is a treatment with a
abdominal pain, hair loss, joint pain special light that helps rid the body of the
bilirubin by altering it or making it easier for
Vitamin D (Calciferol) the liver to get rid of it.
- Functions: helps body absorb calcium
and phosphorus, helps strengthen bones MINERALS
- Food source: Milk fortified with, sunlight > Macro-Minerals
- Deficiency: Rickets (bowed legs), Bones
Calcium
become too weak to support body weight
- Functions: maintains strength of bones
- Toxicity: appetite loss, nausea &
and teeth
vomiting, kidney damage
- Food source: milk, dairy products, dark
green leafy vegetables
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
- Deficiency: Osteoporosis
- Functions: maintains cell membranes
- Toxicity: Kidney stones
- Food source: fruits & veggies, vegetable
oils, grains and cereals, nuts & seeds
Phosphorus
- Deficiency: nerve deterioration, can
- Functions: helps build body cells, works
cause anemia in premature babies
with calcium
- Toxicity: brain hemorrhages, stroke,
- Food source: dairy products, grain
headaches, muscle weakness, nausea
products, meat
- Deficiency: Osteoporosis
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
- Toxicity: prevent calcium from working
- Functions: helps blood clot normally
- Food source: Dark green leafy
Magnesium
vegetables, Liver
- Functions: helps build bones, helps
- Deficiency: Hemorrhaging
nerves and muscles work normally,
- Toxicity: breakage of red blood cells
regulates body temperature
which causes skin to turn yellow (called
- Food source: dark green leafy
jaundice in infants, can lead to brain
vegetables, whole grain products
damage)
- Deficiency: heart disease, heart spasms
- Bilirubin is produced by the breakdown of
- Toxicity: Diarrhea, Lack of Coordination,
red blood cells. Normally bilirubin passes
Confusion, Coma
through the liver. Jaundice occurs when
bilirubin builds up faster than a newborn's
> Trace/Micro-Minerals
Copper
- Functions: help iron make red blood cells
- Food source: whole grain products
- Deficiency: weak bones, weak blood
vessels
- Toxicity: vomiting, nervous system
disorders
Iodine
- Functions: helps body use energy
- Food source: iodized salt, saltwater fish,
some dairy products
- Deficiency: Goiter (swelling of the
thyroid gland in the neck)
- Toxicity: Thyroid gland stops working
Iron
- Functions: helps carry oxygen to the
blood, helps cells use oxygen
- Food source: red meat, dark green leafy
vegetables
- Deficiency: Anemia, paleness, weakness
- Toxicity: heart disease, elevated LDLs
Zinc
- Functions: helps body make proteins,
heal wounds, affects sense of taste and
smell
- Food source: Meat, Liver, Fish, Dairy
products
- Deficiency: stunted growth, rash, hair
loss
- Toxicity: low copper absorption
Fluorine
- Functions: helps strengthen teeth and
prevent cavities
- Food source: fluoridated water,
toothpaste
- Deficiency: tooth decay
- Toxicity: staining of teeth during
development
> Electrolyte
Sodium
- Functions: maintains fluid balance in the
body
- Food source: salt, packaged foods
- Deficiency: muscle cramps
- Toxicity: high blood pressure
Chloride
- Functions: maintains fluid balance in the
body
- Food source: salt
- Deficiency: can cause convulsions in
infants
- Toxicity: high blood pressure
Potassium
- Functions: maintains fluid balance in the
body
- Food source: fruits, especially bananas
and oranges; meat, poultry and fish; dry
beans; dairy products
- Deficiency: irregular heart beat, loss of
appetite, muscle cramps
- Toxicity: slowing of the heart beat