.

College of Medicine and Health

sciences
Department of Midwifery
PB: Muche A. (MSc in CM)
Email: mucheargaw@gmail.com
Embryology

Objectives
 At the end of this lesson you will be able to:

 Define Embryology

 Define the developmental periods

 Describe the significance of embryology

 Define the different embryological terminology

 Define the nomenclature used to describe body parts, positions

and relationships
Introduction

 Embryology : Is the science which deals with the prenatal

stage i.e. the intrauterine development of the human body till
birth.
 Teratology:Is part of embryology and pathology that deals

with abnormal development (birth defects)……congenital

anomalies.
 This branch of embryology is concerned with various genetic

or environmental factors that disturb normal development and

produce birth defects.
Significance of embryology

 Since embryology focuses on the following two issues

1.Prenatal Development - concerned with
Intrauterine development of the human body till birth
2.Teratology - deals with Abnormal development/birth defects
Therefore, Embryology
 Imparts knowledge concerning the beginnings of human life

and the changes occurring during prenatal development

 Bridges the gap between prenatal development and obstetrics,

perinatal medicine, pediatrics, surgery and clinical anatomy

 Cont..

 Illuminates gross anatomy and explains how normal and

abnormal relations develop
 Has a practical value in helping to understand the causes of

variations in human structure

Developmental periods
Human development is divided into
 Prenatal (before birth) period
 Postnatal (after birth) period
 There are two major periods in the progress from single cell to

9 month baby (prenatal period)

cont.…

Period for organ formation – embryogenesis – 1st 8 weeks

 Most visible advances occur during the third to eighth weeks

of embryonic development
Period for differentiation of organs formed – fetal period
 During the fetal period, differentiation and growth of tissues

and organs occur

cont..
Embryologic terminology

Oocyte −► refers to female germ or sex cells, produced in the

ovaries
Sperm or spermatozoon −► refers to the male germ cell
produced in the testes
Zygote −► refers to a cell results from the union of an oocyte
and a sperm during fertilization
 Zygote is the beginning of a new human being

Cleavage −► a series of mitotic cell divisions of the zygote that

result in the formation of early pre-embryonic cells, blastomeres
Morula −► a solid mass of 12 to 32 blastomeres, formed by
cleavage of a zygote
Cont..

Blastocyst −► it is a stage (after 2-3 days by the time

the morula enters the uterus from the uterine tube)
when a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocystic cavity,
develops inside the morula
 The inner cell mass or embryoblast located centrally
Cont..

 Implantation −► The process during which the

blastocyst attaches to the endometrium
 Gastrula −► transformation of a blastocyst into a

three-layered or trilaminar embryonic disc (third

week)
 Neurula −► the early embryo when the neural tube is

developing from the neural plate (by 3rd & 4th wks)
 Embryo −► The developing human during its early

stages of development (3rd - 8th wk, embryonic

period )
Cont..

 Conceptus −► The embryo and its adjunct parts

 Primordium −► The beginning or first discernible

indication of an organ
 Fetus −► the developing human from 9th wk to birth

(fetal period)
Cont..

 Infancy −► refers to the earliest period of extrauterine life,

roughly the first year after birth
 Childhood −► is the period from approx. 13 months until

puberty
 Adolescence −► is the period approx. from 11-19 yrs of age,

characterized by rapid physical and sexual maturation

 Puberty −► is the period usually between the ages of (12-15

yrs in girls and 13-16 yrs in boys) during which

Secondary sexual characteristics develop and become capable of
sexual reproduction.
Cont..

Abortion −► A premature expulsion of a conceptus

from the uterus & An embryo or fetus before it is
viable-capable of living outside
Trimester
 A period of three calendar months during a pregnancy
 Obstetricians commonly divide the 9-month period of

gestation into three trimesters

 The most critical stages of development occur during

the first trimester (13 wks; embryonic and early fetal

periods)
Cont..

Gestational Age
 It is difficult to determine exactly when fertilization

(conception) occurs because the process cannot be

observed in vivo (within the living body)
 its calculate the age of the embryo or fetus from the

presumed first day of the last normal menstrual period

 This is the gestational age, which is approximately 2

weeks longer than the fertilization age because the

oocyte is not fertilized until approximately 2 weeks
after the preceding menstruation
Cont..

Drawings illustrating descriptive terms of

position, direction, and planes of the body
A, Lateral view of an adult in the
anatomical position.
B, Lateral view of a 5-wk embryo.
C and D, Ventral views of 6-wk embryo
E, Lateral view of a 7-week embryo.
In describing development, it is necessary
to use words denoting the position of one
part to another or to the body as a whole.
For example, the vertebral column (spine)
develops in the dorsal part of the embryo,
and the sternum (breast bone) in the
ventral part of the embryo.
The Beginning of Human Development

The development of human being begins with

fertilization.
 Fertilization is a process by which the spermatozoon

from male and oocyte from the female unite to give

rise to a new organism, zygote.
 The zygote divides many times & progressively

transformed into a multicellular human being through

Cell division
Cell Migration
Programmed cell death (apoptosis)
Cell Differentiation
Cont..

