Unit 12 Notes All - Reproduction

UNIT 12: REPRODUCTION
BIOL2410 D01 Lecture Notes

A) Overview
The reproductive systems in humans are examples of organ
systems that rely heavily on endocrine signaling in order to
carry out their functions. Unlike many other organ systems
in the body, the primary function of the reproductive
systems is not homeostasis and maintenance of the body,
but rather the production of gametes to ensure that the
body’s genes are preserved and transmitted from one
generation to the next. In essence, the workings of the
reproductive system does not ensure the survival of our
own body, but the survival of the entire human species.
In this unit we will examine the reproductive structures and

processes involved in the creation of gametes, sexual
reproduction, pregnancy, and early development.
A) Overview
1. The Spectrum of Biological Sex Determination
2. Basic Patterns of Reproduction
3. Testicular Reproduction
4. Ovarian Reproduction
5. Procreation
6. Fertilization and Pre-embryonic Development
7. Parturition and Lactation
B) The Spectrum of Biological Sex Determination
Ø The terms "female" and "male" are used to describe two different concepts: a person’s sense of
gender identity (which also encompasses non-binary and transgender individuals), and our
biological sex as determined by our X/Y chromosomes, hormones, sex organs, and other
physical characteristics. For some people, gender identity is different from biological sex or
their sex assigned at birth. In this unit "female" and "male" refer to biological sex only, and the
more common reproductive anatomy of XX and XY individuals is discussed. It should be
recognized however, that even biological sex is a spectrum that results from a combination of
our underlying genetics and the effects of the different hormones and hormone levels that we
are exposed to during early development. As such, humans are not truly sexually dimorphic as
your textbook would suggest. While we do not have the time to delve into all examples in this
course, it is my hope that you come to understand that even biological sex is spectrum, with
female (XX) and male (XY) representing the more common opposite ends of the spectrum,
with many variations in genetics and organ structure existing in between the two ends.
Montañez, A. 2017. Beyond XX and XY. Scientific American 317 (3): 50-51.
Ø See:
Ø Biological sex determination is a complex process involving
genetic determination and hormone influence that regulates
the development of the sex organs in an individual.
Ø Sex organs are three sets of structures:
1. Gonads
Ø Contain germ cells and produce gametes and hormones.
Ø Two main types based on biological sex: Fig. 26.9a
a. Ovaries (XX)
Ø Gamete produced = ova
Ø Hormones produced = estrogen and progesterone
b. Testes (XY)
Ø Gamete produced = sperm
Ø Hormones produced = testosterone
Fig. 26.7a
2. Internal genitalia
Ø Accessory glands and ducts that help with development and/or
movement of gametes through the reproductive system.
Fig. 26.9a
Ø Accessory glands and ducts in XX individuals:
a) Bartholin’s glands
b) Fallopian (Uterine) tube
c) Uterus (with cervix)
d) Vagina
Fig. 26.7a
2. Internal genitalia
Ø Accessory glands and ducts that help with development and/or
movement of gametes through the reproductive system.
Fig. 26.9a
Ø Accessory glands and ducts in XY individuals:
a) Seminal Vesicles
b) Prostate
c) Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands
d) Epididymis
e) Vas Deferens
f) Ejaculatory duct
g) Urethra
Fig. 26.7a
3. External genitalia
Ø External reproductive structures
Ø External genitalia in XX individuals: Fig. 26.9a
a) Clitoris – specifically the glans (other parts of the clitoris are
internal)
b) Labia minora and majora
Ø External genitalia in XY individuals:
a) Penis
b) Scrotum (contains the testes)
Fig. 26.7a
Ø Sex determination in the developing embryo:
Ø Each nucleated cell in most human bodies has 46 pairs of chromosomes
(diploid) except for secondary spermatocytes and secondary oocytes which
are haploid (23 chromosomes)
Ø Each set of 46 chromosomes consists of 22 pairs (44) autosomes that carry
genes solely for somatic characteristics, and 1 pair (2) of sex chromosomes,
usually XX or XY, that carry the genes that help to determine genetic sex.
Ø Sperm carry an X or Y chromosome, while ova carry only an X chromosome.
Result = biological sex is determined by the sperm.
Ø However, there are other viable combinations of sex chromosomes that
are observed in humans, including:
1. XXY – historically referred to as Klinefelter’s Syndrome. These individuals have
low testosterone, small testes, may develop breasts and are typically infertile.
2. XYY – no real side effects. Typical XY phenotype.
3. XO (45X) – historically referred to as Turner’s Syndrome. Ovaries are less
developed, which can lead to infertility and limited development at puberty.
Fig. 26.1
Ø The Y chromosome is responsible for early development of the testes and
associated reproductive structures.
Ø For the first 6-7 weeks, XY embryos have the potential to develop either
typically male or typically female reproductive organs (they are bipotential
during this stage). This is similar to how stem cells can become any type of
cell depending on which genes get turned on/off during their
development.
Ø The gene on the Y chromosome responsible for initiating development of
reproductive organs for sperm production is the SRY gene.
Ø Activation of the SRY gene stimulates the production of of a protein called
testis determining factor (TDF) that controls the development of the testes
and associated reproductive structures.
Ø XX (and XO) individuals lack the Y chromosome and therefore lack the
SRY gene and the proteins required for development of testes.
Fig. 26.1
Ø External genitalia in all genetic sexes develop from the same
undifferentiated tissue.
Ø Reproductive tract develops from:
1. Müllerian ducts in XX individuals
2. Wolffian ducts in XY individuals.
Ø Reproductive tract develops from:
1. Müllerian ducts in XX individuals
2. Wolffian ducts in XY individuals.
Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells to

Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage Learning, United States.
Ø Steps for XY sex determination:
1. SRY gene codes for protein Testis Determining Factor
(TDF)
2. TDF causes differentiation of gonads into testes
3. Testes secrete testosterone and Anti-Müllerian Hormone
a) Testosterone is converted to DHT
(dihydrotestosterone) which stimulates
i. development of the external genitalia. Testes secrete testosterone No testosterone or Anti-
& Anti-Müllerian Hormone Müllerian Hormone secreted
ii. differentiation of Wolffian ducts into the internal

parts of the reproductive tract (epididymis, vas Anti-Müllerian Hormone
Absence of Anti-
Müllerian Hormone
deferens, ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicles).

b) Anti-Müllerian Hormone causes degeneration of the
Müllerian ducts.
After Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells

to Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage Learning, United States.
Ø Steps for XX sex determination:
1. No SRY gene, so no Testis Determining Factor (TDF)
2. Without TDF, gonads develop into ovaries.
3. Ovaries lack testosterone or Anti-Müllerian Hormone
production.
a) Lack of testosterone leads to
i. development of the external genitalia (clitoris,
labia) Testes secrete testosterone No testosterone or Anti-
ii. Degeneration of the Wolffian duct

& Anti-Müllerian Hormone Müllerian Hormone secreted
b) Lack of Anti-Müllerian Hormone causes development Anti-Müllerian Hormone

Absence of Anti-
Müllerian Hormone
of Müllerian ducts into the structures of the

reproductive tract (Fallopian tubes and uterus).
After Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells

to Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage Learning, United States.
Ø Exposure to external (exogenous) sources of hormones during development or mutations to the genes
involved in hormone production help to produce the different arrays/combinations of reproductive
organ development that we observe in humans. So again, biological sex and the distribution of
reproductive organs is more of a spectrum than a dichotomy.
C) Basic Patterns of Reproduction
Ø Development of the gametes (ova and sperm) is called
gametogenesis.
Ø Oocytes/ova (i.e. eggs) are large cells, non-motile and must
be moved.
Ø Sperm are small and use a flagellum to swim
Ø Gametogenesis begins before a person is born (in utero).
Ø Starts with mitosis to increase numbers of diploid stem cells
called oogonia and spermatogonia.
Ø These become primary oocytes and primary spermatocytes
after DNA replication occurs before meiosis begins.
Ø The first meiotic division produces haploid secondary
oocytes and secondary spermatocytes.
Ø The second meiotic division produces the gamete.
Ø The timing of these events in the XX and XY reproductive
organs are different. Fig. 26.5
Ø Development of the gametes (ova and sperm) is called
gametogenesis.
Ø Oocytes/ova (i.e. eggs) are large cells, non-motile and must
be moved.
Ø Sperm are small and use a flagellum to swim
Ø Gametogenesis begins before a person is born (in utero).
Ø Starts with mitosis to increase numbers of diploid stem cells
called oogonia and spermatogonia.
Ø These become primary oocytes and primary spermatocytes
after DNA replication occurs before meiosis begins.
Ø The first meiotic division produces haploid secondary
oocytes and secondary spermatocytes.
Ø The second meiotic division produces the gamete.
Ø The timing of these events in the XX and XY reproductive
organs are different. Fig. 26.5
Fig. 26.6
Ø Reproduction and Gametogenesis are under hormonal control:
Ø Hormones important to reproduction and gametogenesis:
1. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) from hypothalamus controls
secretion of 2 anterior pituitary hormones, LH and FSH.
2. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) regulates gametogenesis in gonads
3. Luteinizing hormone (LH) controls production of sex hormones
4. Testicular hormones – include androgens and testosterone (androgens
can be converted to estrogens by the action of the enzyme aromatase)
5. Ovarian hormones – incclude estrogens (estradiol and estrone),
progestins (progesterone) and androgens (which are converted to
estrogens).
6. The ovaries and testes also produce
a) Inhibins: inhibit FSH secretion
b) Activins: stimulate FSH secretion and promote spermatogenesis, oocyte
maturation and development of the nervous system in the embryo.
Fig. 26.6
Ø At puberty, internal and environmental stimuli cause the release
of hypothalamic peptides, including one called kisspeptin.
Ø Kisspeptin acts on the hypothalamus and causes it to secrete
GnRH.
Ø GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH
Ø FSH and LH act on different cell types in the gonads (ovaries and
testes) to stimulate either gamete or hormone production.
Increases
Fig. 26.6
Ø Feedback pathways: steroid hormones (estrogen/testosterone)
and peptide hormones (inhibin/activin) produced in the gonads
feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to either
augment secretion of GnRH, FSH and LH (positive feedback) or
decrease secretion of GnRH, FSH and LH (negative feedback).
Increases
D) Testicular (XY) Reproduction
Ø Organs associated with testicular reproduction:
1. Gonads = testes
Ø Located within the scrotum (skin and connective tissue)
Ø Contain:
a) Seminiferous tubules:
Ø Location of spermatogenesis (sperm production) Fig 26.7
Ø walls of the tube contain:
i. Germ cells (spermatogonia and spermatocytes) in
various stages of development
ii. Sertoli cells – surround developing gametes
Ø Functions:
1) Protect & feed sperm cells
2) Secrete seminiferous tubule fluid
3) Secrete androgen binding protein (ABP) – helps
maintain high [testosterone] in testes
4) Secrete inhibin (for regulation of FSH).
1. Gonads = testes
Ø Contain:
b) Leydig (Interstitial) cells:
Ø Located in interstitial space in Fig 26.7
between seminiferous tubules
Ø Produce and secrete
androgens/testosterone
Leydig cells secrete

testosterone
1. Gonads = testes
Leydig cells secrete
Ø Contain: testosterone
b) Leydig (Interstitial) cells:

