Power Systems (T - D)

Power Systems (Transmission and Distribution)
Transmission and Distribution
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Understand the basic concepts of Transmission Lines.
 Determine parameters of equivalent circuit of a Transmission Line.
 Perform Steady State Analysis of the performance of the Transmission Line.
 Perform Transient Analysis of the Transmission Line.
 Understand Voltage Control by series and shunt compensation.
 Understand the construction and performance of Underground Cable.
 Determine the behavior of Overhead Insulators.
 Determine the performance of Distribution Systems.
 Understand the principle and operation of HVDC Systems.
Introduction
Electrical Power is Transmitted via Transmission Lines from generating plants to electrical
substations. Electrical Power is distributed by means of Feeders or Distributors to the
consumers. Most Transmission Lines are three phase but only some are single phase which
are for example used for Railway Electricification Systems. HVDC Transmission system is used
for higher efficiency for longer distances. Power is usually transmitted by means of Overhead
Transmission lines because underground power transmission has significantly higher cost
and greater operational limitations. Since, electrical power cannot be stored therefore it must
be generated as per demand otherwise there can be a blackout as witnessed during the
course of history in different countries.
Transmission Line
Power carrier or link between two buses in the network, Transmission line should be made by
a conductive material (Ag, Au, Cu, Al). Aluminium is preferred over other material for
construction of Transmission Lines due to the following reasons:
 Light in weight due to which it is easier to use it for Overhead Lines.
 Low cost.
 More resistivity than copper.
 For same value of resistance, if resistivity is high, then area of cross section is
higher. Due to increased cross sectional area the current density reduces for same
value of current and by Ohm’s Law the Electric Field Intensity also reduces.
 Since electric field Intensity is less in Al, so charge ionization is less & hence corona is
less.
In a Transmission line following characteristics are desirable,
 Power loss should be as low as possible such that efficiency is high.
 Voltage drop in Power line should be as low as possible such that line should have
good voltage regulation.
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Rating of Transmission Line

The following ratings are usually specified for any Transmission Line:
 Voltage rating which is actually Line to Line RMS Voltage for 3-phase systems.
 MVA Rating which is 3 – phase apparent power capacity of Transmission line.
o S  3VphIph only for balanced 3 phase system
o S  3VL IL only for balanced 3 phase system

From MVA Rating and the Voltage rating we can determine the current rating as given
below,
S
Current rating, IL 
3VL
These ratings are related to the construction of the Transmission Line. So, once we know
what rating of the transmission line is required, we can design the line on that basis.
 Current Rating relates to Area to Cross Section of the conductor as higher the current
more is the cross-sectional area required. If cross sectional area is less, then current density
increases which increases the electric field intensity and cause Corona discharge. So, current
density should be kept constant within a safe value.
Area of cross section of conductor  current rating
 There is a leakage current from power line to ground which flows through overhead
insulator and tower into the ground.
The arrangement of a power line with tower cross arm and
Insulator is shown in the adjoining figure.
The range of Insulator resistance is usually in Mega-ohms.
The leakage current is given by,
Vph
ILeakage 
Rins  R tower
But R ins  R tower . So, leakage current is approximately,
Vph
ILeakage 
Rins
If system is in balanced condition the conductor operates at per-phase voltage irrespective
of transformer connection (Y or ∆).
So, if voltage rating of the line is increased then leakage current also increases but to keep
leakage current limited we need to increase the insulation level of the line. Hence, voltage
rating of the line decides the insulation level of the line.
But if voltage of line exceeds rated value then the insulation may get damaged so we have to
take that into account and design the insulation based on over-voltages in the system.