 Preparation for fertilization involves 2 main

programs of events:
1. Gametogenesis is formation of the male and female
gametes in the gonads (ovary or testis)
2. Cyclic changes in the female genital tract = ovarian
& uterine cycles
cont..

Gametogenesis is conversion of germ cells into male

and female gametes (sperm & oocyte)
Spermatogenesis - production and maturation of
spermatozoa /sperm
Oogenesis - production and maturation of ovum/
oocyte
Gametes are derived from primordial germ cells
(PGCs)
Types of Body cells

A human being is formed of trillions of cells; these

cells are of two types:
Somatic cells- which are present in the whole tissues of
the body
Gametes( sex cells) - which are the sperms and ova
Somatic cell
Homol
 Each Somatic Cell nucleus contain 46 chromosomes ogous
chrom
osome
which are as follow s

A. 22 pairs of identical chromosome- autosomes

B. One pair of sex chromosomes which differ in the two
sexes
 The two chromosomes in each pair are called homologous
Paternal &
chromosome maternal

 One is inherited from the mother and the other is from the

father
 Somatic cells are described as Diploid because their

chromosomes are in homologus pair

Cont..

Male sex cells

The pair of sex chromosomes are quit different
 One being long and is known as X chromosome
 The other is much smaller is known as Y

Female sex cell

 The pair of sex chromosomes are identical and are

called XX chromosomes
Homologous Chromosome
Pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are
similar in shape and size.
Cont..

Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same position

on homologues.
Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes.
 22 pairs of autosomes
 1 pair of sex chromosomes
Cont..

Homologous Chromosomes
(because a homologous pair consists of 4 chromatids it
is called a “Tetrad”)
eye color eye color
locus locus

hair color hair color

locus locus
Humans have 23 Sets of Homologous Chromosomes
Each Homologous set is made up of 2 Homologues.
Sex Chromosomes

 The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the

offspring.
If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it will be
a female.
If the offspring has one “X” chromosome and one
“Y” chromosome it will be a male.

XX chromosome - female
Gamete (ovum or sperm)

 Germ cell beyond a certain stage of dev’t are haploid

 At fertilization one set of paternal (sperm)

chromosomes unites with one set of maternal(egg)

chromosomes.
 Although the two chromosomes of a homologous pair

appear to be identical, they come from different

parents and therefore are not genetically identical.
Cell Division

Mitosis
 Once PGCs have reached the gonadal ridge, they

multiply by mitosis and are called gametogonia.

 Mitosis is the process whereby one cell divides,

giving rise to two daughter cells.

 The daughter cells of mitotic division are genetically

identical to the parent cell with a complement of 46

chromosomes.
 Mitotic divisions increase their number during their

migration and also when they arrive in the gonads.

Mitosis

 The somatic cells start their life as daughter cells

after mitotic cell division.
 They perform their specific functions till they divide

again
Mitosis is a cell division involving four phases
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase &
 Telophase followed by Interphase
INTERPHASE

 The cell prepare itself for mitosis

 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are very distinct
 Chromosomes appear like threads or filaments

(chromatids)
 Divided into three phases, G1 (first gap), S

(synthesis), and G2 (second gap)

Phases of Interphase

G1 (gap 1)
 Cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic

organelles
S (synthesis)
 Replication of the chromosomes

G2 (gap 2)
 Cell continue to grow and further protein synthesis

occur
Mitosis is important component for chromosomal segregation – process of distributing copy of each chromosome to each
daughter cell.
 Mitosis
Prophase

Condensation of chromosomes
Disintegration and disappearance of
nucleolus
Formation of mitotic spindle –
microtubule network
Prometaphase
Nuclear membrane breaks up
Congression occurs – chromosomes move
to point midway between spindle poles
Condensation of chromosomes continue
Metaphase

 Maximum condensation of chromosomes reached

 Arranged at equatorial plane of cell
 Balanced forces of microtubules from opposite poles.
Anaphase

 Begins when sister chromatids separate

 Sister chromatids separate into daughter

chromosomes
 Daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles
Telophase and Cytokinesis

Telophase
 Nuclear membrane reforms

Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm

 Cleavage begins as a slight indentation in cell surface deepens

into a cleavage furrow.

