CHAPTER – III

GENDER INEQUALITY IN THE LIGHT OF CHILD SEX RATIO IN INDIA AND

HARYANA
 Gender is defined by the set of characteristics that distinguish between masculinity
and femininity. The distinguishing characteristics not only include the biological sex
classification, but are also determined by the social structures. “Gender” as a grammatical
term has been in use since the origin of grammar, but the socio-cultural and economic
construct of “Gender” is a more recent invention. The social distinguishing characteristic for
a gender creates social expectations that need to be fulfilled so as to be accepted as a “male”
or “female” in a society and this determines the access to rights, resources and position
available to respective genders in a society. The very specific nature of these distinguishing
characteristics, and social structure and expectation vary greatly from culture to culture and
society to society, but in most cases they tend to favour men leading to an imbalance within
gender in most societies termed as “Gender Inequality”. Gender inequality has a great impact
on lives, resulting in unequal opportunities especially for the women.

Gender inequality in India still continues to be an issue of great concern. The

Constitution of India guarantees gender equality and no discrimination against anyone in any
form whatsoever. In spite of all the policy support and legal frameworks laid down by the
government, and the rapid transformation of the socio-economic conditions; the traditional
patriarchal norms and customs have relegated women to a secondary status. In India, women
start to face discrimination prior to their births and continue to fight discrimination
throughout their lives. The way of life is very different for the girls, while the boys enjoy
greater freedom and opportunities; girls have restrictions to move freely, and this affects their
access to education, work and social lives. Women have to face discrimination in every age
and stage of life beginning with their infancy, childhood to adolescence and adulthood. Status
of women in India can be seen in four stages of life viz. in mother’s womb/ as an infant, as a
child, after marriage and if not as a widow.

Gender discrimination is prevalent even before a child is born into this world. Sex
selective abortion is still practiced in many parts of India where the gender of the foetus is
determined through Pre Natal Sex determination techniques. If the child is found to be a girl,
pregnancy is terminated through abortion. Pre Natal Sex Determinations has been banned by
the Government of India through the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques
(PCPNDT) Act, 1994. In spite of the strict regulations in force, sex determination continues
to be a widely practiced form of gender based discrimination even prior to birth and is the
major cause of declining sex ratio. Another form of gender discrimination prior to birth is
preference towards a male child. Son preference exists in all communities. The birth of a son
is warmly welcomed; among various social reasons one being the son is seen as a future
financial prospect, and the girl being seen as a future financial liability. It has been widely
noticed in many cases that if the parents have their first child as a son, they are reluctant to
have future kids, cause of the fear of a girl child. And in some cases, if the first child is a girl,
the fear for a second girl child still boggles them and they are reluctant to have future kids.
This antipathy for a girl child has been the prime reason that pre-natal sex determination
continues to be practiced on a large scale. Sex selective abortion has had very serious
implications for the child sex ratio in the Indian society. Female infanticide and abandonment
of female children are other common practices of prior birth gender discrimination that were
widely prevalent in our society until some recent past.

Discrimination against a girl child continues in the form of relatively restricted

access to nutrition, health care and education as compared to a male child. The male child
enjoys much more freedom in movement and access to education, health care and nutrition
when compared to a girl child. In the event of limited food or financial resources, an uneven
allocation of resources among children of two sexes is a common feature of Indian society
and is a major factor contributing to high rates of malnutrition among girls and low literacy
rates among females especially in the rural areas. Malnutrition among women has further
adverse consequences for the society which is rarely thought about. The delayed and retarded
physical growth and prevalence of anaemia are some adverse effects of malnutrition. Poor
health involves greater risk for a pregnant woman leading to poor health of the new born
infants and causing high maternal and infant deaths. Low literacy levels among women have
been one of the major causes of disempowerment among women.

India is still largely a rural society where parents are reluctant to provide quality
education to girls. It is a widespread belief that girls should learn and skill themselves with
domestic activities which would enable them to serve and live a secure life with their future
husband and his family. This precedence over formal education has been the major reason
for low levels of awareness among women and a major cause for complete disempowerment
of one specific gender. In addition, schools are not sufficiently equipped with facilities
specifically required for the girl students. The parents generally do not want to send their
daughters to distant places for education. The prevalence of such mindset in the society
leading to selective bias towards a girl child has resulted in very low literacy levels especially
among the females; contributing to low literacy ranking of India and specifically low female
literacy levels. The government does conduct programmes to increase awareness and promote
education of a girl child, but lacks greatly in execution. Low literacy among women translates
into some direct disadvantage for their young children as well. Lack of education also
influences their utilization of health care facilities for themselves as well as their children.
And high level of poverty adds to the problem further limiting access to health care and
education and social benefits. All these factors collectively result in high infant and child
mortality rate, and high levels of malnutrition in India. The lack of awareness for proper
hygiene and benefits of child immunizations, as a result of low literacy levels is widely
prevalent in the rural India.

In a patriarchal set-up of society, the status of women is highly restricted to their

homes. Their domain of responsibilities includes mostly taking care of the household
activities, aged members of the family and the children. Women are deemed to live in the
custody of men, where men take decisions and women are expected to follow them. As a
child, the parents and the grandparents are the custodian of the girl child, and especially the
father rules her fate. Later in life, after her wedding, the husband becomes the sole custodian,
and makes decisions to be sincerely followed by the girl. The sole responsibility of the girl is
limited to maintaining the house and raising her children. The patriarchal society makes men
as the main decision makers in the household, and the women have to abide by their
decisions. Women are generally not part of the decision making process, confining them to
their limited role in the household and society. As a result of no participation in the decision
making process and limited consideration of the opinions of women, the status of women is
highly degraded resulting in incidents like honour killings and dowry related domestic
violence. As per the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), 15129 cases of dowry deaths
have been recorded in 2016.

As mentioned, gender inequality has adverse effects in almost every part of the
society and the economy. In this study, we are focusing on the demographic manifestation of
gender inequality. Demographic data and studies are driven by indicators and parameters.
These Demographic indicators like the different sex ratios help us understand the affect of
gender inequality on the overall population.
 The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. Sex ratio varies with the
age of population taken in to consideration. The adult sex ratio determines the ratio of males
to females in an adult population. Adult sex ratio is highly affected by the rate of migration
which is very high among adults. The adult male population migrates mostly to cities in
search of job opportunities and to pursue higher education, which is less for the adult female
population. The adult female population migrates after marriage from rural to rural or rural to
town or town to rural. According to Census of India reports, the migration among adult
female population highly affects the Adult sex ratio. Hence, the Adult sex ratio due to the
migration among adult population is not an accurate indicator of gender inequality.

Child Sex Ratio is the ratio of number of females to males in the age group of 0-6.
Chid Sex Ratio may be more accurate indicator than overall sex ratio because it is not
affected by migration. Child sex ratio is bound to a particular age limit of 0-6 age group of
male and female child. In this age group migration of the population is on a small scale.
Hence, Child sex ratio can be considered as an accurate indicator to study gender inequality
prevalent in demography under consideration.

Sex Ratio at birth is determined by the number of girls born to every thousand boys.
Sex ratio at birth is an important and much accurate indicator to analyze the demographic
manifestation of gender inequality as it is recorded at the time of birth and is not affected by
factors like migration.

In this study, we are focusing on Sex Ratio at Birth to understand gender inequality in
India and in the state of Haryana.

A proper understanding of the historical background on the status of women is

necessary so as to clearly identify the demographic manifestation of gender inequality. Social
and psychological factors develop over a period of time, which outlines the characters and
range of responsibilities specific to a gender, leading to gender inequality and the extent of
gender inequality prevalent in demography under consideration. Here we discuss the status of
women in a historical context beginning from ancient India to the post independence India.
3.1 Status of Women in India in the past:

The status of women is the assessment of her position and rights in the societal
structure. It represents her position as an individual in the society by virtue of her being a
woman. In gender comparative studies, the status of a woman is analyzed as compared to the
respective amount of rights, benefits and freedom entrusted to a man. The status of women in
Indian society has undergone several changes throughout the course of history. There have
been periods where women were liberated and there have been times where women were
oppressed. Every period in the Indian history has its own history on the status of women,
beginning from when they were considered as deities in the house during the Vedic Period
and times when they were subjected to evil practices like “Sati” in the medieval period. The
status of women underwent a drastic deterioration in the post-Vedic period, and the same
continued till the medieval period. Social reformers in the pre-independence India came
forward to improve the status of women but it did not make any substantial change in the
already deteriorated status of women. The post-independence period has witnessed
significant improvement in the status of women with growing awareness about their human
and constitutional rights.

