Effects of Gender Discrimination/Inequality upon

Community
Dr. Radhika Kapur
Abstract
The concept of gender inequality is regarded as an impediment towards leading to
progress and development of not only the individuals or community but also the country as a
whole. The main purpose of this research paper is to focus upon gender inequality in terms of
the various concepts. These are, history of gender inequality, types of gender inequality,
factors causing gender inequality, and programs for promoting women’s education. It is vital
to put into practice the measures that curb the effects of gender inequality. In all places,
educational institutions, employment opportunities and in making provision of various
services, men and women should be provided with equal rights and opportunities.
To acquire understanding of gender inequality, it is vital to determine the factors that
suitably defines this concept. These include, caste, class, creed, ethnicity, race, religion and
socio-economic background. Gender inequality is not perpetuated exclusively through
differential access to and control over the material resources. Gender norms and stereotypes
strengthen the gender identities and impose restrictions upon the behaviour of men and
women in ways that lead to gender inequality .Women’s location of social class has a strong
impact on their economic activities, access to agricultural land, employment opportunities,
gender relations within the household, and intra-household distribution of resources.
Similarly, religious conflicts and a desire to establish separate religious identities have led to
gender politics among Hindus and Muslims.
Concerns about religious identity and legitimacy have taken preference over gender
related concerns among many Muslim women’s organizations. The association between
gender inequality within the family and adverse demographic outcomes as early marriage,
discrimination against girls in access to food and health care, poor nutritional status of
women, and their inability to look after their health care requirements are imposing problems
within the course of their existence. Research on the sources of this inequality takes into
account three different sets of antecedents: difference in men’s and women’s economic roles
and power; cultural traditions in curbing women’s independence and physical movement; and
marriage and kinship patterns (Desai, 1994).
 The problems and difficulties that are experienced by children in terms of gender
inequality are primarily discriminatory treatment in schools as well as at home. Within the
household, girls are the ones that experience inequalities as compared to boys, especially with
regards to acquisition of education and employment opportunities. The girls are meant to help
their parents in the performance of domestic chores, they are not allowed to have any say and
are required to obey their family members. The economic dependence of women and girls
upon men, causes a reduction in their bargaining power within the family (Desai, 1994). In
some rural communities, they are not considered equal to boys. In schools, scores usually
depend upon the academic performance of the students, but inequalities are observed in terms
of participation in events or functions in schools. The teachers make selection of the students,
who they think are more capable. The participation of women and girls in income generating
activities is seen as one of the factors in causing a reduction in gender inequality.
History of Gender Discrimination/Inequality
In ancient India, women were revered within the Indian society. They were in a
position of high esteem and were respectfully addressed by the individuals within as well as
outside the house. In the early Vedic age, women were considered of high esteem and girls
were treated with consideration and courtesy. With the emergence of the practice of
polygamy, position of women deteriorated. This is the practice, where men had more than
one wife. During the medieval period, the practices of purdah system, dowry system and the
sati system came into being. By the purdah system, it was meant, when the women remained
within the purdah, they were not allowed to come out of the purdah. The dowry system is the
system which meant, when the bride’s family was supposed to pay the groom’s family,
monetary resources, jewellery and other valuables at the time of marriage. The sati system is
the system, when the women were supposed to end their lives on the funeral pyre of their
husbands. These practices led to a decline in the status of women.
Within the course of time, individuals began to possess strong desire for the male
children and began the practices of female foeticide and female infanticide. With the advent
of science and technology, they began to implement these practices in many parts of the
country. The practice of dowry was considered as the major one that led to the development
of unconstructive viewpoints and perceptions regarding females. When the poverty stricken
and economically weaker sections of the society experienced problems in sustaining their
living conditions, they began to regard their girls as burdens, who would eventually make a
demand for the bride price at the time of their marriage. In order to alleviate this pressure,
they possess a strong desire for the male children. Since ancient times, male children are
regarded as a source of strength and support for the families, who would enhance their
reputation and bring about well-being.
Male dominance is regarded as the major aspect that has led to gender inequality. The
dominance of the male members of the family upon women has made them subordinate to
them. They are supposed to follow the rules and norms within the family and are required to
form their routine jobs in accordance to the male members. The women and girls within the
country have been subjected to various types of criminal and violent acts. The experiencing
of these acts on the part of the women have not only made them vulnerable within the
society, but it also imposes impediments upon the progression of the community and nation.
In the present existence, with the introduction of modern and innovative techniques and
methods, women are acquiring empowerment opportunities and are raising their voice against
the prevalence of any types of violent and criminal acts. There are provision of equal
opportunities for men and women and individuals are forming their viewpoints and
perspectives in a manner that women should be considered equal as men.