 Actin contractile ring and myosin motors drive the process

 Cytoplasm cleaves separating daughter cells

 Larger organelles, such as ER and Golgi, tend to fragment into

small vesicles early in mitosis and then reassemble in daughter

cells.
Function of mitosis

 Formation of a multicellular embryo from a fertilized

egg
 Tissue growth
 Replacement of old and dead cells and Repair of

injured tissue
 Egg and sperm are produced by a combination of

mitosis and meiosis

Meiosis

Meiosis I – reduction division – chromosome number

goes from diploid haploid

Meiosis II – like mitosis without a preceding DNA

replication stage
 Sister chromatids separate
Meiosis I (M1)

 Before the cell gets into M1, DNA replication takes place in the synthetic
(S) phase of the cell cycle.
Steps of M1
 1.Pairing of homologous chromosomes (each homologous pair consists of

four chromatids)
 2.Crossover and interchange of chromatid segments between two paired

homologous chromosomes.
 3. Separation of the homologous chromosomes, points of interchange

temporarily remain united

The chromosomal structure then has an x appearance known as a chiasma.
 4. Pulling apart of the chromosomes on the spindle and moves to the

opposite pole resulting two daughter cells

Each daughter cells have one of a pair of replicated chromosomes, or a
haploid set (n) with a total of 2c DNA
meiosis II

 No DNA replication
 Crossing over doesn’t occur
 Sister chromatids are separated with centromere

separation
 Sequence of phases resembles mitosis
 It is same as mitosis except the chromosome number

it receives haploid
Results during the 1st and 2nd maturation divisions
Meiosis…

 Meiosis starts with a diploid parent germ cells

 Produces haploid daughter cells (sperms and oocytes)
 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes and

undergoes cytodifferentiation to complete their

maturation
 Meiosis involves two meiotic cell divisions (meiosis I

and meiosis II)

-In both cases four steps are found i.e.
prophase ,metaphase, anaphase and telophase
-Two cells at the end of meiosis I, and four cells at the
end of meiosis II, are produced
Meiosis…
Meiosis…
Meiosis…

Genetic imprinting
In all diploid cells of an individual the chromosomes
occur in homologous pairs.
One chromosome of each pair is derived from the
mother & the father
The maternal and paternal chromosomes are
morphologically indistinguishable but have important
functional implications because the expression of some
genes is dependent on whether they are on the maternal
or the paternal chromosome. This is termed genetic
imprinting
Meiosis…

Significance of meiosis
 To provide consistency of chromosome number from

generation to generation by reduction division

 For recombination of genetic material by crossing over

of chromosome segments, and allow random

assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes.
gametogenesis
Cont…

What is GAMETOGENESIS?
 Conversion of germ cells into male and female

gametes
 Development begins with fertilization, the process by

which the male gamete, the sperm, and the female

gamete, the oocyte, unite to give rise to a zygote.
 Gametes are derived from primordial germ cells

(PGCs).
What are primordial germ cells?

Give rise to gametes

Cont..

Drawing showing the final stages of migration through

the hindgut into the two genital ridges, each of which
will develop into a gonad—either an ovary or a testis .
Cont…

Humans:
 35,000 genes on 46 chromosomes
 Genes on the same chromosome inherited together

known as linked genes.

 Chromosomes appear as 23 homologous pairs to

form the diploid number of 46

 22 pairs of matching chromosomes, the autosomes

one pair of sex chromosomes

Cont..

Humans:
 If the sex pair is XX, the individual is female
 If the pair is XY, the individual is male
 One chromosome of each pair is derived from the

maternal gamete, the oocyte, and one from the

paternal gamete, the sperm
 Each gamete contains a haploid number of 23

chromosomes
 The union of the gametes at fertilization restores the

diploid number of 46
Oogenesis

 Oogenesis is the sequence of events by which

oogonia are transformed into
mature/secondary/oocytes in the ovary
 This maturation process begins before birth and is

completed after puberty.

 Oogenesis continues to menopause, which is

permanent cessation of the menses (bleeding

associated with the menstrual cycles).
Cont..

Stage of oogenesis
 Prenatal maturation
 Postnatal maturation
Cont..

Prenatal maturation
 At 6 wks : migration of the germ cells from their

extragonadal site (yolk sac) to the gonadal ridge

(gonadal primordia) where they proliferate by mitosis
 In the gonads these cells divide and transform into

oogonia
Cont..

Division is so intense that

 At 8-10 wks : about 6,000 oogonia populate

the developing ovary

 Majority of oogonia continue to divide and

some differentiate into primary oocyte

 At 5 months : maximum number of primary

oocyte colonize the ovary are 7,000,000.

Cont..

Prenatal maturation
 Immediately after formation, oocytes replicate their

DNA and enter prophase of first meiosis

 Oogonia enlarge to form primary oocytes before birth
 As a primary oocyte forms, connective tissue cells

surround it and form a single layer of flattened,

follicular epithelial cells.
 The primary oocyte enclosed by this layer of

epithelial cells constitutes a primordial follicle.

Cont..

Prenatal maturation
 Primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division before birth …

By 7th month
- Majority of oogonia (as well as primary oocytes) degenerate
 Most of the serviving primary oocytes (at prophase of meiosis I.)

But instead of proceeding into metaphase, they enter diplotene stage

of meiosis I (Diplotene stage-resting stage during prophase).
 The follicular cells (flat) are believed to secrete a substance,

oocyte maturation inhibitor, which keeps the meiotic process of

the oocyte arrested
 The primary oocytes remain dormant in the ovarian follicles until

puberty
Cont..
Cont..

Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes

 As the primary oocyte enlarges during puberty, the follicular

epithelial cells become cuboidal in shape and then columnar,

forming a primary follicle.
 The primary oocyte soon becomes surrounded by a covering

of amorphous acellular glycoprotein material, the zona

pellucida
Cont..
Cont..

Postnatal Maturation
 As a follicle matures, the primary oocyte increases in size and,

shortly before ovulation, completes the first meiotic division

to give rise to a secondary oocyte and the 1st polar body
 Unlike the corresponding stage of spermatogenesis, however,

the division of cytoplasm is unequal

Cont..

Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes

 The polar body is a small, nonfunctional cell that soon

degenerates.
 At ovulation, the nucleus of the secondary oocyte begins the

second meiotic division, but progresses only to metaphase,

when division is arrested.
Cont..
Cont..

Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes

 Primary oocytes in the ovaries

-Two million- newborn

-Not more than 40,000 adolescence of these, only
approximately 400 become secondary oocytes and are expelled
at ovulation during the reproductive period.
 Few of these oocytes, if any, are fertilized and become mature.

 Beginning during puberty, usually one follicle matures each

month and ovulation occurs.

The ovum

Significance of egg membranes

 Provide the protection to the contents of egg

 Prevent polyspermia i.e. Fertilization by more than one sperm

 Maintain the normal cleavage of the egg

Maturation of male gametes

 Spermatogenesis - Maturation of sperm cells

 Spermatogenesis refers to the entire sequence of events by which

primary germ cells (spermatogonia) are transformed into mature

sperms (spermatozoa).
 It begins at puberty and continues to old age

Shortly before puberty, the sex cords acquire a lumen and become
seminiferous tubules
 The primordial germ cells give rise to spermatogonia.

 The process of spermatogenesis involves three phases:

 Spermatocytosis

 Spermiogenesis

 Capacitation
Spermatogenesis

Spermatogonia, which have been dormant in the seminiferous

tubules of the testes since the fetal period, begin to increase in
number at puberty .
Cont..

 After several mitotic divisions, the spermatogonia grow and

undergo changes producing successive generations of cells .

 The newly formed cells can follow one of two paths:

 They can either continue dividing as stem cells, also called
type A spermatogonia Or
 They can differentiate during progressive mitotic cycles to
become type B spermatogonia
Cont..
Cont..

 Type B spermatogonia are progenitor cells that will

differentiate into primary spermatocytes.
 The primary spermatocyte has 46 chromosomes.
 Soon after their formation, these cells enter the prophase of
the first meiotic division
 Because this prophase takes about 22 days, the majority of
spermatocytes seen in sections will be in this phase.
Cont..
Cont..

 Each primary spermatocyte subsequently undergoes a

reduction division (1st meiotic division) to form two haploid
secondary spermatocytes
 They are approximately half the size of primary spermatocytes
 Subsequently, the secondary spermatocytes undergo a 2nd
meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids, which are
almost half the size of secondary spermatocytes.
 The meiotic process therefore results in the formation of cells
with a haploid number of chromosomes.
 With fertilization, the normal diploid number is again attained
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..

Spermiogenesis
 Definition: the process of transformation of spermatids into

sperms
 It is the final stage of production of spermatozoids

 By the process of spermiogenesis, the spermatids change their

physical structure to become mature spermatozoa (sperm)

Spermiogenesis includes
 Formation of the acrosome

 Condensation of the nucleus

 Development of the flagellum

 Loss of much of the cytoplasm

Cont..
Cont..

Spermiogenesis can be divided into 3 phases

 The Golgi Phase

 The Acrosomal Phase

 The Maturation Phase

 Golgi phase

 The cytoplasm of contains a prominent golgi apparatus near

the nucleus.
 Small proacrosomal vesicles accumulate in the golgi apparatus

and coalesce to form a single membrane-limited acrosomal

cap.
Cont..

.
Cont..

Acrosomal Phase
 The acrosomal vesicle spreads to cover the anterior half of the

condensing nucleus and is then known as the acrosome.

 The acrosome is a specialized type of lysosome containing

several hydrolytic enzymes, including

o Hyaluronidase, neuraminidase, acid phosphatase, and acrosin

(a trypsin-like protease).
 These hydrolytic enzymes help to
 Dissociate cells of the corona radiata
 Digest the zona pellucida
 This process, the acrosomal reaction, is one of the first steps in
fertilization
Cont..

Maturation Phase
 Residual cytoplasm is shed and phagocytosed by sertoli cells

The spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the tubule.

 The end result is the mature spermatozoon, which is then

released into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.

 Mature sperms are free-swimming, actively motile cells

consisting of Head, neck, mid-piece & tail.

 One of the centrioles grows concomitantly, forming the

flagellum.
 Mitochondria aggregate around the proximal part of the

flagellum, forming a thickened region known as the middle

piece.
Cont..
Cont..