The Vedic period is often termed as the “Golden age” for women, where they were
celebrated, respected and worshipped. In the Vedic Period (2000-500 BCE) women enjoyed
equal rights and privileges along with men. They both had equal status and rights in all
aspects of life. The works of ancient Indian scholars like Patanjali and Katyayana reveal that
women had right to education in the early Vedic period. The oldest epic Rigveda suggested
that women were free to choose their partners through a social practice called Swayamvar or
live in relationship called Gandharva marriage. Women enjoyed a fair amount of freedom
and equality in the Vedic period. The Vedic society might best be termed as the period of
feminine glory and prestigious life. The Aryans evidently preferred male child to female
child. However, females were as free as their male counterparts. According to this quotation
from Vedic literature, “With great effort and care, a child should also be brought up and
taught.” it celebrates the birth of a daughter and the importance of educating a girl child as
part of her growth as an individual.

It was in the post-Vedic period that the status of women suffered a setback for the
first time while the men were granted more privileges. Under the influence of Manusmiriti,
the status of women declined considerably and the status and privileges of men were raised.
The birth of a daughter began to be considered as a curse for the father. The birth of a son
was an occasion for rejoice for all while the birth of a daughter became inauspicious. In Post-
Vedic period, women had no right to education and property which was earlier regarded as an
essential norm in the Vedic period.

The Medieval period (6th century to 18th century) witnessed further deterioration in the
status of women. This was a period when India faced foreign conquests especially by the
Muslim invaders from central Asia and the consequent establishment of Muslim rule in India.
They brought about significant changes in the Indian society. Social practices like “Purdah
System” which is seclusion of women from the public by covering their faces inspired from
the Muslims and “Jauhar”, a practice of self immolation of women to save their dignity from
foreign invaders were introduced in the 10th century. The social evils like “sati”, self
immolation of a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre and child marriage were widely
practiced. The practice of polygamy was prevalent among Hindu “Kshatriyas” (a class in
Hindu society who are warriors), but it was not uniformly practiced among other Hindus
during this period. Polyandry was also practiced in some societies during this period.

The status of women during the early days of British Rule in India was at its lowest
levels with hardly a woman in hundred being able to read or write. Evil practices,
superstitions and sinister customs had deteriorated the status of women to its lowest levels.
After centuries of oppression and degradation until the nineteenth century, many social
reformers raised awareness against the social evils that had relegated the status of women.
Social reformers such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule and Raja Ram Mohan
Roy led social movements to empower women. The passage of 1856 Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act, as a result of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's initiatives, was a positive step
towards improvement of status of women in India. In 1829, the efforts of Raja Rammohan
Roy and Governor-General William Cavendish-Bentinck led to the abolition of Sati. Jyotirao
Phule, an eminent social reformer from Maharashtra, worked towards promoting women,
particularly of lower castes, to the ambit of modern education. He and his wife were among
the pioneers of female education and established the first school for girls in Pune in 1848. P C
Sarkar, founded the first school for girls that provided free education in 1847 at Calcutta.
(Later the school was renamed to Kalikrishna Girls' High School). In south India a
missionary Martha Mault née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault lead
movements to promote education among the girls. Sarojini Naidu and Pandita Ramabai were
also among the leading female social reformers campaigning against the social evils that
degraded the status of women. With every social reform programs challenging the existing
social norms there were resistance by the locals, but these movements carved the way for
liberating women from existing social evils and religious taboos.

Post independence of India from the British rule, status of women has changed
significantly. However, women still do not have complete freedom to make choices for their
lives. It is particularly worse in rural areas. In urban areas the situation has undergone a
continuous change and women are more advanced and enjoy greater freedom than their
counterparts in rural areas. The Constitution of India guarantees women equal rights with
men, but the society especially in the rural parts continues to be largely dominated by males.
The demographic manifestations of persisting gender inequality continue to be a matter of
great concern. Demographic indicators like overall sex ratio or child sex ratio is equally
imbalanced and continues to decline in both urban and rural areas. The situation is further
more alarming in some of the developed states like Haryana and Punjab. In recent times there
has been a drastic improvement in the level of education among females. Sex ratio has
declined continuously despite several policy measures and awareness programs launched by
central and state governments. Beti Bachao-Beti Padao (Save the Girl and Educate the Girl)
is one such programme initiated by the central government but it is still far from achieving
the goals of equal rights and empowering women. The women continue to have limited
access to basic rights of speech, expression and education. Though the status of women
continues to be appalling, there have been remarkable achievements by women in modern
India. Today women participate actively in politics and contest election for various positions
in the central and state government. The presence of women can be noticed in every field and
profession from army to administrative jobs to private corporate jobs to being doctors and
lawyers. Modern India has had women holding prime positions like the President and Prime
Minister of India.

Gender inequality prevalent in modern India has deep historical roots. The social
norms and cultural practices limiting the status of women have existed for centuries now. As
stated earlier, gender inequality is a result of various rules set by the society to identify and
determine the role of a gender and in case of a male dominated Indian society it has clearly
resulted in the subordinate condition of women.
3.2 Trends of Sex Ratio in India:

Sex ratio is defined as the ratio of number of males to number of females. Globally,
sex ratio is calculated as the total number of males per 100 females. In India, the Census of
India defines sex ratio as the number of females per 1000 males. India is one of the few
countries in the world where males outnumber females. An imbalance in the sex ratio
denotes gender inequality. Gender inequality refers to a disparity between the male and
female population. Gender inequality has serious implications to the society, economy and
the population of a country, and hence it is matter of concern. Demographers take gender
inequality seriously, as it is one of the major indicators denoting the well being of a
population. Sex ratio is a significant parameter to measure the gender inequality of any
society at a given point of time. Gender inequality (Declining sex ratio) on large scale reflects
social and cultural variations of a society. Determinants of changes in sex ratio vary from sex
differentials in mortality, sex selective migration, sex ratio at birth, and at times, sex
differentials in population enumeration.

The first census of India was conducted in 1872 in an asynchronous manner and the
first synchronous census was conducted in 1881. Since the first census in 1881 to the latest
census conducted in 2011, sex ratio has been declining continuously. There have been two
times when sex ratio increased few points, firstly in 1951 census (1 point increase) and
secondly in 1981 (4 point increase). These were the only two times when sex ratio increased;
else through all Census beginning from 1881 until the latest 2011, the trends reveal the ratio
in favour of men than women. Although statistic experts do not consider the one point
increase of 1981 census as an increase in sex ratio, they refer to it as a ‘statistical
phenomenon’. Raju and Premi (1992:911) described it as a misplacement of statistical data.

The census of India is being conducted since 1881 after every 10 years in different
stages simultaneously throughout the country. There were only 9 points increase in the sex
ratio from 1881 (954) to 1901 (963) census. But since 1901 the sex ratio has seen gradual
decline except for the 1951 and 1981 census. The sex ratio according to the 1901 census was
954 and according to 2011 census was 933; a decline of 21 points in a century. Child sex
ratio in the age group of 0-6 years noted a serious drop of 50 points in some states in the past
one decade only. The data published reveals that child sex ratio in states like Haryana,
Punjab, Delhi and Rajasthan had alarming levels of gender based inequality when compared
to the overall child sex ratio. The special pattern analysis of north western states of India,
Haryana, Punjab and the Union Territory of Delhi and Chandigarh show huge gender gap
between male to female population. The 1991 census of India recorded little improvement in
the overall sex ratio at the national level, but the north western states had a vital decline in
sex ratio. The child sex ratio (0-6 age groups) during 1991 to 2001 has substantially declined
in these north-western states by a point of more than 50. The highest number decline was
recorded in Punjab (82 points) while Haryana recorded a decline of 60 points. The decline in
numbers showing huge gap in gender population is matter of serious concern and requires
intensive attention. (Premi, 2001: 1876).