Types of Over-voltages
Lightning Overvoltage
It is the discharge of cloud to the ground through the conductor. Due to stored charges in
the cloud when two clouds come into contact a charge transfer takes place between the
clouds. This appears in the form of lightning.
When this charge discharges to the ground through the conductor then it appears in the
form of a current in the range of kA called as Impulse Current.
By placing a shield wire at the topmost position of
tower to avoid lightning stroke which provide some
shield for Transmission line. It is placed on the
top because lightning always strike the topmost conductor.
Switching Overvoltage
It occurs during switching instants when circuit breaker is opened or closed in case of fault.
This occurs due to formation of LC circuit when the circuit breaker is opened. Switching over
– voltages can´t be avoided because it is produced by internal operation.
If voltage rating of the line is greater than 345kV then insulation level is decided on the basis
of Switching Overvoltages.
If voltage rating of the line is lesser than 345kV then insulation level is decided on the basis
of Lightning Overvoltages.
Classification of Power line voltage levels
 High voltage (HV) – it is 11kV, 33kV

 Extra High voltage (EHV) – 66kV, 132kV, 220kV
 Modern extra high voltage (MEHV) – 400kV
 Ultra high voltage (UHV) – 765kV or above
Distribution levels
 Primary Distribution – 11kV (3-phase, 3wire)

 Secondary Distribution – 415V (3-phase, 4 wire) or 220V (1-phase, 2 wire)
For Indian system, tolerance provided for voltage distribution = ± 6%

For universal system, ± 5%
The selection of Transmission voltage level is done based on amount of power transformer
or distance of power transformer.
The maximum power capability of the line is given by,
Vs VR
Pmax 
X
As length of the line increases the reactance of the line increases so maximum power

capability of the line reduces. To maintain the maximum power capability of the line we must
increase the voltage level of the line.
 For stability, HVAC line, l  500km
 For long transmission we use HVDC transmission line (200 MW)
 For bulk amount of power transfer, for larger distances HVDC transmission is preferable
because there is no stability limitation on HVDC. Maximum HVDC transmission voltage in
India = ± 50kV
 If AC voltage >1000V, then it is HVAC (Indian standard).
 If DC voltage >1200V, then it is HVDC (Indian standard).
Discrimination between HV & UHV, EHV, MEHV

HV Level
 VL is lesser compared to others.
SL
 Line Current, IL  is more due to lower voltage.
3VL
 For a given power transfer, if voltage reduces, current increases and if current increases
then size of conductor also increases & thus cost of conductor also increase.
 PLoss  3I2R , so due to high current the losses in the line will increase and thus efficiency
will decrease.
 If VL reduces, insulation requirement also reduces
EHV, MEHV & UHV Level

 VL is higher as compared to HV line.
SL
 Line Current, IL  is lesser due to higher voltage.
3VL
 For a given power transfer, if voltage increases, current reduces and if current reduces
then size of conductor also reduces & thus cost of conductor also reduces.
 PLoss  3I2R , so due to low current the losses in the line will decrease and thus efficiency
will increase.
 If VL increases, insulation requirement also increases.
 With respect to mechanical design aspect MEHV, EHV, UHV levels are preferable with
respect to incrementing power transfer capacity.
Types of Transmission Lines

Usually, Transmission line is referred to the line which carries power from the generating
station to the substation near the consumer.

The lines that are used to distribute power to the load from the substation are called as
Feeders and Distributors.
Feeder
It is a conductor which carries constant amount of current through the length (or constant
current density).
It is not a constant current source, it just means that no tapping are provided and since no
current is drawn midway so current remains same throughout the length.
Distributor
It is a conductor which carries variable amount of current throughout the length or variable
current density (J).
 AB is called Feeder.
 BC is called Distributor (High voltage)
 EF is called low voltage distributor
 Service Main is connected between distributor & distribution transformer
 Sub Main is connected between Distribution Transformer & load
 Feeder has to be designed based on current carrying capability in I2 R loss
 The distributor has to be designed based on voltage drop. So, load should not
experience low voltage profile.
Case-1 (Feeder)
For same power transfer, same material & same length of line. If the transmission line
voltage increased by n times, what will be happen to area of cross section of transmission
line?
Initial case (before increasing voltage)  V1 , I1 , R1 , A1
Final case (after increasing voltage)  V2 , I 2 , R 2 , A 2