Mature Sperm
The head
 The Head contains 2 main parts (the nucleus and the

acrosome) both have two basic functions of the sperm (genetic

and activating respectively).
 The nucleus occupies most of the available space of sperm

head and its shape determines the shape of the head of the
sperm.
 It contains only its haploid complement of DNA.

 The acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes.

Cont..
Cont..

Mid-piece
 Connected to the head with a neck (contains mitochondria).
Cont..

Tail
 Its function is movement of the sperm to swim with head

foremost
 The sperm cell is devoid of stored food (yolk) and protective

envelope
 It is also devoid of most cytoplasm organelles such as

ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.

Cont..

Morphological abnormalities of sperms

 The head and the tail may be abnormal , they may be:

 Giants

 Dwarfs

 Some times , sperms are joined in head or in tail

 No have tail

 Sperms with morphological abnormalities lack motility and

don’t fertilize the egg.

Cont..

Comparison of female and male gamates

Oocytes Sperm
Large and less mobile - Microscopic
-highly motile
Surrounded by the zona pellucida
and a layer of follicular cells, the
corona radiata
Has an abundance of cytoplasm - Very little cytoplasm
containing yolk granules
22 autosome + X chr. - 22 autosome + X or Y
chr.
 The difference in the sex chromosome complement of

sperms forms the basis of primary sex determination

Cont..
Fertilization

 Fertilization is a fusion of ovum and spermatozoa mostly

taking place in the ampulla of uterine tube
 Spermatozoa remain viable for several days in female tract,
those reached cervix remain alive for many hours
 Spermatozoa moves mainly in their own propulsive but assisted
by cervical fluids
 Reaches oviduct from 2-7 hours of voyage
 At isthmus migration ceases and wait ovulation
 Ovulation triggers its migration to commense moving to
ampulla
 Supposed to be from chemicals released from cumulus cells
having attractive signal
Fertilization and the Events of the
First 6 Days of Development
Cont..

 Before penetrating ovum spermatozoa undergo two main

events
1.Capacitation- conditioning time in the female reproductive
tract; takes 7 hours; epithelial interaction between female
mucosal lining and sperm
 Removal of glycoprotein coat and seminal plasma protein

from acrosomal region

2.Acrosomal reaction- occur after binding with zona pellucida –
induced by zona proteins
 Ends by release of enzymes needed for penetration of zona

pellucida like acrosin and trypsin

Cont..

Phases of fertilization
3 phases:
Phase 1- Penetration of corona radiata
Phase 2- Penetration of zona pellucida
Phase 3- Fusion of cell membranes of oocyte and sperm cells
Phase 1- penetration of corona radiata
300 millions spermatozoa is deposited in female
 1% arrive cervix out of which only 300 of them reach site of

fertilization of which only one penetrate oocyte the rest

facilitates
 Only capacitated spermatozoa penetrate corona radiata
Cont..

 Phase 2- penetration of zone pellucida

 Acrosome reaction is induced by glycoprotein shell of egg to
maintain the binding mediated by zona protein
 Release of acrosomal enzymes to penetrate zona pellucida to
contact with plasma membrane of oocyte
 Interaction with plasma membrane in turn induces release of
lysosomal enzymes from cortical membrane lining oocyte
change chemical nature of zona pellucida called zona
reaction
cont..

Phase 3- fusion of oocyte and sperm cell membrane

 The first to take place is adhesion, is a result of interaction of

proteins on both cell membranes

 The two cell membranes fuses after adhesion

 since most of cell membrane of the acrosomal head

disappeared during acrosomal reaction the posterior portion

fuses with oocyte cell membrane
 Both tail and head enter cytoplasm but the plasma membrane

remain overlying the oocyte; which make the egg to respond

in three ways
 cortical and zona reaction

 Resumption of second meiotic division

 Metabolic activation of the egg

Cont..

Cortical and zona reaction

 Release of lysosomal enzymes that change the plasma

membrane and zona pellucida impermeable to spermatozoa

Resumption of 2nd meiotic division
 2nd polar body and definitive oocyte with 22 + X form

 Chromosomes arrange themselves in female pronucleus

 Metabolic activation of the egg – believed to be induced by

activating factors carried by sperm

 In this time spermatozoon approaches the female pronucleus

and its nucleus swells to form male pronucleus.

 The tail detaches and degenerates
Cont..

 growth of both haploid pronucleus occur and replicate their

DNA
 Chromosomes organize to undergo normal mitotic division

 23 paternal and 23 maternal (double) chromosomes split at

centromere and sister chromatids move to opposite pole to

provide each cell of zygote with diploid number of
chromosomes and DNA.
Main results of fertilization
 Restoration of diploid number of chromosomes

 Determination of sex

 Initiation of cleavage
Cont..

Results of Fertilization
 Stimulates the penetrated oocyte to complete the second

meiotic division.
 Restores the normal diploid number of chromosomes (46) in

the zygote.
 Results in variation of the human species through mingling of

maternal and paternal chromosomes.