Table: 3.1 Trends of Sex Ratio in India, 1901-2011

Sex Ratio
Year of Census Total Urban Rural

1901 972 910 979

1911 964 872 975
1921 955 846 970
1931 950 838 966
1941 945 831 965
1951 946 860 965
1961 941 845 963
1971 930 858 949
1981 934 880 952
1991 927 893 939
2001 933 901 946
2011 940 927 947
Source: Census of India, 1901-2011
 India
Trends of Sex Ratio
Urban and Rural
920
Number of Females per 1000 of Males

900
880
860
840
820
800
780
760
740
720
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Census

India Urban Rural

Source: Based on table 3.1 Fig 3.1

The table 3.1 indicates continue decline in overall sex ratio of India in the last century. In
1901, the sex ratio of India was 972 females per thousand males, but in 2011, it was 940
females per thousand males, a total decline of 32 points within a century. The recent census
(1991-2011) recorded some gradual increase in sex ratio as a result of government initiatives
showing some positive signs. The condition in rural areas continues to be appalling with a
huge decline of 32 points recorded between 1901 to 2011 census. But in the urban locations
from 1961 to 2011 census, there is continue increase. The sex ratio is higher than the national
average in the rural areas in contrast to urban areas where the sex ratio is lower than the
national average. The declining sex ratio has adverse impact in the respective areas resulting
in social crimes like increase in domestic violence, trafficking of girls from different states
and sexual crimes.
3.3 Trends of Sex Ratio in Haryana:

Haryana is one of the developed states of India with considerable economic and
agricultural development. But the state has lowest sex ratio in India according to 2011 census.
The sex ratio of Haryana was 879 in 2011 and it was 861 in 2001. The existing social norms
and practices like son preference, dowry system, female foeticide and infanticide have
resulted in low sex ratio of the state. It is to be noted that there is high level of misuse of
modern technologies like amniocentesis for prenatal sex determination in the state. The
Union and the Haryana state government have undertaken policy changes and launched
initiatives to protect and empower the female child in order to balance the sex ratio. The
Prime Minister of India launched “Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao” movement first in Panipa, a
city of Haryana in January of 2015. There are numerous other schemes for the female child in
Haryana like ‘Devi Rupak Yojna’ that focus in improving the plight of girl child in the state.
In spite of the policy support and initiatives the condition of women has not shown much
improvement in the state. In Haryana, there has been an increase of 18 points in the sex ratio
during 2001 to 2011 censuses, but the continuous decline of Child Sex Ratio is a subject of
grave concern.

Table no. 3.2: Trends of Sex Ratio: Haryana (1901-2011)

Census Years Sex Ratio
Total Rural Urban
1901 867 908 861
1911 835 842 834
1921 844 811 848
1931 844 792 851
1941 869 806 879
1951 871 845 877
1961 868 842 874
1971 867 853 870
1981 870 849 876
1991 865 868 864
2001 861 847 866
2011 879 873 882
Source: Census of India (1901-11)

Haryana
Trends of Sex Ratio
Urban and Rural
920
900
Number of Females per 1000 Males

880
860
840
820
800
780
760
740
720
1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Census

Haryana Urban Rural

Source: Based on table 3.2 Fig 3.2

Table 3.2 represents a comparison between the sex ratio of rural and urban areas of Haryana.
The total sex ratio moved by 12 points (867 in 1901 and 879 in 2011) as per the census data
recorded between the years 1901 and 2011. The sex ratio in Haryana attained several high
and lows as seen in the graph during this period of 110 years. There is also an increase of 21
points in urban areas of state from 1901 to 2011. But there is a huge decline of 35 points in
rural locations in the state during same time period. During the same period the sex ratio
declined at an alarming rate on national as well as state levels. India reported 872 females per
one thousand males in 1901 whereas it was 867 in Haryana. However, post independence of
India from the British rule there were only two incidents where sex ratio increased (1981 by 3
points and 2011 by 18 points) otherwise in this 60 years period, the sex ratio recorded
systematic decline. The minor increase in the sex ratio noted during the last decade was a
result of awareness programmes by the central and respective state governments and also due
to strict regulations of prenatal sex determination and pregnancy termination.

Table: 3.3 Trends in the Deficit of Females in Haryana’s Population (Absolute Number)
1901-2001
Census Year Population Deficit of Average Annual
Male Female Females Rate of Growth
1901 276390 2146674 329716 -
1911 2274909 1899768 375141 1.4
1921 2307985 1947907 360078 -0.4
1931 2473228 2086689 386539 0.7
1941 2821783 2451046 370737 -0.4
1951 3031612 2641985 389627 0.5
1961 4062787 3527737 535050 3.7
1971 5377044 4659387 717657 3.4
1981 6909679 6012440 897239 2.5
1991 8827474 7636174 1191300 3.3
2001 11363953 9780611 1583342 3.3
Source: Census of India, 1901-2001

Table 3.3 represents the data of deficit females in absolute numbers in Haryana from 1901 to
2001. The data indicates deficit of females was only 1.4 (1911) at average annual growth rate
which increased at 3.3 in 2001. It shows the value of girl child and her rearing procedure in
the state.
Map No 3.1
 Table: 3.4 Trends in Sex Ratio in Haryana by Age Groups, 1961-2001
Census Age Groups
Year 0-4 5-9 10-14 0-14 15+ 30+ 55+ All Ages
Total
1961 939 874 864 895 839 796 672 864
1971 921 855 850 875 859 836 689 867
1981 922 874 865 886 859 865 780 870
1991 887 880 845 871 861 874 930 865
2001 817 835 868 841 872 912 984 861
Rural
1961 939 869 862 893 856 804 658 872
1971 924 850 835 870 869 841 674 870
1981 921 868 861 882 872 879 762 876
1991 885 879 841 869 861 884 915 864
2001 821 842 876 847 878 923 975 866
Urban
1961 937 900 875 906 772 760 746 825
1971 905 881 926 904 817 815 769 853
1981 925 897 884 901 820 819 856 849
1991 892 884 859 878 863 848 987 868
2001 805 815 846 844 844 881 889 847
Source: Census of India, 1961-2001
Note: Data for the year 1961 have been obtained by clubbing the 7 districts of erstwhile
undivided Punjab.

Table 3.4 states the sex ratio data for various age-groups in Haryana. The age-groups are
divided according to the data published by the census of India between 1961 and 2001 stating
the urban and rural sex ratio with respect to different age groups. The sex ratio for 0-4 year
age group has declined continuously from 1961 to 2001 in both urban and rural areas of the
state. The sex ratio for all the other age groups has declined with minor increase in an
intermittent time period; overall there is a decrease of 6 points in rural areas, where as the
urban areas show an increase of 22 points in the same time period.
3.4 Trends of Child Sex Ratio in India and Haryana:

Child sex ratio is a crucial social indicator of a developed society. Child sex ratio not
only represents the number of females as compared to males which denotes the gender status,
but it also enables to predict the future profile of a society like marriage rates, age
composition and migration. A low child sex ratio in any society can be an indicator of sinister
social practices like female foeticide or female infanticide that is causing gender inequality.
In an ideal situation, CSR should be 105 to 106 males per 100 females as exhibited in the
CSR of developed countries. Any imbalance in the child sex ratio can have adverse impact on
the society. India is one of those few nations were the child sex ratio is very alarming. The
trend in deficit of female child has been recorded since the enumeration of first census of
India in 1881 until the latest census in 2011. But it has been observed that in the last two
decades the difference between the overall sex ratio and the child sex ratio has been more
than 150 points in some states which is very alarming. The situation is gravely critical in the
states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Union Territory of Delhi; as a matter of fact these
states are developed compared to most states in terms of per capita income, infrastructure and
literacy rate.