V2
V2  nV1  n
V1
The apparent power is given by,
Sin  3V1I1 , Sf  3V2I2
Since, power transfer capability is constant
Sin  Sf
V1I1  V2 I2
I2 1 I
  I2  1
I1 n n
Current rating is reduced by n-times. Current rating is proportional to area of cross sectional
area of conductor for same current density.
I 2  A 2 & I1  A1
I2 A 2 1 1
   A 2  A1
I1 A1 n n
Area is reduced by n-times when voltage is increased by n-times.
1
Power loss is given by, Ploss  3I R  A  A
2 2
A
Hence, Ploss1  A1 & Ploss2  A 2
1
Ploss2  Ploss1
n
Power loss is reduced by n times, so efficiency increases.
Case-2 (Feeder)
For same power transfer, same material & same length and same power loss. If voltage is
increased by n times, what will happen to area of cross-section of the conductor?
V2
Since, voltage is increased by n-times n
V1
I1
Due to same Power Transfer, n
I2
Losses in two cases are given by,
Ploss1  3I12 R1
Ploss2  3I 2 2 R 2
Since, Power Loss is constant in two cases,
3I2 2 R 2  3I12 R1
2
R 2  I1 
    n2
R1  I 2 
Since, resistance is inversely proportional to area.

R 2 A1
  n2
R1 A 2
A
A 2  21
n
So, area of cross sectional area of conductor is reduced. But since losses are same so
efficiency is obtained.
Case-3 (Distributor)
For same power transfer, same material, same length, same pu voltage drop. If the voltage is
increased by n-times, what will happen to area of cross-section of the conductor?
V2
Since, voltage is increased by n-times n
V1
I1
Due to same Power Transfer, n
I2
Per-unit Voltage Drop in two cases are given by,
Absolute Voltage Drop IR

Base Voltage V
I1R1
 pu drop 1 
V1
I2 R 2
 pu drop 2 
V2
Since, per unit voltage drop is constant in two cases,
I1R 1 I 2 R 2

V1 V2
R 2 V2 I1
   n2
R 1 V1 I 2
Since, resistance is inversely proportional to area of cross section.
R 2 A1
  n2
R1 A 2
A1
A2 
n2
So, area of cross sectional area of conductor is reduced. But since losses are same so
efficiency is obtained.
This is how the feeders and distributors are designed.

Types of Conductors
There are four types of conductors which are commonly employed and they differ in their
construction. Each configuration has its own advantages and disadvantages.
 Solid Conductor / Single Strand Conductor
 Stranded Conductor
 Composite Stranded Conductor
 Bundle Conductor Systems
Single Strand Conductor

A single strand conductor is one which only has a single wire which is usually cylindrical. We
choose circular cross section because in circular cross-section the electric field is uniformly
distributed. But in other configurations there are edges and edges are sharp so they have
less cross-section area due to which current density is high at the edges.
Due to high current density the electric field intensity at the edges is high in accordance with
Ohm’s Law.
J
E

Due to high value of Electric Field there is charge ionization leading to more corona loss in
non-uniform conductors as compared to cylindrical conductors.
In case of cylindrical conductors there can be two configurations solid conductors and
hollow conductors. If current density is same in both solid and hollow conductors then for
current we need to have more radius in case of hollow conductors.
Isolid  I hollow
J  R 2solid   J  R 2 ext  R 2int 
R ext  R 2
solid  R 2int 
R ext  R solid
Due to increase in external radius of hollow conductors as compared to Solid Conductors,
the electric field intensity reduces as electric field is inversely proportional to radius.

E
20 r
Due to reduced electric field intensity the corona loss reduces in case of hollow conductors
as compared to Solid Conductors. Always bus bar has to be manufactured with hollow
conductor to reduce corona loss.
Skin Effect
In case of solid conductor we can divide the cross-sectional area into many small filaments.
We make an assumption that the flux due to any filament links only the inside region of that
filament and not the external region. So as we move outwards the number of filaments that
lie outside of another filament reduces so the flux linkage reduces as we move outwards.

 Emf induced inside the conductor is very high & opposition for actual current flow is very
high. Current inside the conductor is very low.
 Emf induced on the surface is very low & opposition for actual current flow is less, current
concentration on the surface is more.
The above figure indicates the strength of current flowing in different regions of a conductor.
So, the tendency of AC current to be concentrated around the outer surface of a conductor is
called as Skin Effect. The reason for this effect is non-uniform magnetic flux linkages.
 This effect can also be explained in terms of skin depth. The current density as we move
inwards from the surface of the conductor is given by,
 x
J  J max exp   
 
Where x is measured from the surface of conductor.
So, current density reduces exponentially as we move inwards from the surface of the
conductor. Hence, current density is maximum at the surface of conductor and minimum in
the interior of the conductor.
 is called as skin depth of the conductor. It is the distance from the surface upto where
current is effectively concentrated.
2


  2f ;   0 r ;   conductivity
So, as frequency is increased the skin depth reduces and current gets concentrated in smaller
area around the surface. Hence, skin effect is more predominant at higher frequencies.