Types of Gender Discrimination/Inequality
The types of gender inequality have been stated as follows:
Mortality Inequality – This is the type of inequality that is present between men and
women that involves the matters of life and death (Jha, & Nagar, 2015). Due to this type of
inequality, the mortality rates have been high among women. There have been prevalence of
the practices of female foeticide and female infanticide. Female foeticide is killing of the girl
child in the mother’s womb, whereas female infanticide is killing of the female child, after
she has been born. These practices take into account, mortality inequality as well as
discrimination against the girls. As far as nutrition and health care are concerned, there is less
or no gender bias.
Natality Inequality – In this type of inequality, preference is given to males (Jha, &
Nagar, 2015). In many parts of India, especially when the elderly individuals possess
traditional viewpoints and perspectives, they prefer their grandchildren to be males.
Possessing a desire for the male children has led to encouragement of the practices of female
foeticide and female infanticide. Enhancement of the status, bringing about welfare,
generating a source of income, attainment of better livelihood opportunities and support and
care in old age are some of the factors that encourage preference for male children.
 Employment Inequality – Education and employment are regarded as essential aspects
that render an effective contribution in enhancing the lives of the individuals. Girls have
usually experienced inequality in terms of acquisition of education and attainment of
employment opportunities. In the past, they have remained confined within the houses,
participate in the implementation of household responsibilities and were required to follow
the rules and policies that have been formulated by the other members of the household. On
the other hand, male children were encouraged towards the acquisition of education and
attainment of employment opportunities. In the present existence, there have been changes in
the viewpoints of the individuals and males as well as females are seeking good quality
education and better career opportunities for themselves.
Ownership Inequality – In many parts of the country, there have been inequalities
with regards to ownership rights. When one is acquiring an understanding of ownership
rights, it is primarily concerned with the ownership of property. Though both males and
females should have equal rights in the property, but these rights have also proved to be
advantageous to men more as compared to women. The deprivation of rights to property have
proven to be disadvantageous to women and girls to a major extent. They not only are bound
to live their lives in accordance to the rules and norms framed by the male members, but
become withdrawn from the society and stay in seclusion.
Inequality in Skills Development – Apart from learning academic concepts through
getting enrolled in schools, the individuals are able to sustain their living conditions by
developing their skills and abilities. The individuals develop their skills in various areas, so
that they are able to find employment. These include jobs of a plumber, carpenter, electrician,
painter, welder, cook, driver, gardener, repair worker and so forth. The individuals sometimes
get enrolled into training centres in order to acquire knowledge and develop their skills. In the
present existence, technology has gained grounds and individuals are making use of digital
technology even in rural communities. Inequality in skills development is that males are
getting more accustomed to the above stated areas, whereas, females are mostly geared
towards the performance of domestic chores. Hence, in this manner, there are differences in
the skills development of both males and females.
Inequality in Decision Making – The abilities of an individual to render an effective
contribution in the decision making matters or to give ideas and suggestions develop with the
acquisition of education and generation of awareness. Research has indicated that when men
acquire more education, then their decision making abilities decline. On the other hand, when
women acquire more education, then they develop the decision making abilities (Kishor, &
Gupta, 2009). The inequalities in the decision making abilities of the individuals have been
observed with regards to educational qualifications. In the past, when women were
discouraged from acquisition of education, they also lacked the skills and the abilities to
participate in the decision making processes. In the present existence, with advancements and
modernization, they have gained empowerment opportunities and autonomy.
Factors Causing Gender Discrimination/Inequality
The factors that cause an increase in gender inequality have been stated as follows:
Economic Factors
Labour Participation – There are inequalities in terms of labour participation of men
and women. In some cases, individuals possess this viewpoint that women and girls do not
have the skills and abilities that are required to perform certain tasks, hence, they are
discouraged from getting engaged in certain jobs. In some cases, there are differences in the
wages as well for the same task performed. Hence, differences in the wages and
discriminatory treatment in terms of participation in certain jobs are the inequalities that
women and girls experience (Jha, & Nagar, 2015).
Access to Credit – There are large differences among men and women in terms of
access to banking services. Women have low levels of property ownerships, due to this
factor, they do not get loans from the banks easily. When women experienced problems in
obtaining accessibility to financial resources, then the micro-credit scheme was introduced,
which assisted women with making provision of micro-finance (Jha, & Nagar, 2015).
Occupation Inequality – Occupational inequality is commonly prevalent among the
rural and tribal communities. Girls are trained primarily in the performance of the household
chores. On the other hand, boys are even sent to schools to acquire education, they are
encouraged to get engaged in various occupations to generate a source of income or sent to
urban areas to look for better livelihoods opportunities. Individuals possess the viewpoint that
boys are more proficient and diligent as compared to girls and they would be able to improve
the welfare of their families, if they are provided the opportunities.