As per the Census of India data from 2001 to 2011, the overall sex ratio had
increased by 7 points, but the child sex ratio has decreased by 13 points from 927 in 2001 to
914 in 2011. The Government of India along with the state governments framed policies and
launched programmes and schemes to close the gender gap and promote equality among
genders, and also laid down strict regulations for pregnancy termination and prenatal sex
determination but the child sex ratio continues to ring the alarm. As said by the census
commissioner, “One thing is clear-the imbalance that has set at early age group is difficult to
be removed and would remain to haunt the population for a long time come”. Gender
inequality in India and the existing social gender bias towards males has been a matter of
concern for many decades among scholars and researchers at the national and sub national
level and as noted in the works of Miler (1981), Sen (1990), Desgupata and Bhat (1995),
Agnihorari (2000); since the numerical imbalance were pointed out by Visaria (1971) and
Natrajan (1972). Bardhan (1982) mentioned that sociological, ecological, cultural and
historical causes are some factors behind the low child sex ratio.
 The Child sex ratio is not influenced by sex selective migration because migration
in this age group normally occurs with the family. Sex ratio among children is therefore
considered a better indicator of gender relations and the status of girl child in a population.
When child sex ratio is lower than the overall sex ratio, it indicates gender inequality and in
most cases the society being male biased, it indicates low birth of a girl child and it can be
due to the sinister practices like female foeticide and female infanticide. The main factors that
determine the child sex ratio are sex ratio at the birth and sex differential of mortality rate
among children. The prime reasons for the declining child sex ratio in India and particularly
in states like Haryana, Punjab and Delhi are sex selective abortion, differential in mortality
rate of children and a high son preference. The child sex ratio of these states was close to the
national average but it has particularly degraded in the last two decades. As mentioned
earlier, migration doesn’t play any role here, so can this decline be related to change in sex
ratio at birth? “Sex ratio in the age group 0-6 years depends primarily on sex ratio at birth and
sex differentials in mortality of infants and children. Differential under count may also
sometimes result in spurious imbalance in sex ratio. However, the same has undergone
decrease over time, and can’t explain the recent decline in child sex ratio by such a margin
(Premi, 2001: 1876)”.

Table 3.5: Child Sex Ratio in States of India (1991-2011)

India/ States 1991 2001 2011

India 945 927 914
Delhi 915 868 867
Haryana 879 819 830
Punjab 875 798 846
Himachal Pradesh 951 896 906
Uttarakhand 949 908 886
J&K NA 941 859
Rajasthan 916 909 883
Chhattisgarh 984 975 964
M.P. 941 932 912
U.P. 927 916 899
Bihar 953 942 933
 Jharkhand 979 965 943
Orissa 967 953 934
West Bengal 967 960 950
Arunachal Pradesh 982 964 960
Assam 975 965 957
Manipur 974 957 934
Meghalaya 986 973 970
Mizoram 969 964 972
Nagaland 993 964 944
Sikkim 965 963 944
Tripura 967 966 953
Goa 964 938 920
Gujarat 928 883 886
Maharashtra 946 913 883
Andhra Pradesh 975 961 943
Karnataka 960 946 943
Kerala 958 960 960
Tamil Nadu 948 942 946
Source: Census of India, 1991, 2001, 2011

Table no 3.5 shows the pattern of child sex ratio of different states in India. The CSR of India
declined by 31 points from 1991 (945) to 2011 (914). The rate at which CSR declines is
much more in the north Indian states of Haryana and Punjab and the Union Territory of
Delhi. The major causes of this trend are son preference and misuse of amniocentesis
technology prevalent in these areas. In Haryana, there was 60 point decline from 1991 to
2001. There was a declining pattern of CSR in most of the states of India, except in two states
of Kerala and Mizoram where CSR increased by 2 and 3 points respectively, as published by
the Census of India from 1991 to 2011.
 Table 3.6: India: Range of Child Sex Ratio (1991-2011)

Value Number of States/Union Territories

1991 2001 2011

Below-900 3 6 11

900-950 9 11 14

Above 950 22 18 10

34 35 35

Source:-Census of India, General Population Tables of 1991, 2001, 2011

Table 3.6 lists the number of states and union territories according to their sex ratios. In 1991,
there were only 3 states/UTs having their sex ratios below 900, and in 2001 and 2011 the
number of states/UTS falling in this category increased to 6 and 11 respectively. During the
same time period 22 states/UTs had their sex ratios above 950, but in 2001 and 2011 the
number of states/UTs in this category dropped to 18 and 10 respectively. This was a time
period when the Government of India and the respective state governments had launched
schemes and programmes to boost women empowerment and reduce gender inequality, but
gender actually widened and still persists.
 Table 3.7: India and Haryana, Trends in Child Sex Ratio (1991-2011)

India Haryana

Years Sex Ratio Decadal Change Sex Ratio Decadal Change

1991 945 - 879 -

2001 927 -18 819 -60

2011 914 -13 830 11

Source:-Census of India, 2011

Table 3.7 compares the child sex ratios of India and Haryana from 1991 to 2011 and the
decadal change in sex ratio. In India, sex ratio continued to decline, 18 point decrease
between 1991 and 2001 (945 to 927) and 13 point decrease between 2001 and 2011 (927 to
914). During the same time period, Haryana witnessed a huge decline of 60 points from 1991
to 2001 (879 to 819) but there was an increase of 11 points from 2001 to 2011 (819 to 830),
overall the sex ratio of Haryana declined between 1991 and 2011 as can be seen in the table.
Table No. 3.8. Haryana: Districts wise variation in Sex Ratio, Child Sex Ratio (2001-11)
State/ District Sex Ratio Percent (0-6 Population) Sex Ratio (0-6 Popu)

2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011

Haryana 861 877 15.8 13.0 819 830
Panchkula 823 870 14.1 11.7 829 850
Ambala 868 882 13.2 10.9 782 807
Kurukshetra 866 889 14.2 12.0 771 817
Yamunanagar 862 877 14.4 11.8 806 825
Kaithal 853 880 15.4 12.6 791 821
Karnal 865 886 15.1 12.9 809 820
Panipat 829 861 16.4 13.7 809 833
Sonepat 839 853 15.4 12.7 788 790
Jind 852 870 15.8 12.4 818 835
Fatehabad 884 903 16.1 12.6 828 845
Sirsa 882 896 15.0 11.9 817 852
Hisar 851 871 15.5 12.1 832 849
Bhiwani 879 884 15.7 12.6 841 831
Rohtak 847 868 14.5 11.9 799 807
Jhajjar 847 861 15.0 12.1 801 774
Mahendergarh 918 894 15.8 11.9 818 778
Rewari 899 898 15.2 12.5 811 784
Gurgaon 850 853 15.5 13.1 807 842
Faridabad 826 871 15.8 13.2 847 842
Mewat 899 906 25.1 22.3 894 906
Palwal 862 879 20.0 16.5 854 862
Source: Census of India, 2001-2011
 Map: 3.2

Table 3.8 shows the comparison of overall sex ratio and child sex ratio from two censuses
(2001 and 2011). In 2011 census, the child sex ratio and overall sex ratio have increased by
11 and 16 points in Haryana. But when each district is analyzed specifically, it is noticed that
districts like Mewat, Palwal, Ambala and Panchkula have made improvements in the overall
sex ratio and child sex ratio by some point, whereas districts like Jhajjar, Sonepat, Gurugram
and Bhiwani have negative trends.

Table No. 3.9: Child Sex Ratio in Haryana, 1961-2011

Census Year Child Sex Ratio Rural-Urban
Total Rural Urban Differentials
1961 910 N.A. N.A. N.A.