 Ideal conductors have max skin effect (    , =0 )

 Dielectric materials have less skin effect
 Magnetic materials will have more skin effect as compared to electrical conductors.
In case of DC transmission,   0 and hence    so current density is given by, J  J max .

So, the current density is uniform in case of DC transmission and conductor is more
efficiently utilized as compared to AC transmission where current does not flow through the
inside region of conductor.
l
R  A – electrical cross-section area
A
 For DC supply, electrical cross-section area will be equal to physical cross-section area (a)
l
R 
a
 For AC Supply, electrical cross-section area is less than physical cross section area (A<a)
l
R ac  
A
R AC a
  k  factor of skin effect
R DC A
R AC  kR DC where k>1  (R AC >R DC )
Hence, voltage drop and power loss both increase in case of AC as compared to DC.
Stranded Conductors
 It is used to reduce skin effect

 Number of strands are taken & twisted together to get the required current carrying
capability.
 Number of strands depend on final shape of stranded conductors.
 Homogenous Stranded Conductor
Diameter=same; material=same
AAC  All Aluminium Conductor (all conductors are made of Al)

A stranded conductor with 7 strands has been shown in the figure below,
The conduction area for solid and stranded conductors has been shown in the figure below,
The shaded region indicates the conduction area in both types of conductors. From the
figure we can see that electrical cross section area of stranded conductor is more as
compared to Solid Conductor so resistance of stranded conductor is less as compared to
Solid Conductor. Hence, skin effect reduces in case of Stranded Conductors.
For given cross section area, in a stranded conductor, if number of strands are more, skin
effect reduces. Conductor surface becomes smooth & corona loss also reduces.
Stranded Vs Solid Conductor
 Less mechanical strength & less tensile strength as compared to Solid Conductor.
 Stringing or folding of conductors is easy due to less tensile strength & transportation is
easy.
 Surface of the conductor is not smooth so electric field distribution is non-uniform or
corona loss is more.
 Due to spirality effect (the twisted conductor), required length of conducting material is
more for stranded conductors.
 Due to spirality effect, there is a small increment in length and hence resistance, but due
to great reduction in skin effect always resistance of stranded conductors is less as compared
to solid conductors.
1
 Mechanical Sag  ; T = tensile strength
T

l = span length; h = clearance provided for conductor

For Stranded Conductor, the tensile strength reduces and sag increases so the clearance
reduces which can cause danger for the person walking underneath the conductor.
To increase clearance we can,
 Increase tower height but it will increase cost of the tower and also reduce the mechanical
stability of the tower.
 Reduce Sag value.
o The sag in a Transmission line is  l2 . So, span length can be reduced to reduce the
sag but that would require more number of towers and thus increasing the cost of
the system.
1
o Sag  . So, tensile strength of the conductor needs to be increased to reduce the
T
sag value. To increase tensile strength we use Composite Stranded Conductors.
Composite Stranded Conductors

 It is used to increase tensile strength or reduce Sag.
 Central or internal strands of normal AAC will be replaced with the new strands having
good mechanical & tensile strength.
Here, the central strand is made of a different material usually steel.
Steel has more tensile strength as compared to aluminium so tensile
Strength of conductor increases.
ACSR  Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced
 Steel strands only provide mechanical strength & it will not carry any amount of current.
x
 ACSR represented by ratio.
y
x = number of steel strands
y = number of aluminium strands or number of steel strands
For the conductor shown above, we have one steel strand and 6 Aluminium strands. So, it
1
can be named as ACSR .
6

 For power conductors, number of Al strands > number of steel strands.