Property Rights – Under the law, women are entitled to equal rights to own the
property and equal inheritance rights. Yet in some cases, women are at a disadvantage. For
instance, when a woman becomes a widow, she is normally denied the share in the property
and in some cases is even evicted from the marital homes. On the other hand, males are given
preference with regards to rights in the property. The Hindu Succession Act, 2005 provides
equal inheritance rights to the ancestral and the jointly owned property. In spite of the
formulation of the law, the women are at a disadvantage, because they are denied their share
in property (Jha, & Nagar, 2015).
Women’s Inequality in Proper Inheritance – Women are significantly deprived of
proper inheritance as well, culturally and religiously. For instance, when they get married at a
young age and go to their marital homes, then if there are male children within the family,
then the property of the parents are inherited by the male children and girls are denied their
share. The girls are meant to follow the rules within their marital homes. The society in the
present existence is still reluctant to give women and girls their share of property. This is one
of the major factors that highlights gender inequality.
Employment Inequality - The families, who are poverty stricken, marginalized and
belong to socio-economically backward sections of the society have the main objective of
generating a source of income. The employment inequality is prevalent among these
individuals. The girls are dedicated towards the performance of household chores and assist
their parents in manufacturing of goods. On the other hand, boys are encouraged to look for
work outside the house, in tea stalls or grocery shops, or garages, so that they can earn in
order to satisfy their parents. Normally, the pay is not much and is only sufficient for pocket
money. The girls are discouraged from getting engaged in employment opportunities and
usually remain within the house.
Social Factors
Education – Inequality with regards to the acquisition of education is common among
girls and boys primarily within rural communities. It has been found that the literacy rate is
higher among the males as compared to females. In accordance to the 2011 census, the
literacy rate among women is 65.46 percent and among men, it is 82.14 percent. The main
reasons for the differences in the literacy rate are, performance of domestic chores, child
development, and household responsibilities. Gender inequality, male dominance and lack of
participation among the females are also some of the other factors that has led to low rate of
literacy among women (Jha, & Nagar, 2015).
Health – Research has indicated that women usually have better health conditions as
compared to men. They are active in the implementation of household responsibilities as well
as are engaged in jobs. In some cases, experiencing violence and mistreatment effects their
health, but accessibility to health care and medical facilities, leads to better health conditions
among them. Women are primarily responsible for child development, hence, in order to
perform this task efficiently, it is vital to obtain adequate diet and nutrition and possess the
required knowledge that is needed for taking care of the health care needs of their family
members. Efficient knowledge in terms of household management, environmental conditions,
diet and nutrition, cleanliness, appropriate relationships among family members and
alleviation of stress and tension are essential in maintaining good health conditions.
Patriarchal Society – In most parts of India, patriarchal societies are found, where
men hold dominance over females and inherit property and title. The male members of the
family exercise control and authority and are vested with the decision making abilities. They
may consult others, to seek ideas and suggestions, but the primary decision making authority
is vested in their hands. The custom that is prevalent involves the passing of inheritance from
the father to the son. Whereas, girls get married and go to their marital homes. When
marriage takes place, then bride price or dowry is usually paid by the bride’s parents to the
groom’s family (Jha, & Nagar, 2015).
Dowry – Dowry is the system, when the bride’s family is required to give monetary
wealth as well as other valuables to the groom’s family. The families, who are in a deprived
state and not financially strong usually experience problems in getting their girls married,
because of demand for dowry. This system regards girls as a burden upon their families,
especially, when they have limited resources. The families possess the viewpoint that when
their resources are limited for their girls, they should make savings for their marriage and not
spend money on things, which they do not require. This system has even discouraged the
parents from sending their girls to school.
Gender-based Violence – Girls and women within the country experience criminal
and violent acts to a major extent. The various forms of violent and criminal acts that they
experience include, verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual harassment, child trafficking, rape
and even murder. The experiencing of these acts, imposes adverse effects upon them,
physically as well as psychologically. Schools, colleges, workplaces, public places, roads and
even homes are places, where girls and women have experienced these acts. As a result, they
get even compelled to drop out of schools or leave their jobs. The prevalence of these acts
against women and girls are as a result of high degree of inequality.
Inequality of Women in Decision Making – As a person grows, he enhances his
knowledge and generates awareness regarding various areas. Girls and women may or may
not acquire education or get engaged in any types of jobs. But as they get older, they
communicate with other individuals within the home as well as outside the home, socialize
and participate in various functions and events. In communities, where male dominance is
prevalent, women are not allowed to give their ideas and suggestions or participate in the
decision making processes. They are just required to obey the decisions and the rules that
have been formed by the male members. These are the factors that highlight inequality
among them.