Target cells/structures Physiological Response
Ø Located in interstitial space in Before puberty
between seminiferous tubules Accessory glands Wolffian duct differentiation & growth
Ø Produce and secrete External genitalia Growth & differentiation (scrotum and penis)
After puberty
androgens/testosterone
Skeleton & muscle Masculine physique, epiphyseal closure
Ø Effects of Vocal cords Voice deepening
androgens/testosterone: à à Skin Facial hair growth and/or cranial hair loss
Testis Sertoli cell maturation & androgen binding protein synthesis
External genitalia Penile & scrotal growth
Accessory glands Prostate, seminal vesicle & bulbourethral growth
CNS libido
hypothalamus/pituitary Inhibition of LH secretion (-ve feedback)
2. Duct system
Ø Carries sperm out of the body
Ø Includes:
a) Epididymis
Ø Posterior border of testis
Ø Prior to arriving in the epididymis sperm are
non-motile and infertile
Ø Functions:
i. Concentrates sperm through reabsorption of
seminiferous fluid.
ii. Start the capacitation (maturation) of sperm –
sperm develop the ability to fertilize the egg
and become somewhat mobile here (process
finishes in the XX reproductive tract.
iii. Stores sperm until ejaculation Fig. 26.7a
2. Duct system
Ø Includes:
b) Vas deferens
Ø Tube posterior to epididymis that travels up
into pelvic cavity, loops over the top of
bladder and comes down its posterior side
Ø Muscular tube (smooth muscle) that contracts
and propels sperm from the epididymis
towards the urethra during ejaculation.
Ø Vasectomy = cutting and tying off the vas
deferens – eliminates sperm cells from
ejaculate rendering a person infertile.
Fig. 26.7a
2. Duct system
Ø Includes:
c) Ejaculatory duct
Ø Formed by union of vas deferens and seminal
vesicle (one of the accessory glands)
d) Urethra
Ø Last portion of duct system that carries sperm
out of the body
Ø Functions for both reproduction and
elimination of wastes (part of the urinary
system)
Fig. 26.7a
3. Accessory glands
Ø Contribute secretions that become part of semen
Ø Includes:
a) Seminal Vesicles
Ø Secrete seminal fluid into the ejaculatory duct.
Ø Secretions from seminal vesicles make up
~50% of semen.
Ø Seminal fluid contains:
i. Fructose to nourish the sperm
ii. Prostaglandins – eicosanoid (see unit 2 notes) that acts as
a hormone in many parts of the body. In the reproductive
tract it contributes to motility and viability of sperm. Can
also influence smooth muscle contraction to aid in sperm
transport.
iii. Fibrinogen – causes coagulation of semen after ejaculation Fig. 26.7a
3. Accessory glands
Ø Contribute secretions that become part of semen
Ø Includes:
b) Prostate gland
Ø Sits below bladder and encircles the urethra
Ø Secretes an alkaline fluid that contains
enzymes like fibrinolysin that liquefy
coagulated semen after it enters the XX
reproductive tract.
c) Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) gland
Ø Secretes pre-ejaculatory fluid (an alkaline
mucus) into the urethra which helps to
lubricate, cleanse, and neutralize pH of
urethra. Fig. 26.7a
Ø Organs associated with testicular reproduction: Fig. 26.7a
4. Penis
Ø Contains 3 bodies of erectile tissue which are
blood sinuses bound by connective tissue:
a) corpus spongiosum (x1)
Ø Surrounds urethra and forms glans
(expanded tip of penis).
b) corpora cavernosa (x2)
Ø Two large columns of erectile tissue on
the dorsal surface of the penis (dorsal
surface faces the abdomen during
erection).
Similar to Fig. 26.5
Ø Spermatogenesis:
Ø Sperm develop from undifferentiated germ
cells called spermatogonia
Ø = Diploid cells (2n) containing 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46 chromosomes total = 23 from
birth parent sperm + 23 from birth parent ova)
Ø Spermatozoa = fully differentiated sperm cells
containing a random haploid set of 23
chromosomes
Ø 3 main processes:
1. Mitotic proliferation of spermatogonia
2. Meiosis of primary spermatocytes to produce haploid
secondary spermatocytes and then spermatids
3. Spermiogenesis – conversion and packaging of
spermatids into spermatozoa. Spermatids shed Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells to
cytoplasm, develop acrosomes and flagella. Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage Learning, United States.
Ø Spermatogenesis:
Ø Sperm structure:
Ø 4 parts:
1. Head – nucleus with DNA
2. Acrosome – capped tip on head of sperm that
contains digestive enzymes that will help the
sperm to penetrate the secondary oocyte (egg)
during fertilization.
3. Mid-piece – contains many mitochondria to
create ATP to power flagellum.
4. Flagellum – tail for swimming/movement
Fig. 26.7
Ø Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:
Ø Before puberty no FSH or LH are released from anterior
pituitary
Ø At puberty, kisspeptin stimulates secretion of gonadotropin
releasing hormone (GnRH)
Ø GnRH stimulates release of FSH and LH from hypothalamus
1. LH – stimulates Leydig cells to produce and secrete testosterone
2. FSH – stimulates Sertoli cells to produce:
a) Androgen Binding Protein – binds testosterone to maintain high levels
in the testes that will promote spermatogenesis.
b) Cell products that support developing spermatocytes/spermatozoa
(including seminiferous tubule fluid)
c) Inhibin – negative feedback to pituitary to decrease secretion of FSH