 Determines chromosomal sex of the embryo.

 Causes metabolic activation of the ootid and initiates cleavage

(cell division) of the zygote

Cont..

Cleavage
 Within 24 hours after fertilization, the zygote initiates a rapid

series of mitotic cell divisions called cleavage.

 These divisions are not accompanied by cell growth, so they

sub-divide the large zygote into many smaller daughter cells

called blastomeres.
 The embryo as a whole does not increase in size during

cleavage and remains enclosed in the zona pellucida.

Cont..

Cleavage
 Until the 8-cell stage, they form a loosely arranged clump. After

that, blastomeres form a compact ball of cells.

 This process, compaction, segregates inner cells, which

communicate extensively by gap junctions, from outer cells.

 3 days after fertilization, cells of the compacted embryo divide

again to form a 12-32 cells- morula.

 Inner cells of the morula constitute the inner cell mass (the

embryoblast) , and surrounding cells compose the outer cell mass.

 The inner cell mass gives rise to tissues of the embryo proper, and

the outer cell mass forms the trophoblast, which contributes to the
placenta.
Cont..

Cleavage

 Development of the zygote from the two-cell stage to the late

morula stage.
 The two-cell stage is reached approximately 30 hours after
fertilization; the four-cell stage, at approximately 40 hours; the
12- to 16-cell stage, at approximately 3 days; and the late
morula stage, at approximately 4 days.
 During this period, blastomeres are surrounded by the zona
pellucida, which disappears at the end of the fourth day.
Cont..

Blastocyst formation
 By 4 days of development, the morula, consisting now of

about 30 cells, begins to absorb fluid.

 The fluid begins to penetrate through the zona pellucida into

the intercellular spaces of the inner cell mass.

 Gradually the intercellular spaces become confluent, and

finally a single cavity, the blastocele, forms.

 At this time, the embryo is a blastocyst

Cells of the inner cell mass, now called the embryoblast, are
at one pole, and those of the outer cell mass is trophoblast,
flatten and form the epithelial wall of the blastocyst.
Cont..

 The side of the blastocyst

containing the inner cell mass
is called the embryonic
pole of the blastocyst.
 The opposite side

is called the abembryonic pole.

Cont..

Blastocyst formation
The zona pellucida has disappeared, allowing implantation to
begin.
Trophoblastic cells over the embryoblast pole begin to penetrate
between the epithelial cells of the uterine mucosa about the sixth
day.
 Attachment and invasion of the trophoblast involve integrin's,

expressed by the trophoblast, and the extracellular matrix

molecules laminin and fibronectin.
Cont..

Blastocyst formation
 Integrin receptors for laminin promote attachment, while those

for fibronectin stimulate migration.

 These molecules also interact along signal transduction

pathways to regulate trophoblast differentiation so that

implantation is the result of mutual trophoblastic and
endometrial action.

 So, by the end of the 1st week of development, the human

zygote has passed through the morula & blastocyst stages has
begun implantation in the uterine mucosa.
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..

First week of human developments

 Events during the first week of human development.

1, Oocyte immediately after ovulation.

2, Fertilization, approximately 12 to 24 hours after ovulation.
3, Stage of the male and female pronuclei.
4, Spindle of the first mitotic division.
5, Two cell stage (approximately 30 hours of age).
6, Morula containing 12 to 32 blastomere (approximately 3 days
of age).
7, Advanced morula stage reaching the uterine lumen
(approximately 4 days of age).
Cont..

8, Early blastocyst stage (approximately 4.5 days of age).

The zona pellucida has disappeared.
9, Early phase of implantation (blastocyst approximately 6 days
of age).
Implantation:
 Is the process by which the embryo is fixed and embeded in

the endometrium of the uterus.

 By the time the embryo reaches the uterine cavity it’s in the

form of a blastocyst.
 The blastocyst enters the uterus at about the 7th or 8th day

after ovulation (about 6 days after fertilization).

Cont..

 The trophoblastic cells in contact with the endometrial

epithelium proliferate and form a layer called
syncytiotrophoblast.
 When the syncitiotrophoblast erodes the endometrium, the
blastocyst moves deeper into the endometrium and finally is
completely buried in it.
 Finally, the epithelium is restored over the buried blastocyst
and implantation is complete.
Cont..

Implantation of the Blastocyst

Cont..

Changes in the endometrium

 After implantation, the syncytiotrophoblast start secreting the

hormone hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin).

 Under the influence of the hCG, the secretary changes in the

endometrium are intensified.

 This is called a decidual reaction and the endometrium is now

called a decidua.
 After implantation of the blastocyst, the decidua is divided in

3 parts: Decidua parietalis, Decidua basalis and Decidua

capsularis.
Cont..

Changes in the endometrium

Second Week of Development
Bilaminar Germ Disc

DAY 8
 At the 8th day of development, the blastocyst is partially

embedded in the endometrial stroma.