Cultural Factors
Preference for Male Children – The key factor that promotes gender inequality is
preference for male children. The individuals are of the viewpoint that males are more
resourceful and conscientious. Educated males would be able to obtain better employment
opportunities and promote well-being of their families. Hence, for this purpose, individuals
prefer sending their male children to schools. In some cases, they even migrate to urban areas
to obtain good quality education and seek employment opportunities. Another major point is,
male children would be a source of support and provide care to their parents in their old age.
They would be able to look after their health care and medical requirements.
Patrilineal System – The predominance of the patrilineal system in some communities
promotes gender inequality. When the individuals regard the male children as the source of
support, they undermine the status of the girls within the society. They form this viewpoint
that girls are the liabilities to the family, which would yield no returns upon investment.
When their marriage would take place, their families would have to pay the bride price or
dowry and before, their services could just be utilized in the implementation of household
responsibilities and in taking care of the needs of other family members.
Improvement of Living Conditions – In the present existence, the individuals are
migrating from rural areas to urban areas with the main purpose of sustaining their living
conditions. The individuals believe that males are more self-assured and confident, they are
more able and would be able to look out for ways. On the other hand, girls are more
apprehensive and hesitant, especially the ones, who remain confined within the homes.
Generating a source of income and bringing about improvements in the living conditions are
the primary objectives of the individuals. Hence, for this purpose, they feel they would be
able to send their male children to urban areas, lead to their potential growth and
development and enhance their livelihoods opportunities.
Potential and Aptitude – The individuals are of the viewpoint that males are more
capable and possess the skills and abilities to carry out various tasks and functions more
appropriately as compared to females. The performance of manual jobs require strength and
muscles to work with, which males can do better as compared to females. The rural and tribal
communities, usually depend upon the natural environmental conditions. In order to obtain
products from the forests, they feel males would be more worthwhile. Females on the other
hand, perform the tasks of cleaning, washing, preparation of meals and taking care of the
livestock within the house. The manual work that females are engaged in outside the house is
obtaining water from the wells and other water bodies located nearby.
Performance in Religious Functions – When a religious or a cultural event is
organized, then preference is given to the male members of the family. The male children
render a significant contribution. For instance, when death takes place in a family, then male
children are entitled to perform the funeral rights. Another case, is when celebration of a
festival or an occasion takes place, then too rights are given to the males to perform the major
tasks and functions. On the other hand, females are the ones that are required to perform the
housekeeping tasks and absence of rights highlights inequality.
Legal and Political Factors
In accordance to the Constitution of India, both men and women are equal with
regards to all rights and opportunities. They should be given equal rights and opportunities
with regards to the acquisition of education, training, skills development, employment
opportunities, jobs and availability of other facilities and services. There should not be any
kinds of discrimination on the basis of caste, class, creed, race, ethnicity, gender, religion, age
or socio-economic background. The women should be considered equal to men and should be
given equal rights. In educational institutions and within the workplaces, it is necessary for
other individuals to treat them with respect and courtesy, eliminate all forms of violence
against them and make provision of opportunities that would lead to their advancement.
Within the rural communities, it is vital for the individuals to develop this viewpoint that girls
should not be regarded as burden. If they are educated and progression opportunities would
be available to them, then certainly they would bring about well-being of their families.
Conclusion
The concept of gender inequality has been prevalent within the country since ancient
times. The prevalence of male dominance and desire for the male children are the major
factors that have led to gender inequality. The types of gender inequality are, mortality
inequality, natality inequality, employment inequality, ownership inequality, inequality in
skills development, and inequality in decision making. The factors that cause inequality are
economic factors, these are labour participation, access to credit, occupation inequality,
property rights, women’s inequality in proper inheritance and employment inequality. The
other factors are social factors, these are, education, health, patriarchal society, dowry,
gender-based violence and inequality of women in decision making. The other factors are
cultural factors, these are, preference for male children, patrilineal system, improvement of
living conditions, potential and aptitude and performance in religious functions. The other
factors are legal and political factors, these state that women should be considered equal to
men and should be given equal rights and opportunities.
There have been implementation of programs that aim at promoting education among
women. These are, RTE, SSA, RMSA and KGBV. In the present existence, with the
implementation of measures and programs, individuals within rural and urban areas have
recognized that women and girls should also be encouraged towards acquisition of education.
Education and learning would generate awareness among them that they should put into
practice equal rights and opportunities as the males. The women are emerging as
professionals such as, doctors, lawyers, engineers, managers, directors, administrators,
teachers and so forth. They are promoting well-being of their families and working for the
welfare of the communities. With the implementation of policies for providing equal rights
and opportunities, there have been eradication of the practices of female foeticide and female
infanticide. The individuals within the country have recognized the fact that educating a
woman means educating the entire nation.
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