when sperm counts get too high. When sperm counts are low (less
than 20 million/mL), secretion of inhibin stops, which promotes an
increase in sperm count. Fig. 26.8
Ø Hormonal control of spermatogenesis:
Ø Rising levels of testosterone and inhibin exert negative
feedback on the hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease
GnRH, FSH and LH secretion (this keeps spermatogenesis and
testosterone production within average limits).
Fig. 26.8
E) Ovarian (XX) Reproduction
Ø Organs associated with ovarian reproduction:
1. Gonads = ovaries
Ø Located in pelvic cavity on lateral sides of the uterus
Fig. 26.9
Granulosa cells
1. Gonads = ovaries Theca cells
Ø Consists of :
a) Cortex – outer layer that contains:
Ø Ovarian follicles in various stages of development
Ø Surround and support the development of an
immature egg called a primary/secondary oocyte
Ø Two cell types:
i. Thecal cells – not present in early follicle
stages ; at puberty are stimulated by LH to
produce androgens
ii. Granulosa cells – directly surround the oocyte;
At puberty stimulated by FSH to proliferate
(mitosis); during ovarian cycle convert
androgens produced by thecal cells into
estrogens (estradiol & estrone) Fig. 26.9e
1. Gonads = ovaries
Ø Consists of :
b) Medulla – inner layer that contains blood vessels
and nerves.
Fig. 26.9e
1. Gonads = ovaries
Ø Consists of :
b) Medulla – inner layer that contains blood vessels
and nerves.
2. Fallopian (uterine) tube
Ø Composed of smooth muscle (contractions help to
move ovulated oocyte and cell mass of pre-embryo
along the tube toward the uterus)
Ø Have fimbriae that are suspended over the ovary and
help to guide ovulated oocyte into the tube.
Ø Location of fertilization
Fig. 26.9
2. Uterus
Ø Composed of 3 layers of tissue:
a) Outer connective tissue covering
b) Myometrium = middle layer of smooth muscle
Ø Contractions of myometrium are involved in:
i. Discharge of menstrual flow
ii. Childbirth (parturition)
c) Endometrium = inner layer of epithelial tissue
Ø After puberty, endometrial cells undergo proliferation
(mitosis) to build the uterine wall each month. If
fertilization does not occur, part of the endometrium is
sloughed off and comes out of the body = menstruation.
Ø If fertilization occurs, the cell mass that will become the
embryo/fetus embeds itself here = implantation.
Fig. 26.9
3. Vagina
Ø Birth canal, as well as a passageway for sperm and
menstrual flow.
Ø Has ridges called rugae on its inner surface that
allow the vagina to stretch without tearing during
childbirth. These ridges also help to stimulate the
penis during intercourse to bring on ejaculation.
Fig. 26.9
Ø Oogenesis:
Ø Ova (eggs) develop from
undifferentiated germ cells called
oogonia
Ø = Diploid cells (2n) containing 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46 chromosomes total =
23 from birth parent sperm + 23 from
birth parent ova)
Ø Processes:
1. Mitotic proliferation of oogonia before birth
2. Differentiation of some oogonia into primary
oocytes
3. After puberty - Meiosis of primary oocyte to
form 1 secondary oocyte (this is ovulated and
will become the ovum if fertilized) and up to
3 polar bodies. Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage
Learning, United States.
Ø Oogenesis:
Ø Oogenesis:
Ø There are ~ 6-7million oogonia present
after 5 months of gestation (before
birth).
Ø Many oogonia and primary
spermatocytes degenerate before birth
so that only ~ 2 million primary oocytes
are present at birth.
Ø Meiotic division of primary oocytes
begins before birth, but Meiosis is
arrested in Prophase I.
Ø Meiotic arrest is maintained until
puberty
Ø At puberty ~400,000 primary oocytes
Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems (9th Ed.). Cengage
remain Learning, United States.
Ø Ovarian follicles & Follicular Development:
Ø Follicle stages:
1. Primordial follicle
Ø In the ovary at birth
Ø Is a s single layer of flat follicular cells that surround the primary oocyte
Ø Follicle stages:
2. Primary follicle
Ø The single layer of flat cells becomes cube-shaped cells which are now called granulosa cells
Ø Granulosa cells secrete a glycoprotein coating around the oocyte, called the zona pellucida
Ø Follicles can reach this stage anytime from birth to menopause (does not require FSH/LH)
Ø Follicle stages:
3. Secondary follicle
Ø Granulosa cells proliferate forming many layers of cube shaped cells around the primary oocyte
Ø Theca cells form from the tissue surrounding the follicle
Ø Follicle stages:
3. Secondary follicle
Ø At puberty, under the influence of rising FSH levels, granulosa cells proliferate forming many layers of cube
shaped cells around the primary oocyte and they start to secrete fluid that accumulates between cells
Ø Granulosa cells of secondary follicle also take up androgens from theca cells and convert them to estrogens
(estradiol) using the enzyme aromatase. So, estrogen secretion by the follicle starts in the secondary follicle.
Ø Follicle stages:
4. Tertiary Follicle
Ø Fluid filled spaces that appeared in secondary follicle unite into a single antrum
Ø The large, late tertiary follicle (also known as the pre-ovulatory or dominant follicle) secretes large amounts of
estrogen (many granulosa cells) which triggers release of LH from pituitary (positive feedback) and causes the
LH surge.