1971 898 899 897 (-2)

(-12) - - -
1981 902 899 912 (-13)
(+4) (00) (+15)
1991 879 878 884 (-6)
(-23) (-21) (-28)
2001 819 823 808 (+15)
(-60) (-55) (-76)
2011 830
(+11)
Source: 1. Census of India, 2001, Paper 2, pp. 44-48
2. Census of India, 1971, Series 6, Part ii-6, Table C-5
3. Premi, 2001
Note: Figure in Parentheses is the decadal change.

Table 3.8 represents the data of differential in child sex ratio in urban and rural Haryana from
1961 to 2011. As per the 1961 census CSR of Haryana was 910 which decreased by 80 points
in 2011 census. From 1961 to 2011 there was continuous decline except for two times in
1981 and 2011 where it increased by 4 and 11 points respectively. CSR declined sharply in
both rural and urban areas. In 2001 the rural-urban differential of CSR was 15 points at 823
for rural and 808 for urban areas. The state of Haryana has the lowest child sex ratio in India,
which raises questions about the socio-cultural values, which are highly responsible for the
gender inequality.
 Table: 3.10 Spatial Pattern of CSR in Haryana, 2011
Sr. High (Above 850) Moderate (800-850) Low (Below 800)
No. District CSR District CSR District CSR
1 Mewat 906 Hisar 849 Sonipat 790
2 Palwal 862 Fatehabad 845 Rewari 784
3 Sirsa 852 Gurugram 842 Mahendergar 778
h
4 Panchkula 850 Faridabad 842 Jhajjar 774
5 Jind 835
6 Paniapt 833
7 Bhiwani 831
8 Yamunanagar 825
9 Kaithal 821
10 Karnal 820
11 Kurukshetra 817
12 Ambala 807
Source: Calculated by author

Table 3.10 represents the spatial pattern of child sex ratio in Haryana. There are only 4
districts that have child sex ratio more than 850, namely; Mewat (906), Palwal (862), Sirsa
(852), Panchkula (850). There are total 12 districts which have moderate child sex ratio
between 800-850; these are in descending order, Hisar (849), Fatehabad (845), Gurugram
(842), Faridabad (842), Jind (835), Panipat (833), Bhiwani (831), Yamunanagar (825),
Kaithal (821), Karnal (820), Kurukshetra (817) and Ambala (807). There are only 4 districts
having low child sex ratio below 800, Sonipat (790), Rewari (784), Mahendergrah (778) and
Jhajjar (774). By analysing the above table and categorization of child sex ratio in Haryana
we can aptly said that only Mewat has child sex ratio above 900. Jhajjar has the lowest CSR
(774) in the state of Haryana.
3.5 Sex Ratio at Birth in Haryana:

Sex ratio at birth (SRB) is conventionally defined as the number of male babies per
100 females during birth, and it varies from 103 to 107. The average figure is, thus, taken as
105 male births to 100 female births. In most of the populations of the world, there is already
a preponderance of male babies over female babies at birth. Evidences indicate a further rise
in masculinity at birth in the country during the recent past. This trend of rising number of
males is more conspicuous in north-western parts of the country especially Haryana. For
instance the sample registration system based estimates of sex ratio in India during the period
1987-90 to 1996-98 indicates a rise from 109.5 to 111.0 i.e. at the rate of 1.37 percent. The
corresponding figures for Haryana are 115.0 and 123.3 respectively implying a growth rate of
well over 7 percent. Such a fast growth in male preponderance at birth is undoubtedly an
indication of female foeticide practices in the state. It is also true that with improvement in
health care facilities, the loss of male foetuses have undergone decline contributing to the rise
in masculinity at birth. However, for a state like Haryana the contribution of this factor is
very much limited.

Although, Haryana ranks very high in terms of the levels of economic development in
the country, the status of women continues to be appalling in the state. The male dominated
social ethos and patriarchal system discriminate against women in a number of ways. There is
a strong preference for a son child because of economic, social and religious reasons
including financial support, old age security, property inheritance, dowry, family lineage,
prestige and power, birth and death rituals and beliefs about religious duties and salvation
(Unisa et al. 2007: 60). A female child is considered as a burden and a liability on the
family’s resources. ‘One manifestation of this discrimination in the past used to be female
infanticide, which has now given way to female foeticide with the advent of prenatal sex
determination techniques (Hassan, 2000). As these facilities are largely concentrated in urban
areas, it is the middle class urban- dwellers who first make use of the technology. Thereafter,
the practice gradually spreads to the rest of the segments of urban population and eventually
penetrates among the affluent groups in the countryside. The urban population, therefore, in
general reflects a lower child sex ratio than its counterpart in the rural areas. Interestingly,
however, the rural-urban differentials in Haryana do not match with this observed pattern
completely. The rural areas were marked with lower child sex ratio up to 1991. It was only at
the time of 2001 census that the ratio in urban areas dipped to a level lower than that in rural
areas. Nevertheless, what is remarkable to note is the fact that the urban areas in the state
have witnessed a distinctly faster decline in child sex ratio over the last two decades. For
instance, between 1981 and 2001, child sex ratio declined by 104 points in urban areas as
against 76 points in rural areas.

There is ample evidence now of the prevalence of the practice of sex selective
abortions in Haryana. Facilities for sex determinant techniques are known to have existed in
this part of the country for over a quarter of century now. Interestingly, the rural areas in the
state report an equally widespread practice of female foeticide. There are evidence of mobile
facilities for sex determinations and termination of pregnancy if the foetus is female,
available in the villages of Haryana (George and Dahiya, 1998). According to a study of six
select villages in Rohtak district of the state by George and Dahiya, the practice is more
prevalent among the upper caste Hindus, and women of this group openly admit the practice
of the same. In another study, Krishnamoorthy (2003) has derived estimates on sex selective
abortions using NFHS-2 data. According to the study, Haryana ranks very high in India in
order of the magnitude of sex selective abortions. In a more recent study, Unisa et al. (2007)
have provided some useful information on, and insights into, the clandestine practice of sex
selective abortions in rural Haryana based on the data on pregnancy history of a sample of
our 2,500 ever married women obtained in the survey of Jind district.

Table No 3.11: Sex Ratio at Birth* and its Differential, India and Haryana, 2001
Sr.No. Census Data Years Sex Ratio at Birth
Haryana India

1981 107.8 102.7

1. 0-2 Age Group Sex Ratio 1991 114.7 105.4

2001 124.2 108.3

Total 127 110.0

Sex Ratio among Children
2. during preceding years of Urban 127 111.0
2001 census
Rural 127 110.0
 Illiterate 120 109.0
Sex Ratio among children
3. of 2001 census by
mother’s education Matriculation 141 115.0
and Above
Total 116 107.0
Sex Ratio among children
4. ever born to women aged Urban 117 113.0
20-34 years, 2001 census
Rural 115 106.0

Source: Bhat and Zavier, 2007

Premi, 2002
*No of male babies per 100 female babies.

Table 3.10 represents the estimates on sex ratio at birth from Census Data of various years. It
also provides data on 0-2 age group child sex ratio and sex ratio by mother’s educational
standard. The Census data show even a wider gap between SRB in Haryana and complete
India. The gap is found to have recorded almost three-fold increase between 1981 and 2001.

Social Structure of Present Haryana:

We have already discussed about the status of women in past as well as in
contemporary India. Here we discuss about the present social structure in the state of
Haryana. According to census 2011 around 69 percent people live in villages in Haryana.
There are total 6759 inhabited villages in the state. There are different cultural groups of
people living in villages, so the size and composition of villages vary from culture to culture.
A village of Khadar region is quite different from Bangar region. Most of the villages are
dominated by one community. There is also caste composition dominance in particular
villages i.e. “A Jat village is different from Rajput village or A Brahman village is different
from Gujjar village, life style i.e. social relations, marriage, functions, celebrations etc. are
still endogamous in caste, marriage within same village is prohibited, because people of a
same village are considered to be of the same descent, majority of people in villages are
divided in social structure like Gotra/Got, during marriages Gotra exogamy is strictly
observed, the gotra of mother, stepmother and grandmother are avoided , Kanyadhan and
dowry system are still practiced in the society” (Dhanknar, 2003: 140-141).
“Agriculture, animal husbandry, pastorals are mainly traditional occupation, land is
the main resource, which is controlled by individual proprietors as against 17.07 percent who
are landowning” (Singh, 1994: xvii). Agriculture economy has undergone significant
transformation during last few decades particularly since the onset of green revolution in mid
of 1960s. The region is rich in its quality of cattle wealth. Milk, butter, ghee and staples food
are main food of people. Various folk songs give its introduction as:
Desa me desh Haryana
Jit dudh dahi ka khana
Haryana remains a rural, traditional society in many ways. In rural community age is
regarded as an important factor for maintaining relation. Therefore, Panchayat comprising of
five elderly persons of the community is highly respected. The system of award and
punishment, commonly known as ‘Hukka-Paani Band’ very much operates. The role of
‘Khap Panchayat’ and ‘Sarva Khap’ has increased with time.

