Gender and Stratification:socio-cultural, economic and political

manifestation

Inequality is found in all societies, irrespective of time or place. Gender inequality exists
when gender differences give men more power than women. Gender inequality is unfair
rights between male and female based on different gender roles which leads to unequal
treatment in life. Feminists emphasize that inequalities between men and women are not the
outcome of natural (biological) differences but due to the influence of the environment.
Gender inequality can be seen in all spheres of life. In today’s talk the focus is on economic,
social and political manifestation of gender.
Gender inequality remains pervasive around the world today, despite the significant economic
and social progress of the last century. There is no region of the developing world where
women possess the same legal, economic and social rights as men. While the problems are
felt most by women, the costs of gender inequality cut across all of society and the economy,
and can ultimately harm everyone (World Bank, 2001). Inequalities faced by girls begin right
at birth and follow them all their lives. In every step, women face inequality, subordination,
and secondary class status. Often they are victim of the oppression, marginalization and
exploitation in the patriarchal societies. Women, who constitute almost half of the world’s
population, are subjected to discriminatory practices and prejudices that have long been the
drivers of gender-based discrimination. Studies also highlight gender discrimination and
neglect of women in terms of allocation of food, medical care, and education in households.
Traditional customs and value systems uphold and promote such values where educational or
economic independence of women is given low priority.
GII is a composite metric of gender inequality using three dimensions: reproductive health,
empowerment and the labour market. A low GII value indicates low inequality between
women and men, and vice-versa. India has a score of 0.490 in 2022 and has a rank of 122
among over 190 countries.
Gender discrimination and its implications have been discussed by social scientists and policy
planners for long. In this lecture gender inequality and its manifestation in different spheres
has been discussed. First, I will now discuss how gender inequality is manifested in Social
sphere.
Gender Inequality in social sphere
According to Gerda Lerner, family plays an important role in creating a
hierarchical system and keeping order in society. It is in the family that
the first system of controls are imposed upon women, controls which
ensure that she herself has no rights over her body, her production,
reproduction, sexuality, or mobility, for they are ultimately in the control
of a male be it father, brother, husband or son. Patriarchal societies treat women
as inferior to their male counterparts. Inequality between the two sexes is so widespread that
it is accepted as fundamental to all social practices and institutions. Within the family,
the girl child faces neglect in terms of health care, food distribution and
availing of educational opportunities as well as a denial of basic rights.
Right from childhood, she is socialized into the behaviour pattern
expected of a girl. For example- girls do not laugh loudly, girls don not
run, girls do not sit like this and so on. The socialization pattern ensures
that she will never question the subordinations which she is subjected to
in the name of family, family honour and prestige.
 Religious rituals and social practices in India forbade girls to study the Holy Scriptures, attain
Vedic knowledge and obtain formal education; it was enjoined as the religious duty of the father of
the girl to marry his daughter before she attained puberty that led to the practice of child marriage;
married women had to compulsorily stay in a veil (purdah); in many cases, at the death of the
husband the wife was made to sit on his funeral pyre and die in the same pyre; widows were
considered as inauspicious and were not allowed to remarry after their husbands death. Although the
practice of sati has been banned, women continue to face inequality, widows do not enjoy any
inheritance rights in the property of their husbands. Still double standards with regard to widow
remarriage exist. Women are considered as a source of family honour and prestige and hence severe
restrictions are placed upon them in matters of mate selection. Descent is traced through the
male, and systems of inheritance are all patrilineal, that is traced through male
ancestors or heirs. Naturally women are denied rights of inheritance, defacto,
even though the legal system may proudly declare equal rights of inheritance of
women. The stereotyped gender division of labour, wherein males are supposed
to be the wage earners, while women are restricted to the household and
household work, further enhances the subordination of women. These gender
stereotypes make women all the more vulnerable to gender violence both in
their natal and marital families. Such systemic deprivation and violence not
only harms women physically, psychologically and socially, but equally serves
to keep them in a state of deprivation and suppression in the family. At the
same time, these very discriminations prevent the participation of women in
public life, serving to keep them further chained to the household and family.