Ø Ovulation (release of the secondary oocyte from the follicle) occurs from the late tertiary follicle
Ø Follicle stages:
5. Corpus luteum
Ø Follicle that remains after ovulation
Ø Produces high levels of progesterone and moderate levels of estrogen that support the maintenance of the
uterine lining and fetal development (if fertilization occurs).
Ø If there is no pregnancy, the corpus luteum degenerates into…..
Ø Follicle stages:
6. Corpus luteum
Ø Follicle that remains after ovulation
Ø Granulosa and theca cells convert to luteal cells. These produce high levels of progesterone and moderate
levels of estrogen that help maintain uterine lining and support fetal development (if fertilization & implantation
occur).
Ø If there is no pregnancy, the corpus luteum breaks down into…..
Ø Follicle stages:
7. Corpus albicans
Ø “White body”
Ø Luteal cells degenerate and follicle becomes scar tissue on surface of ovary.
Ø No longer produces hormones.
Ø Hormonal control of the Menstrual Cycle:
Ø The menstrual cycle averages ~28 days, with day 1
being the first day of menstrual flow. It involves:
1. Ovarian Cycle = changes in the follicles
a) Follicular Phase (days 1-14) – prepares oocyte for ovulation
b) Ovulation (day 14) – release of secondary oocyte
c) Luteal Phase (days 15-28) – preparation of reproductive
tract for pregnancy by hormones from the corpus luteum.
2. Uterine Cycle = changes in the endometrium of the
uterus (stimulated by the hormones produced by the
ovary as a result of events in the Ovarian Cycle)
a) Menstrual Phase (Menses) (days 1-5) – sloughing off of
endometrium (occurs at beginning of follicular phase)
b) Proliferative Phase (days 6-14) – rebuilding of endometrium
c) Secretory Phase (days 15-28) – final preparations of uterine
lining for implantation; endometrial glands begin secretion
Ø Hormonal control of the Menstrual Cycle:
Ø Both the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle are usually
interrupted (stopped) by:
1. Pregnancy
2. Menopause
3. Nutritional balance – for example anorexia nervosa is
often associated with amenorrhea – loss of events of the
menstrual cycle).
4. Excessive physical training – also leads to amenorrhea
Ø Hormonal control of the Ovarian Cycle:
1. Follicular Phase (days 1-14)
a) Early Follicular Phase
Ø Initially GnRH is secreted (progesterone, estrogen and
inhibin levels are low and absence of any negative
feedback from these allows GnRH secretion).
Ø GnRH stimulates secretion of FSH and LH
Ø FSH stimulates growth of a set of follicles
Ø LH stimulates thecal cells to produce androgens
Ø Granulosa cells convert androgens to estrogens and
estrogen levels start to increase.
Ø Granulosa cells also secrete Anti-Müllerian Hormone (AMH) –
prevents development of other follicles in this cycle
Ø As estrogen levels rise, moderate estrogen level exerts
negative feedback on GnRH, LH and FSH
Ø Granulosa cells also begin to secrete inhibin – reinforces
negative feedback on FSH secretion, FSH levels start to ↓
1. Follicular Phase (days 1-14)
a) Mid- to Late Follicular Phase
Ø As follicles increase in size, more estrogen is produced.
Ø High estrogen becomes positive feedback for LH (and to
lesser extent FSH).
Ø As more estrogen is produced, more LH is produced, which
triggers production of more estrogen (via ↑ androgen), which
trigger production of more LH, etc.
Ø Result of positive feedback = LH surge (large ↑ in LH)
Ø LH surge triggers completion of Meiosis I in the primary
oocyte, which becomes the secondary oocyte.
Ø Secondary oocyte and begins Meiosis II, but is arrested in
Metaphase II.
Ø LH surge also triggers…….(see next page)
2. Ovulation (day 14)
Ø Enzymes that breakdown connective tissue
(collegenases) are secreted by the follicle and allow it
to rupture (break open) and release the secondary
oocyte
Ø Secondary oocyte is released into the abdominal cavity
where the fimbriae move it into the uterine (Fallopian)
tube.
3. Luteal Phase (days 15-28)
a) Early to Mid- luteal phase:
Ø Under the influence of LH, granulosa cells and thecal cells
differentiate into the corpus luteum.
Ø The corpus luteum secretes mostly progesterone and
inhibin as well as some estrogens. The hormones act to:
i. Inhibit GnRH, FSH, and LH secretion (negative feedback to
hypothalamus and pituitary)
ii. Repair endometrium.
iii. Cause swelling in the ducts of the mammary glands, which
may cause breast tissue become tender/sore.
3. Luteal Phase (days 15-28)
b) Late luteal phase
Ø If fertilization occurs – corpus luteum continues to grow
and produce estrogen and progesterone. It will also
begin to produce the hormone human chorionic
gonadotropin (hCG),
Ø If fertilization does not occur corpus luteum breaks down
and becomes corpus albicans.
Ø No more hormone secretion, so estrogen,
progesterone, inhibin levels all ↓. Results:
i. Loss of negative feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary
gland, so GnRH, FSH, LH start to increase secretion and
the Follicular Phase of the next cycle begins.
Note – I have modified the titles of some of the
phases in this diagram to better reflect the timing
of these different events. On day 1 of the cycle,
FSH and LH levels would typically still be high, Late Luteal to Early
high to stimulate follicle development. By ~day 5- Mid-follicular phase Follicular Phases
7 FSH levels start to drop due to the negative