 As number of layers increase, number of strands increment will follow the series
1 (1st layer) + 6 (2nd layer) + 12 + 18 + 24 + 30 +
Total number of conductors = ( 3x  3x  1 )
2
x = number of layers
 Let d = diameters of each strand
D = diameter of ACSR
For 1 layer, D=d
For 2 layers, D=3d
For 3 layers, D=5d
 ACSR is suitable for HVAC Transmission line
 ACSR is suitable for HVDC Transmission line – due to stringing property
 Conductors are natured i.e. we choose such a conductor which have more mechanical
strength & more stringing property.
 Paper/Hessian will be placed in the inter-layer region of ASCR conductor, the resultant
size of conductor increases & corona loss reduces, this type of conductor is called as
expanded ACSR conductor.
Comparison
Property Solid AAC ACSR
Skin effect Very high Very less Moderate
Mechanical Very high Very less Moderate

strength
Bundled conductors will be dealt later after studying the concepts of GMD and GMR.
Equivalent circuit of Transmission Line
To determine the performance of the Transmission Line we need to draw its equivalent
circuit. The equivalent circuit consists of Inductance due to flux linkage in a conductor,
resistance of the conductor, capacitance due to charge storage on the surface of conductor
and leakage resistance due to Insulator Resistance connecting the link to tower.

Here, the current in one conductor is shown to be I and in other two as –I/2 as other two
conductors act as return path for the first conductor.
Internal Inductance of a Conductor

 Assuming return conductor placed at infinite distance from forward conductor.
Applying Ampere’s law for the loop of radius ‘y’
 Hdl  I y
H y (2y)  I y
Iy
Hy   (i)
2y
 H y is magnetic field intensity tangential to the circle
 I y is current enclosed in the loop of radius ‘y’
Neglecting skin effect i.e. assuming
uniform current density.
Current enclosed in radius ‘y’ is
 y 2   y 
2
Iy  I  2   I  
 r   r 
Then magnetic field intensity is given by,
2
I  y Iy
Hy     AT/m
2y  r  2r 2
 Iy
Magnetic flux density B y  H y 
2 r 2
 is the permeability of the conductor.
Assuming flux due to a filament links only the inside region of that filament.
Flux is given by,

d  B y (dy)(dl)

d I y
 dy Wb/m
dl 2 r 2
The number of turns causing internal flux linkages will be decided by number of current
filaments which will be decided by cross-section of conductor.
 y2  y2
If total area is considered as 1 turn then fractional turns for x radius is  2 
= 2
 r  r
The flux linkage is then given by,
 y2  I y3
d  y   2  d y  dx
r  2 r 4
Total internal flux linkage
I r y3 I
 
2 0 r 4
dy 
8
Wb-T / m
 
Internal inductance, Lint   H/m
I 8

Lint  0 r
8
External inductance
Magnetic field intensity at a distance ‘y’ is.
I
Hy 
2y
I
Magnetic flux density, By  H y 
2y
Magnetic flux is given by, dy  By dyL
dy I
 By dy  Wb/m
L 2y
Since, the filament lies outside the conductor so the flux links the entire conductor.
Entire conductor can be considered as single turn
I
d y  d y 1  Wb-T/m
2x
I 2 1 I  D2 
d
2 d1 y
y  dy  ln   Wb-T/m
2  D1 
  0r , r  1 (air)

 0 r d 
y  I ln  2  Wb  T / m
2  d1 
 0 r  d 2 
Lext  ln   H / m
2  d1 
Flux linkage upto an external point d 2  d and d1  r
 0 r  d 
Lext  ln   H / m
2  r 
 0 r  d
Total Flux linkage   int   ext  I  0 r I ln   Wb  T / m
8 2 r
 0 r  1   d    d 
 I ln  1/4   0 r I ln    0 r I ln  1/4 
2  e  2 r 2  re 
 0 r d
 I ln  
2  r'
Inductance is given by,
  0 r  d 
L  ln   H / m r '  re1/4  0.7788r
I 2  r ' 
r’ is called as Geometric Mean Radius (GMR).

Geometric Mean Radius is the effective distance upto which self-magnetic flux linkages occur
Single Phase two wire line
These two conductors form a part of two wire line.