The trophoblast has differentiated into two layers:
1.an inner layer of mononucleated cells, the cytotrophoblast, and
2. an outer multinucleated zone without distinct cell boundaries,
the syncytiotrophoblast
 Mitotic: the cytotrophoblast but not in the syncytiotrophoblast.

 Cells in the cytotrophoblast divide and migrate into the

syncytiotrophoblast.
Cont..

DAY 8
 Cells of the inner cell mass or embryoblast : into two layers:

A. Hypoblast layer: a layer of cuboidal cells adjacent to the blastocyst

cavity
B. Epiblast layer :a layer of high columnar cells adjacent to the
amniotic cavity

 Together, the layers form a flat disc , a small cavity appears within
the epiblast.
 This cavity enlarges to become the amniotic cavity.

 Epiblast cells adjacent to the cytotrophoblast are called amnioblasts;

together with the rest of the epiblast, they line the amniotic cavity
Cont..

DAY 9
 The blastocyst is more deeply embedded in the endometrium,

and the penetration defect in the surface epithehum is closed

by a fibrin coagulum
 The trophoblast shows considerable progress in development,

particularly at the embryonic pole, where vacuoles appear in

the syncytium.
 When these vacuoles fuse, they form large lacunae, and this

phase of trophoblast development is thus known as the lacunar

stage
 At the abembryonic pole, flattened cells probably originating

from the hypoblast form a thin membrane, the exocoelomic

(Heuser) membrane that lines the inner surface of the
cytotrophoblast
Cont..

 This membrane, together with the hypoblast, forms the lining

of the exocoelomic cavity, or primitive yolk sac.
Cont..

Day 10
 Implantation is completed

 At day 10 blastocyst is completely embedded and site of

implantation is closed by a closing plug of fibrin coagulum.

 Site of implantation will completely recover and the defect is

covered by epithelium at day 12.

 Decidua: endometrium after implantation

Appearance of decidual cells that contain large amount of lipid

and glycogen, and produce hormones that are nutritive to the
developing embryo.
Cont..

Has three regions

1. Decidua basalis
 Located deep to the conceptus.

 Make the meternal part of the placenta

2. Decidua parietalis(decidua vera)

 Located away from the site of implantation

3. Decidua capsularis
 Located superficial to the conceptus

 Gradually fuses with ducidua parietalis and degenerate at 22

wks.
Cont..
Cont..

DAY 11 AND 12
 By the 11th to the 12th day, the blastocyst is completely

embedded in the endometrial stroma, and the surface

epithelium almost entirely covers the original defect in the
uterine wall.
 The blastocyst now produces a slight protrusion into the

lumen of the uterus.

 The trophoblast is characterized by lacunar spaces in the

syncytium that form an intercommunicating network.

Cont..

DAY 11 AND 12
 Cells of the syncytiotrophoblast penetrate deeper into the

stroma and erode the endothelial lining of the maternal

capillaries.
 These capillaries, which are congested and dilated, are known

as sinusoids.
 The lacunae become continuous with the sinusoids, and

maternal blood enters the lacunar system

 As the trophoblast continues to erode more and more

sinusoids, maternal blood begins to flow through the

trophoblastic system, establishing the uteroplacental
circulation.
Cont..

DAY 11 AND 12
 A new population of cells appears between the inner surface of

the cytotrophoblast and the outer surface of the exocoelomic

cavity.
 These cells, derived from yolk sac cells, form a fine, loose

connective tissue, the extraembryonic mesoderm, which

eventually fills all of the space between the trophoblast
externally and the amnion and exocoelomic membrane
internally
 Large cavities develop in the extraembryonic mesoderm, and

when these become confluent, they form a new space known

as the extraembryonic cavity, or chorionic cavity
Cont..

 This space surrounds the primitive yolk sac and amniotic

cavity, except where the germ disc is connected to the
trophoblast by the connecting stalk
 The extraembryonic mesoderm lining the cytotrophoblast and
amnion is called the extraembryonic somatic mesoderm; the
lining covering the yolk sac is known as the extraembryonic
splanchnic mesoderm
Cont..

Formation of the Amniotic Cavity ,Umbilical Vesicle and

Chorionic Sac
Extraembryonic structures forming during the 2nd week:
Amniotic cavity
Amnion
Umbilical vesicle (yolk sac)
Chorionic sac
Connecting stalk
Amniogenic (amnion-forming) cells-amnioblasts-separate from
the epiblast and form the amnion, which encloses the amniotic
cavity
Cont..

 The epiblast forms the floor of the amniotic cavity and is

continuous peripherally with the amnion.
 The hypoblast forms the roof of the exocoelomic cavity/
Umbilical vesicle (yolk sac) and continuous with the thin
exocoelomic membrane.
 The connecting stalk later develops into the umbilical cord,
which forms the connection between the placenta and embryo.
Cont..

DAY13
 By the 13rd day of development, the surface defect in the

endometrium has usually healed.