feedback by estrogen)
Fig. 26.12
Ø Hormonal control of the Uterine Cycle:
Ø Estrogen and progesterone produced as a result of the
ovarian cycle, control the events of the uterine cycle.
1. Menstrual Phase (days 1-5, but can last up to 8)
Ø Low progesterone and estrogen levels promote menses
(breakdown and sloughing off outer part of endometrium).
Ø Menstrual blood, tissue from endometrium, and the
unfertilized secondary oocyte exit the uterus and vagina
in the menstrual flow.
Ø Amount can range anywhere from slight spotting to 80 mL,
with 30 mL being average.
2. Proliferative phase (days 6-14)
Ø Estrogen from the developing follicle simulates repair and
proliferation (mitosis) in the endometrial lining, and
vascularization (growth of blood vessels)
Ø Hormonal control of the Uterine Cycle:
Ø Estrogen and progesterone produced as a result of the
ovarian cycle, control the events of the uterine cycle.
3. Secretory Phase (days 15-28)
Ø Prepares the uterus for possible implantation.
Ø Progesterone (& estrogen) from corpus luteum stimulate:
a) further vascularization of the endometrium
b) mucus secretions from endometrial glands
Ø provides lubrication for sperm transport and helps to clear
out microbes (prevents infection of possible embryo)
c) secretion of glycogen and lipids, amino acids, etc. from glands.
Ø provide nutrients to developing embryo during the period of
time after implantation but before placenta is formed
Ø Late in secretory phase, after degeneration of corpus
luteum, progesterone/estrogen levels ↓. Without these
hormones to maintain the endometrium, it is sloughed off
and menstruation begins (back to day 1 of menstrual cycle).
F) Procreation
Ø In order for sperm to come into contact with the
secondary oocyte, they must be deposited into the
vagina, which most often occurs via sexual intercourse.
Other methods of sperm deposition/fertilization are
also used, including artificial insemination and in-vitro
fertilization. In all methods, erection and ejaculation
from the penis are required to get the sperm out of the
body so that it can be used to fertilize the secondary
oocyte.
F) Procreation
Ø The human sexual response has four phases:
1. Excitement Phase
Ø Arousal, lubrication, and erection involving an increase in
PSNS and decrease in SNS signaling.
2. Plateau Phase
Ø Continued arousal including increased heart rate, mean
arterial blood pressure, respiration rate and muscle tension.
3. Orgasm Phase
Ø Peak of arousal. Involves ejaculation and/or muscle
XY XX
contraction combined with intense physical pleasure. In
individuals with a uterus, this phase is not required for
successful fertilization, but muscle contractions may assist in
transport of sperm toward uterus and Fallopian tube.
4. Resolution Phase
Ø Return to pre-arousal “resting” state.
F) Procreation
Ø Erection Reflex of the Penis:
Ø Autonomic spinal reflex in response to tactile stimuli
(does not require input from brain). However can be
regulated by cerebral input arising from a combination
of visual stimuli, thoughts about intercourse, and/or
tactile stimuli.
Ø Sensory stimuli are detected by appropriate receptors
(rods and cones of the eye, mechanoreceptors in the
skin, etc.) and relayed through ascending pathways
either directly to parasympathetic and sympathetic
preganglionic neurons (spinal reflex) and/or to the
areas of the cerebral cortex responsible for sensation
and perception.
Fig. 26.13
F) Procreation
Ø Erection Reflex of the Penis:
Ø These sensory signals activate the parasympathetic nervous
system and inhibit the sympathetic nervous system.
Ø Activating the PSNS stimulates release of nitric oxide (NO) from
smooth muscle cells. NO causes vasodilation of the penile
arterioles which increases blood flow into the erectile tissue
(corpora cavernosa and corpora spongiosum).
Ø Blood entering the erectile tissue creates the erection.
Ø The process by which sperm exit the reproductive tract
involves:
1. Emission = movement of sperm out of epididymis into urethra
2. Ejaculation = movement of sperm from urethra out of the body
Ø Both emission and ejaculation require activation of the
sympathetic nervous system. Ejaculation also requires the somatic
nervous system that contracts skeletal muscles in the pelvic floor
Fig. 26.13
G) Fertilization and Pre-Embryonic Development
Ø After ejaculation during intercourse, it takes sperm ~30 minutes
to reach secondary oocyte, but they can survive in the
uterus/Fallopian tubes for up to 5 days