Status of women in Contemporary Haryana:

The patriarchal society of Haryana gives precedence to man over woman. But it varies
from urban to rural society; it is very prevalent in the rural areas. Women are dependent on
men in all aspects of life. It is very common in rural areas that females as a daughter are
dependent on their father and brothers, as a wife on their husbands, as mother on their sons.
Also, women are usually not given importance in family decision making. “The decisions of
the males are binding upon women. They are still not generally allowed to enter the village
Chaupal, where Panchayat customarily sits. The Chaupal being outside the women’s space
symbolizes their complete seclusion, subordination and inferiority” (Chaudhary, 2004: 209).
Even today in Haryana, almost all women in rural areas observe Purdah, veil, Ghunghat or
also known as Dhantata. The girls in rural areas have to cover their heads when travelling
out of their homes, while daughter-in-laws cover their face in the house as well. It symbolizes
the conservative thinking and practices in the society. Even educated girls have to wear veil,
while going to college or university. It shows the harsh patriarchal set-up of society. “The
rural women in Haryana wear probably the longest veil in the country; among other things it
is symbolic of their conservative though process in spite of their high participation in
agriculture” (Singh, 1994: xix). In rural Haryana, in terms of everyday life an average woman
has to take care of much greater activities than a man. Females do the daily household work
along with working in the fields. Women in Haryana are expected to wake up early and are
the last ones to go to the bed; while men hangout in groups, playing cards and chatting
smoking (Hukka). But it cannot be generalised for all castes and communities, like the
Brahmans and Rajputs do not allow their women to go out to work in the fields. Women from
the Jaat community can be seen working in the fields driving bullock or cart loaded with
fodder.

Wife Beating:
Haryana is mainly a rural agrarian society where male dominated culture still has
deep roots. Hence, males are given a higher status and the females are subjugated. This is the
norm in Haryana. Wife beating is a routine matter within a family. It is as if sanctioned by the
society as something not serious. The status of woman vis-a-vis that of a man in rural
Haryana is vividly reflected in some of most famous proverbs in different parts of state. Some
examples are:
(Garri ka Paanchra, Aurat ka Tatnra)
It means that the iron ring of an ox cart wheel and the head of a woman should be beaten to
make it work efficiently.

(Aap Hare, Bahu ko Mare)

A man in fatigue beats his wife.

(Aurat ki Akl Uski Guddi me Hoti He)

The brain of a woman is in her neck.

(Lugai Aadmi ki Juti Ho Sai)

The status of woman is like the shoe of a man.

Punia (1993) has observed that “abusing and wife beating on even minor matters is very
common in the region, according to him the prevalence of wife beating indicates the
subjugated status of women in the society”. The results of NFHS-2 indicate a widespread
acceptance among married women that the beating of a wife by her husband is justified under
some circumstances (NFHS-2, 1998: 50). “Wife beating is routine matter for some, where no
justification is needed, in fact wife beating was considered such a normal activity that no
valid reason or cause was really needed to justify it, it had almost achieved the status of
routine” (Choudhary, 2004: 280).
Status of Woman as Daughter:
There is a strong son preference in rural Haryana. A female child is unwanted and
considered as a curse. The growing daughter is always a cause of stress to her father. Her
chastity, safety-security requires a constant vigil. In addition, the problem to arrange dowry
for the wedding of their female child is a matter of stress for most families. There is a saying
in the local language:
(Baap ke Ghar Beti, Gudar Lapeti)
(Saraswati, 1996: 73)
While in father’s house, the daughter should line with extreme simplicity and should not use
cosmetics and jewellery.

‘Kanyadaan’ is considered an important responsibility in one’s life. It is also connected with

the prestige of a father. It is a widespread belief that one who performs Kanyadaan qualifies
to be in the heavens after death. But in due course, the tradition prescribes for a higher status
and respect to groom’s family.
(Dhe Parai, Aankh Lajjai)
The time the daughter gets engaged, her parents start to experience humility before her in
laws.

(Beti Aisa Dhan Hai, Jo Aate Bhi Rulawe, Jate Bhi Rulawe Hai)
Daughter’s is such a wealth, which makes one weep at birth and while departing from their
parent’s house.

“Early marriage is preferred in rural areas and parents want it soon, from dance-drama known
as swang show numerous rituals and proverbs can be quoted for early marriage and lower
status for girls. For instance, a few lines from ‘Kissa Nal Damayanti’

(Kawari Beti Ghar Pe Rahni, Din Din Dharam Ki Hasi ho Gai)

(Dhankhar, 2001: 73)
When reached puberty if a maiden remains at home, it is considered to be a constant religious
loss.
Polyandry:
Polyandry, widow remarriage and wife purchase practices have been a
part of marriage institution in rural Haryana. The factors that led to such practices were low
sex ratio, emigration of youth (mostly joining the army services) and attempt to avoid
division of land and wealth and lack of resources. Polyandry means the practice of sharing a
woman in common by several brothers. In other words, a woman is married to a family rather
than an individual. “By the end of 19th century a number of British observers had started to
comment on this practice especially in relation to the Jats, Ahirs, Gujjars and Lohars”
(Choudhary, 2004: 112). The polyandry system has resulted into several social evils. People
of these castes and especially from the Jats community had to bear derogatory remarks at
children born to parents belonging to two different castes or groups e.g.:

(Gopi Jat Sunari Ka, Nayadar Jat Chamari Ka)

Gopi of jat caste born from a sunar (goldsmith) caste woman, and Nayadar of jat caste born
from a chamar woman.
Also according to another common saying, it is said that as many as 36 woman of other caste
can be married to jats (36 Jaat Jat ke Khpe Hai).

Widow Remarriage and Wife Purchase:

These are two main practices prevalent in rural Haryana, widow
remarriage and wife purchase. Widow Remarriage also known as Niyoga or Levirate
marriage in Vedic times. In Rigveda, numerous references had been given on Niyoga; when a
woman is married to a man and her husband dies then his brother would take her as his wife.
It is called Karewa, Lata Odhna, Chudeepherna or Chadar Ahadar. After this ceremony of
remarriage, she is allowed to wear coloured clothes and use cosmetics and jewellery, else a
widow has to wear white sari and use not cosmetics and jewellery. It is common among all
castes of Haryana. There is a popular saying:

(Aaja Beti Lele Phere, Yo Nhi to or Bhatere)

Come daughter get married and if he dies there will be many others.

Wife purchase is another practice prevalent in the regions of Punjab and Haryana. “Wife
purchase in prosperous areas of Haryana and Punjab has been in limelight in the wake of
widening gap in the numerical strength of males and females in the marriageable age groups,
due to prosperity, development and shortage of maiden those who cannot afford remain
unmarried and those who can afford go for wife purchase” (Choudhary, 2004).

According to NFHS-2, in Haryana, “the proportion of never married is higher for

males 49 percent than of females 38 percent. It is slightly higher for males in rural areas than
in urban areas. The proportion divorced, separated or deserted is negligible in Haryana and
widowhood is quite limited until the older ages” (NFHS-2, 1998: 17).