 Occasionally, however, bleeding occurs at the implantation site

as a result of increased blood flow into the lacunar spaces.

 Because this bleeding occurs near the 28th day of the

menstrual cycle, it may be confused with normal menstrual

bleeding and, therefore, may cause inaccuracy in determining
the expected delivery date.
Cont..

Primordial Uteroplacental Circulation

 As the amnion, embryonic disc, and primary umbilical vesicle form,

isolated cavities- lacunae-appear in the syncytiotrophoblast

 Adjacent syncytiotrophoblastic lacunae fuse to form lacunar networks ,

giving the syncytiotrophoblast a sponge like appearance

 The endometrial capillaries around the implanted embryo become

congested and dilated to form sinusoids

 The syncytiotrophoblast erodes the sinusoids, and maternal blood flows

freely into the lacunar networks.

 The trophoblast absorbs nutritive fluid (embryotroph) from the lacunar

networks, which is transferred to the embryo-embryonic disc by diffusion

 Oxygenated blood passes into the lacunae from the spiral endometrial

arteries, and poorly oxygenated blood is removed from them through the
endometrial veins.
Cont..
Cont..
Summary

 At the beginning of the second week, the blastocyst is partially

embedded in the endometrial stroma.
 The trophoblast differentiates into;
 cytotrophoblast; and syncytiotrophoblast, which erodes
maternal tissues
 Maternal sinusoids are eroded by the syncytiotrophoblast,
maternal blood enters the lacunar network, and by the end of
the second week, a primitive utero-placental circulation
begins.
Cont..

 The cytotrophoblast, forms cellular columns penetrating into

and surrounded by the syncytium.
 By the end of the second week, the blastocyst is completely

embedded, and the surface defect in the mucosa has healed.

 The inner cell mass or embryoblast, meanwhile, differentiates

into
(1) the epiblast and
(2) the hypoblast, together forming a bílaminar disc.
Cont…

 Hypoblast cells are continuous with the exocoelomic

membrane, and together they surround the primitive yolk sac.
 By the end of the second week, extraembryonic mesoderm
filis the space between the trophoblast and the amnion and
exocoelomic membrane internally.
 When vacuoles develop in this tissue, the extraembryonic
coelom or chorionic cavity forms.
3rd Week Development : Formation of Germ Layers

Characterized by
 Appearance of primitive streak

 Development of notochord

 Differentiation of three germ layers

Gastrulation
 The process by which the three germ layers, which are

precursors of all embryonic tissues are established in

embryos.
 During gastrulation, the bilaminar embryonic disc is

converted into a trilaminar embryonic disc.

 During this period, the embryo may be referred to as a

gastrula.
Cont..

Primitive Streak
 Formed by a thickened linear band of epiblast, appears

caudally in the median plane of the embryonic disc

 Eelongates by addition of cells to its caudal end, its cranial

end proliferates to form a primitive node

 Primitive groove-develops in the primitive streak that is

continuous with a small depression in the primitive node-the

primitive pit.
Cont..
Cont..

Fate of the Primitive Streak

 Normally the primitive streak undergoes degenerative

changes and disappears by the end of the fourth week.

Cont..

Formation of the Notochord

 Notochordal processed

 median cellular cord formed from mesoddermal cells

ingressed through the streak

 Soon acquires a lumen, the notochordal canal, and grows

cranially until it reaches the prechordal plate- the primordium

of the oropharyngeal membrane
 Pre notochordal cells initially form notochordal plate

intercalated to the hypoblast.

 As the hypoblast is replaced by endoderm cells, cells of the

notochordal plate proliferate and detach from the endoderm

and form the definitive notochord.
 Neurenteric canal ,at the primitive pit ,temporarily connects
Cont..
Cont..

Notochord
 A cellular rodlike structure that extends cranially to the

prechordal plate and caudally to the primitive pit

Functions of the notochord include:
 Defines the primordial longitudinal axis of the embryo and

gives it some rigidity

 Provides signals that are necessary for the development of

axial musculoskeletal structures and the central nervous

system
 Contributes to the intervertebral discs
Cont..
Cont ..
3rd week development
 Once the primitive streak cells have invaginated, some

displace the hypoblast, creating the embryonic endoderm, and

others come to lie between the epiblast and newly created
endoderm to form mesoderm.
 Cells remaining in the epiblast then form ectoderm

 The epiblast, is the source of all of the germ layers, and cells

in these layers will give rise to all of the tissues and organs:
Embryonic ectoderm
 Gives rise to the epidermis, central and peripheral nervous

systems, the eye, and inner ear, and, as neural crest cells.
Cont.

Embryonic endoderm
 is the source of the epithelial linings including the glands.

Embryonic mesoderm gives rise to all skeletal muscles, blood

cells and the lining of blood vessels, all visceral smooth
muscular coats , the serosal linings of all body cavities, the
ducts and organs of the reproductive, excretory systems&
cardiovascular system.
Cont..
Cont..
Cont..