Ø When a sperm comes into contact with the secondary oocyte,
the acrosomal reaction begins:
Ø Acrosomal enzymes allow sperm to “drill” through the corona
radiata and zona pellucida that surround and protect the
secondary oocyte. Fig. 26.14
Ø The protein fertilin on the cell membrane of the sperm binds to an
integrin protein (receptor) on the surface of the oocyte.
Ø causes changes in oocyte cell membrane that block other sperm from
entering (prevents polyspermy)
Ø Once inside the oocyte, sperm release nitric oxide (NO) which
causes the release of Ca++ from Ca++ stores in the cell. Ca++
acts as a signal to stimulate completion of final meiotic division.
Fig. 26.14
Ø The nuclei of the sperm (n=23) and
ovum (n=23) unite to form the zygote.
This is the first diploid cell (2n = 46
chromosomes) from which all of the
other cells in a human body are made.
Ø The zygote undergoes mitosis in a series
of cleavage divisions (cell division
without an increase in size from the
zygote).
Ø After ~3 days post-fertilization, a solid
ball of 16-32 cells is formed called a
morula.
Fig. 26.14
Ø The morula then develops into a
blastocyst, a hollow ball of 32 or more
cells that is composed of:
1. An outer ring of cells call the trophoblast
– will develop into the fetal part of the
placenta in later stages.
2. An inner cell mass – differentiates in later
stages into the embryo/fetus.
3. A fluid filled cavity (blastocoel)
Ø The blastocyst implants into the uterine
wall at ~ 5-9 days
H) Parturition & Lactation
Ø Parturition (childbirth) begins with labor.
Ø Signals that act as stimuli for childbirth come from the mother or
fetus or both.
Ø Prior to labor the cervix softens in response to the
hormone relaxin.
Ø The head of the fetus puts pressure against the softened
cervix initiating a positive feedback loop
Ø ↑ cervical stretch detected by stretch receptors and relayed to
sensory areas of brain ® stimulate oxytocin release from
hypothalamus ® triggers release of prostaglandins from uterine
smooth muscle cells (acts as autocrine) ® ↑ strength of uterine
contractions ® fetus drops lower in uterus
Ø Leads to delivery of baby followed by detachment of the
placenta which is also expelled.
Fig. 26.16
Ø Mammary glands secrete milk during
lactation.
Ø At puberty, estrogen influences breast
development.
Ø During pregnancy, hormones (estrogen,
growth hormone and cortisol stimulate
further mammary gland development.
Ø In late pregnancy
Ø Progesterone converts duct epithelium into
secretory structure
Ø Prolactin is not inhibited by dopamine (also
known as prolactin-inhibiting hormone or PIH)
and glands begin to produce milk
Fig. 26.16
Fig. 26.16
Ø Let-Down Reflex (Milk ejection reflex)
Ø Stimulates breast milk production for next feeding
Ø “lets down”/releases stored milk for current feeding
Ø Prior to let-down reflex, dopamine (PIH) tonically inhibits prolactin release
Ø Stimulus – baby crying or baby suckling
Ø Receptors – mechanoreceptors for hearing (hair cells) or touch.
Ø Input – Ascending sensory pathways
Ø Integration – sensory and association areas of brain
Ø Motor output – excitatory and inhibitory interneurons that relay to
hypothalamus
Ø Effectors – cells in the hypothalamus that secrete dopamine (PIH) inhibited and
the neurons that produce/secrete oxytocin stimulated.
Ø Response – secretion of dopamine (PIH) ↓ which increases secretion of
prolactin; secretion of oxytocin from anterior pituitary ↑
Ø Let-Down Reflex (Milk ejection reflex)
Ø Increasing levels of prolactin stimulates milk production
and secretion by the mammary gland
Ø Increasing levels of oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle
contraction in the breast that causes ejection.
Fig. 26.16

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UNIT 12: REPRODUCTION

BIOL2410 D01 Lecture Notes

In this unit we will examine the reproductive structures and

Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells to

ii. differentiation of Wolffian ducts into the internal

deferens, ejaculatory duct, seminal vesicles).

After Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells

ii. Degeneration of the Wolffian duct

b) Lack of Anti-Müllerian Hormone causes development Anti-Müllerian Hormone

of Müllerian ducts into the structures of the

After Sherwood, L. 2015. Human Physiology: From Cells

Leydig cells secrete

b) Leydig (Interstitial) cells:

7 FSH levels start to drop due to the negative

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