Wife purchase from poor backward states (Bihar, UP and West Bengal) is a
common practice these days in Haryana. It is more in rural than urban areas of Haryana. An
article in the daily newspaper mentioned “girls from West Bengal, Orissa, MP, Bihar, UP and
Jharkhand are brought to the state, these girls belong to poor families” (Dainik Bhaskar, April
4, 2004: 10).

“They had been sold to men who could not find wives locally, either because
they were too poor....., these men belonged to a society where females are reportedly missing
and where the sex ratio recorded in successive censuses is remarkably skewed” (Blanchet,
2005: 306).

Thus as a consequence of low sex ratio, the adverse effects of gender

inequality have exposed the social failures and sinister practices like wife purchase,
polyandry, auction of women and trafficking of girls. Now in some regions of the state,
parents are pressurising for exchange type of marriages (reciprocal marriage).

Son Preference in Haryana:

The major objective of marriage is to beget legal children. The basic
desire of man and biological root of the family is the perpetuity of his race. The patriarchal
society of is male dominated, gives authority to men over women. So, sons are preferred in
place of daughters due to some social and religious reasons. The qualitative information on
son preference can be verified from the structural evidences such as religious beliefs, folk
songs, proverbs, rituals, rites, roles assigned etc.

In Rigveda, “the father was anxious for ten sons, may the husband be the 11 th
male members of the family, the rest ten being his sons” (Upadhyaya, 1974: 53).
 In Manusamiriti, “there are special references in chapter 9, Sholaka 59, 62, 69,
which guide a person for ‘Niyoga’ to get a son, polygamy was allowed for the birth of a son.
Sholaka 137 and 138 states that with the blessing of a son the father is assured a place in the
heaven, the grandfather achieves eternal bliss” (Kumar, 1985: 756, 780-781).

In rural society, it is considered graceful for young bribe ‘Bahu’ to touch

and press the feet of elderly women and have their blessings. It is called ‘Paa Parna’.

(Bebe, Bahu Tere Bete ho, Tu Sdha Suhagan Rho, Tere Bhai Batije Jio)
In these blessings, wishes are expected for the young bribe to be blessed with a son soon and
her husband and his brothers have a long life.

Even in devotional songs, desire for sons finds great importance. Here a woman
confesses in a devotional song that her heart is not under control though she rebukes it a lot.
Sometimes she has a desire for five seven sons and sometimes she feels satisfied with silver
and gold. She says:
(Re Man dat ta konya; datu su roj batera,
Ak Man Khe mere paanch saat chore ho,
Ak man Khe sona chandi be batere ho)
During the month of ‘Sawan’ (Monsoon) the daughter in law seeks permission from her
father in law to go to her father’s home. At this time of departure, the mother in law addresses
her son and daughter law:

(Ya Dhan beta Janmegi Puut, Bel Dadhegi, Thare Baap Ke,
Ya Dhan ma, Janmegi Dhee, Kul Lajavegi, Mhare Bapp Ke)
She remarks that if the daughter in law gives birth to a son, your father’s family will grow,
and if she gives birth to a daughter our family will be disrespected.

Barren Women’s Status:

One of the basic objectives of marriage is reproduction. The barren
woman or sterile men are given low status in society. The barrenness is a curse for woman in
such societal setup as Haryana. She is considered to be incomplete if she cannot be a mother.
She is called ‘Banjh Aurat’ in Haryanvi’s dialect. It is a particular saying:

(Raho Raho re Banjhri Dur Rahio, Tere a Lawan se Mhare Phal Jhare,
Tere a Hiware Bhande Da Bale)
O, barren woman, keep away from us, our fruits will drop if you approach us, and we will
also be barren, as your heart burns with the fire of jealousy.

In another folk song, one of the barren women expresses her anguish and anger, on her being
childless. She considers barrenness as the greatest curse of her life.

(Cheeru a Pharu ya Kokhne, ya koy mere se maan,

Khal Khada ke Nharu, Koy Bhus me Dilaugi Aaag)
Should I cut or tear my womb apart, people are insulting me, should I peel out the skin of my
womb to fill it with hay husk, and then get it burnt with fire.

Also in various folk dance and dramas known as ‘swang’ references to son
preference are very common. In various ballads and dance drama by famous writer, singer,
musician Lakhmi Chand and Mange Ram, their references has been selected:

(Putar bina Mukti na hoti, na pitra ne milta paani)

(Kissa Dhurv Bhakat, Sharma, 1995: 193)
A man without son has neither salvation nor can he make the forefather happy.

Birth of a Son:
The birth of a son in a family is celebrated like some festival. In north-
western states of India, (particularly Haryana) the birth of a son is auspicious while birth of a
daughter is considered to be inauspicious. Whenever a daughter is born, the father decides to
migrate from the house.

(Mhare Janam me Baje Thekre, Bhai ke me Thaali,

Budha ke rove, budhi be rove, rove hali pali)
On the birth of a son, the happiness is expected by beating the bronze plate with spoon, but
when a daughter takes birth, a part of a pitcher is beaten as an expression of sadness. The
grandfather, grandmother and others also shed tears over her birth.
 There is a huge difference between son and daughter born traditional activities and
rituals. When a son is born, activities like singing, dancing, popularly called ‘Badawa’ are
organized in the house. Special prayers are offered and songs commonly known as ‘Be’ are
sung. The mother goddess ‘Be Mata’ is prayed to provide security and long life to the new
born son. After the birth of the boy, special attention is devoted towards the food and safety
of the mother by the senior members in the family, when a son is born special celebrations
are performed on the 3rd, 6th, 9th and 27th day of the month. But it varies from one rural society
to another and from one community to another. The ceremony ‘Kuan Pujan’ well worship
takes place on the 30th day.

(Peela to odd mhari Jcha Kuan chali, Sara Sahar sarhaya Patipayara Ji)
(Yadav, 1960: 142)
The mother worships the well covering her head with a yellow ‘Odhni’ cloth. All the people
appreciate the father and mother of new born son and provide costly gifts to parents.

(Khio Khio Re Holar Ke Dada Ne, Joda Re Jkodya Aaj Khrche)

(Yadav, 1960: 142)
The new born son is named as ‘Holar’. The grandfather is expected to incur a lot of
expenditure on the birth of his grandson.

On this auspicious occasion, various types of gifts known as ‘Neg’ are given to Brahman,
barber and Dai, sweeper etc. these ‘Neg’ might be in form of cash, clothes, cereals and items
of gold and silver. Sister in law presented special ‘Neg’ on this occasion. The birth of 12
sons, is good, but if a daughter is born there are no celebrations.

(Jis din lado tera janam tha hoi a vajar ki raat,

Jis din lala tera janam hoi a vajar ki raat
9 Lakh Diwle lado chas dhre the to be ghor andhera,
ak diwla re laja chas dhra tha jagmag raat)
(Sharda, 1970: 42)
On the night of daughter’s birth, there was darkness all round, though nine lakh lamps were
light, whereas the night of son’s birth, though ‘night of gold’ since everywhere there was
brightness though only a single lamp was light.
Gender based bias and an inequality in Haryana very clearly manifests itself in many forms
of folk songs. There is only one occasion when the father feels happy after the birth of a
daughter and that is when she departs after getting married.

(Mhare to kapde re lado us din ujle, jis din tumri sajan ghar jaogi)
(Bhardwaj, 1983: 117)
The father says that their clothes will be bright only when daughter will be relieved for her
husband’s house.

There is a famous saying in Haryanvi language, regarding the girl’s education. It is said that
there is no need of formal education or looking after girls. They just grow by themselves. But
when a son is born, he is called ‘one eyed daughter’. This can be noticed in the following
proverb:
(Chori Chari to Noa Padh Likh Jaya Kre)
(Kani Ldki Hi He,( Taki Najar Na Lge).
(Deswal, 2001: 19)

Family Planning in Haryana:

The family planning scenario as explained in this section for the state of
Haryana is based on secondary source of data derived from National Family Health Survey
(NFHS-4).