Even within the confines of home, woman is considered as inferior and subservient to her
male counterpart. The birth of son in a family becomes a celebrated occasion whereas the
birth of a daughter is considered as inauspicious and is mourned. The girl child in India is
subjected to inequality, disparity and neglect. Born into indifference and reared on neglect,
the girl child is caught in a web of cultural practices and prejudices that hamper her
development both physically and mentally.Daughters are considered as a burden upon the
family it resulted in evil practice of female infanticide, i.e. the killing of a girl as soon as she
was born. This barbaric practice continues even in today in the form of female foeticide, i.e.
the killing of a female foetus within the womb of the mother. Most Indians see sons – not
daughters – as being primarily responsible for parents’ last rites and burial rituals. Religious
funeral practices for loved ones are widely seen as very important, and at least according to
Hindu tradition, sons must perform last rites for a parent to ensure freedom for the soul in the
afterlife.People tend to place higher value on sons rather than daughters – a custom broadly
referred to as “son preference.” Adult sons traditionally live with their parents and provide
financial support to the family. Meanwhile, when daughters marry, their families may pay a
dowry, an illegal and daughters often live with their husband’s parents and fulfill obligations
toward their in-laws.
The evil of dowry system also emerged out of the patriarchal structure of the society and the
lower social status of woman. Many women are made suffer extreme forms of torture and are
even burnt for the want of dowry. Son preference became an accepted norm of the society.
Women bear the primary responsibility most of raising children and looking after their
families, the elderly, and the sick and disabled. Gender disparity manifests in various forms in
almost every society. The needs of men take priority over those of the other household
members, especially women. This disparity is also much clearly visible in the continuously
declining sex ratio of women in the total population. Wide gender gap in literacy rates, rising
incidences of domestic violence, sexual harassment at workplace, sexual violence and acid
attacks are some of the other manifestations of gender disparity. Discrimination against the
girl child and adolescent girls are a common sight in many parts of our society. Women are
subject to 'honor killings' they are denied their basic rights to education and freedom, and face
violence and abuse. Girls continue to face educational deprivation at all levels of education –
primary, secondary and higher education. There exists a wide gender gap in literacy. More
girls than boys continue to drop out of school at an early age. The general perception about
the girl child is reflected clearly in a Tamil proverb “having a daughter is like watering a
flower in the neighbour’s garden”. Such backwardness acts as an inhibiting factor for
recognizing the importance of educating the girl child. Poverty is another constraining factor
that hinders education of the girl child. Lack of infrastructure and basic amenities like toilets
is also one of the major constraining factor preventing parents from sending their girls to
school.
Women deprived of education and decision making power in the home face serious
constraints in rearing healthy, productive children. They are made to submit to male authority
and domination. The economic dependence of women upon their husbands also fosters and
reinforces their psychological dependence, leaving them with little bargaining and decision-
making power in the domestic and marital sphere. The wife is not at liberty to exercise her
reproductive rights, including the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of her
children which are often subjected to the pleasure of the husband. Women have to bear the
brunt of domestic violence, often associated with marital relationships. This leaves them in
traumatised state. Besides this, women are denied rights to inheritance over husband's
property and rights to maintenance in case of a divorce.They also tend to have more children
than they wish, compounding the pressures on themselves and their family.
Now i will highlight Gender inequality in economic sphere.
Gender Inequality in Economic Sphere
Gender inequality can also be seen in case of employment. Women in India are
primarily responsible for child care and household responsibilities. The size and
composition of female labour force are a reflection of their overall submerged socio-
economic status. A majority of women are to be found in the vast rural and urban
unorganized sector. According to an Estimate by the National Commission on Self-
Employed women, 94% of the total female workforce operates within this highly
exploited sector. They work longer hours than men, but are usually paid less and are more
likely to remain subservient and dependent upon men. The differences in the work patterns of
men and women, and the invisibility of women's work leads to lower entitlements to women
than to men.It is frequently suggested that poverty has a female face, i.e., that the vast
majority of the world’s poor are women. There is a higher unemployment rate of women as
compared to men, lower incomes and more employment in informal types of jobs for
women.The economic dependence of women upon men puts them at a high disadvantage
especially with regard to their bargaining power. Lack of income and absolute economic
independence of women reduces their decision making power within the family. The plight of
the working women is more deplorable as along with their professional work they are still
bound to meet their domestic responsibilities and thus bear a double work burden. Whatever
the earnings of working women, they seldom own their earnings, which conventionally
belong to their husbands. The inequalities that women face in economic participation bear an
adverse impact upon their self-esteem and status in the society.
Gender Inequality in the Workplace
Gender inequalities within the workplace are not difficult to find. Women are less likely than
men to hold paid and regular jobs and are over-represented in the informal economy, which
provides little financial security and few social benefits. Fewer women than men own
businesses and employ others. Worldwide, over 60 per cent of people-working in family
enterprises without pay are women. Women are employed in higher numbers in the informal
sector and hence much of their productive output goes unrecorded. Numerous factors like
illiteracy, lower educational attainments, lack of skill development, and the social and cultural
barriers act as obstacles to women's participation in formal employment. The high frequency
of women in the informal sector is a direct reflection of their lack of access to formal avenues
of employment.