Contraceptive Knowledge and Use:

Knowledge of contraception is almost universal in Haryana. However,
some methods are still lesser known. Only three-fourths of currently married women know
about injectables and 15 percent know about female condoms. Among all women, 55 percent
know about emergency contraception. According to NFHS-4, the contraceptive prevalence
rate (CPR) among currently married women age 15-49 is 64 percent, almost the same as in
NFHS-3 (63%). Modern method use, at 59 percent, is also almost unchanged from its level in
NFHS-3 (58%). Notably, the share of female sterilization in contraceptive method use has
remained unchanged, at 60-62 percent, in Haryana in all four NFHS surveys. Contraceptive
use in NFHS-4 increases sharply with age from 17 percent for women age 15-19 to 76-77
percent for women age 30-49. In Haryana, contraceptive use is higher in rural areas (66%)
than in urban areas (60%). Contraceptive prevalence does not vary greatly by schooling;
however, half of currently married women with no schooling use female sterilization,
compared with 21 percent of women with 12 or more years of schooling. Muslim women
(26%) are much less likely to use contraception than Sikh (74%) and Hindu women (66%).
Women in Haryana are much more likely to use contraception if they already have a son. For
example, among women with two children, 79 percent with at least one son use a method of
family planning, compared with 46 percent of women with two daughters and no sons. The
most common modern spacing methods used by currently married women in Haryana are
condoms (12%) and IUD or PPIUD (6%). In general, urban women and better-educated
women are more likely than other women to use spacing methods.

What Contraceptive Methods do Women Use?

The following table represents the different type of contraceptive
methods used by the women in the state of Haryana. The data is for married women only.

Sr. No. Contraceptive Method Percentage

1 Female Sterilization 38
2 Male Sterilization 0.6
3 Pill 2.7
4 IUD/PPIUD 5.7
5 Injectables 0.2
6 Condom (Nirodh) 12
7 LAM 0.2
8 Rhythm 2.2
9 Withdrawal 2.2
10 Not using any method 36
11 Total 100
Source: NFHS-4, 2015-16

From the table above it is clear that 36 percent of married women do not use any
contraceptive method for family planning in Haryana. Female sterilization is the most
popular form of contraceptive being practiced. Around 38 percent of married women adopt
this method; on the other hand male sterilization is only about 0.6 percent. 86 percent of
sterilized women had their sterilization procedure done in a public sector health facility,
mainly in a government or municipal hospital. Those who use contraceptive pill and condom
commonly procure it from private medical facilities or local medical shops. Nonetheless as
per the data, 43 percent of pill users and 27 percent of condom (Nirodh) users get their supply
from the public health sector (NFHS-4, Report).

3.6 Demographic Manifestation of Gender Inequality:

India has achieved high rates of economic growth in recent years, but
Gender inequality still persists and it continues to be an immense issue of concern. According
to World Economic Forum’s Gender Gap Index (GGI), 2014, India ranks low with scores
below average. UNDP’s Human Development Index (HDI) 2015 states that only Afghanistan
ranks lower than India among South Asian countries, with respect to gender inequality. India
lags behind in gender equality even when compared to its neighbouring countries Pakistan
and Bangladesh. The Government of India along with the respective state governments has
framed policies and launched various schemes and programmes since 1989 to narrow the
gender gap and empower women. In spite of all the efforts, gender gap still exists, and as a
matter of fact the gender inequality continues to rise. The existing patriarchal set up and age
old beliefs and traditions continue to promote a male biased society where females are
degraded to a secondary status in the society as well as the household.

Gender inequality limits a woman’s access to resources and

opportunities. When a female is restricted or limited to certain task, just by virtue of it being a
female, it is complete subjugation of one specific gender, and against the idea of equality. For
example, in a patriarchal society, when division of labour is based on gender, it limits women
to household and domestic activities with restricted movement and no decision making rights.
It completely cuts of women from participation in social and economic activity and access to
education. Gender inequality has been one of the major factors that prevent a girl child from
pursuing education. Because of the social structure in many rural areas, girls have to help
with the domestic activities instead of going to school. This has resulted in low female
literacy rate when compared to the male literacy rate. Though the female literacy rate is rising
as per the data from Census of India, but it continues to be significantly lower than their male
counterpart which was 82.14 percent in 2011 and consecutive female literacy rate was 65.46
percent.
 The low rate of female literacy has adverse effects on the society.
Without any education, women lack the ability to make decisions. Girls are forced to get
married very early. Early marriages forces girls into adulthood and in most cases motherhood
as well even before a girl is emotionally or physically mature. This has a profound impact on
the overall life of a girl. It not only limits her prospects of education, but it also disrupts her
mental state and creates health complications. In a male dominated society where the status
of women is degraded, they have no access to financial and economic resources, it makes it
difficult for them to protect themselves, make choices, negotiate safer sex, hence making
them very vulnerable. If a woman gives birth to a child while herself being malnourished,
then the child’s health and nutrition is at risk, and this causes high rate of infant deaths, and in
case if the child is a girl, it further widens the gender gap. Mothers who are not educated are
not able to make the best health and nutrition choices for their child. This in turn endangers
the health of the new born infant or young children leading to malnutrition and may even
result in high infant and child deaths.

Low literacy level is directly connected to the level of awareness among

women. Most Indian women are not aware of their rights and the opportunities available to
them. They are unable to explore various schemes and programmes that government launches
to empower them. This affects the overall development of women and their plight continues
to be the same. Uneducated mothers are less likely to motivate and send their child to schools
or for higher education especially for a girl child, they hardly have any decision making
power in a household. This further contributes to the low literacy level among females and
further widens the gender gap.

The prime reason for gender inequality in India is the existence of

patriarchal norms, where men hold authority and almost every aspect of life in men centric,
with men being the sole decision makers. One major aspect being inheritance, where by men
inherit the financial and economic assets of the family, the women get married to and move
to their husband’s family. Men are hence seen as economic prospects and women are seen as
economic liability. This has lead to preference of son over a girl child, to such an extent that
people are willing to determine the gender prior to birth and terminate pregnancy if it is a girl
foetus. Prenatal sex determination followed by sex selective abortion has further widened the
child sex ratio leading to female deficit. United Nations Population Fund (UNPF) says that
there would be a deficit of 23 million females in the 20-49 age groups by 2040. This is going
to further create social imbalance and social evils where there would be increasing pressure to
marry, increase in gender based violence, high demand for sex work leading to female
trafficking. A report by the National Crime Records Bureau says that in every 1.7 minutes,
there is a crime recorded against a woman, there is a rape every 16 minutes, and there are
incidents of domestic violence on women every 4.4 minutes.

One of the major reasons of gender inequality is poverty. Out of the total
30 percent poor people, 70 percent are females. The high percentage of poverty among
female is because of lack of economic opportunities for women. The employment rate of
women dropped from 18 percent in 2009 to 16 percent in 2012. Only 13.4 percent of working
women have a regular salaried job. World Economic Forum, 2014 stated that women earn 56
percent when compared to their male counterparts. According to the World Bank, 90 percent
of Indian working women work in the informal sector doing physical intensive jobs, with
long working hours and very low pays. The disparity in employment opportunities alleviates
poverty and continues to disempower women.

As discussed above it can be noted that gender inequality itself causes the
gender gap to widen. The factors leading to gender inequality along with the social norms and
beliefs, and the existing gender gap, all collectively contribute to increasing gender
inequality. Evil practices like female foeticide and female infanticide reduce the number of
females affecting the sex ratio and child sex ratio. Low literacy levels contribute to lack of
basic awareness about health and hygiene leading to high infant death rates, low birth rates.
Female deficit gives rise to various crimes against women. The government schemes and
programmes fail to achieve their goals because women are not well equipped enough to
access and take advantage of the benefits. As a result, sex ratio continues to decline. The sex
ratio in 1978-88 was 32.2 percent and it decreased to 24 percent in 2014. Inspite of all the
economic development and government legislation and schemes, gender inequality exists.
Declining gender ratio, low economic participation of women, rising gaps in life expectancy
and mortality rates between men and women are parameters of great concern.