Women’s professional employment tends to be concentrated in the so-called “Caring
Professions” (those like education, welfare and health that involve dealing specifically with
people, as opposed to finance, manufacturing and so forth).Large numbers of woman find
full-time employment in various low-skill, repetitive jobs (assembly work, packaging and the
like).Women are less likely to secure higher paying jobs for a variety of reasons, including
discriminatory stereotyping and because they are less available for full-time work due to
greater family responsibilities.
In most countries, there are significant gender differences in employment, salary and working
conditions. Women’s employment tends to be concentrated in certain sectors and in lower-
status group, and thereby lower-paid, jobs .
Now let us understand how lack of decision making power for women results in deprivations
and exploitation.
Gender Inequality in Political sphere
As per United Nations General Assembly resolution of 2011 on women’s political
participation in every part of the world continues to be largely marginalized from the political
sphere, because of discriminatory laws, practices, attitudes and gender stereotypes, Women
face several obstacles in participating in political life. Structural barriers, discriminatory laws
and institutions limit the options available to women to compete or contest for public office.
Many studies have suggested that women, as compared to men, are less likely to possess
adequate education, links and resources needed to become effective leaders. In some of the
countries, particularly in South Asia, women also face cultural constraints on their mobility.
The mechanisms of sex segregation and purdah are used to restrict their mobility. They are
denied opportunities to participate in the decision-making process.
After India attained independence, its Constitution guaranteed equal status for men and
women in all political, social and economic spheres. Part III of the Constitution guarantees
the fundamental rights of men and women. Any Indian citizen who is registered as a voter and
is over 25, can contest elections to the lower house of Parliament (Lok Sabha) or the state
legislative assemblies; for the upper house (Rajya Sabha) the minimum age is 30. Articles 325
and 326 of the Constitution guarantee political equality and the right to vote. In 1992, the
73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution provided for reservation of one-third of the
total number of seats for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and municipal bodies.
The amendment intended to improve women’s participation in decision-making at the
grassroots.
Women's participation in formal politics in India reveals that there has been a marked
increase in their voting turnout and election campaigning. While there have been significant
gains in these two areas, women continue to be under-represented in legislative bodies both at
the national and state level and in political parties.The history of electoral representation in
India shows that the proportion of women representation, particularly at the national
legislature has been low as compared to the total strength of the parliament. Although
women’s participation as voters in elections has increased significantly, the data on women’s
representation in both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha suggests that the proportion of women
representatives has remained low in comparison to their male counterparts. The highest
proportion of women representatives elected to the Lok Sabha so far was in the 2019
elections, and it was less than 15 percent of total membership.
A gender gap is increasingly seen at the level of contestation, political parties, and allocation
of ministerial portfolios. Cultural barriers and patriarchy still stagnate women’s participation
in the political spectrum and democratic governance. The higher level of responsibility in
household activities impedes more women to seek a career in politics for longer terms. In
most cases, to have further social skills and communication in society, women are required to
affiliate with a political party and in their activities, which sometimes seems to be an
additional commitment for them to obey or act according to the party interests. The lack of
sufficient financial stability inhibits women leaders from focusing on establishing their space
in politics. Patriarchy and gender segregation for higher political powers, even after
working for party activities for many years, is an essential catalyst for hindering women
from maintaining their compliance in politics. Various forms of gender-based violence
against women in politics in the form of verbal harassment, challenges in personal
dignity, and sexism restrain women from progressing in political participation. Finally, since
the co-operation of male colleagues is an integral part of successful governance, women
representatives tend to adopt various mechanisms for increasing mutual trust. Thus patriarchy
and socio-economic marginalisation have driven women into the backwaters of politics.
Patriarchy as a system of male domination shapes women’s relationship in politics. Male
domination of politics, political parties and culture of formal political structures hinders
women’s political participation.
Indeed the role of women in public life is limited to casting votes during the elections or
contesting as proxy candidates. Even when the decisions concern their well-being and
everyday lives, they remain only as passive observers. Women and their issues are by and
large considered apolitical. Such bias causes and affects women’s political under-
representation.
I would like to conclude by saying that gender inequality exists in India,due to discriminatory
social norms and cultural practices as a result India has been ranked poorly on various indices
of gender disparity. These are manifested in family affairs, economic participation and
opportunities and political field. Many households still today favour a son over a daughter and
desire a male child. Sons are valued more than daughters in terms of economic, political, and
religious considerations. These discriminatory practices are so strongly imbibed that these
become part and parcel of economic and political field.