Out of these one conductor acts as forward path and
other conductor acts as return path.
 0 r  d 
L1  ln   H / m
2  r1 ' 
  d 
L2  0 r ln   H / m
2  r2 ' 
These two conductors effectively form a part of series circuit. So, total inductance is given by,
 0 r  d   0 r  d   0 r  d 2 
L  L1  L 2  ln    ln    ln  
2  r1 '  2  r2 '  2  r1 ' r2 ' 
 0 r  d 
L ln  
  r1 ' r2 ' 

r1 'r2 ' is called as GMR of the system.

Distance ‘d’ is called as Geometric Mean Distance (GMD) of the system.

GMD is the effective distance upto which mutual flux linkages of the two conductors occur.
Flux linkage of conductor in a group

The flux linkage due to conductor ‘i’ upto P.
 0 r D 
ii  Ii ln  i 
2  ri ' 
There will be mutual flux in conductor ‘i’ due to other
Conductors.
Flux linkage in ‘i’ upto point P due to conductor ‘j’
 0 r D 
 ij  I j ln  j 
2 D 
 ij 
Total flux linkage of conductor ‘i’ upto point P
n
 0 r D 
i   I j ln  j 
j1 2
D 
 ij 
Where, Dii  ri ' which is GMR of conductor ‘i’

 0 r  D1   D2   Di   Dn 
i   I1 ln    I 2 ln    .......  Ii ln    .....  In ln  
2  Di1   Di2   Dii   Din 
   1   1   1   1 
i  0 r  I1 ln    I 2 ln    .......  Ii ln    .....  In ln  
2   Di1   Di2   Dii   Din 

 0 r  I1 ln  D1   I 2 ln  D 2   .......  Ii ln  Di   .....  In ln  D n  
2
Some of these conductors act as forward path and others as return path so
I1  I2  ...........  I n  0
In    I1  I2  ...........  I n 1 
So, the flux linkage becomes,
 0 r   1   1   1   1 
i   I1 ln  
 2 
I ln   .......  I ln    .....  I ln  
2 
i n
 Di1   Di2   Dii   Din  
  D  D  D   D 
 0 r  I1 ln  1   I 2 ln  2   .......  Ii ln  i   .....  I n 1 ln  n 1  
2   Dn   Dn   Dn   Dn  
If point P tends to infinity then

D1  D2  .................  Dn
Due to this second term in the flux linkage is reduced to zero.


 0 r  1   1   1   1 
i   I1 ln    I2 ln    .......  Ii ln    .....  In ln  
2
  Di1   Di2   Dii   Din 
n
  1 
 i   0 r I j ln 
j1 2
 D 
 ij 
  1 
Where self  0 r Ii ln   where Dii  ri '
2  ii 
D
And the other terms represent mutual flux linkage
 0 r  1 
 ij  I j ln 
2  D 
 ij 
This term represents the flux linkage in conductor ‘i’ due to conductor ‘j’
For the system shown below,
Total flux linkage in conductor ‘a’ is given by,

 0 r  1
  0 r I  1   0 r I  1 
a  
I ln  ln   ln  
2  2 2  Dab  2 2  D ac 
 Daa
  1   0 r  1 
 a  0 r I ln   I ln  
2  Daa  2  D D 
 ab ac 
Here, the first term represents the self-flux linkage and the second term represents the
mutual flux linkage.
So, the distance Dab Dac is the effective distance for mutual flux linkage called as
Geometric Mean Distance (GMD).
Bundled Conductors
 If electric field on surface of conductor > dielectric strength of surrounding dielectric
medium (air), then there is an ionization on surface of conductor called as corona Effect.
 Corona is experienced as sound & light & leads to power loss, so efficiency is reduced.

 The only disadvantage with the stranded conductors is that due to non-uniform surface
of conductor Corona Loss is more.
 To reduce electric field or corona loss
o Reduce operating voltage
o Increase GMR & GMD
 To increase GMD, distance between conductors should be increased, cross arm length
should be increased. This increases size and cost of tower.
 By increasing GMR we are effectively increasing the radius of the conductor so the
electric field intensity on the surface of conductor reduces because electric field at the

surface is given by, E  .
20 r
 By using bundled conductors GMR increases so corona loss is reduced.
Here, one conductor is replaced by a group of conductors kept
at certain distance.
Due to group of conductors, the current in each conductor is
reduced so current density is reduced and hence, the
electric field intensity reduces which reduces the
corona loss.
The GMR or self GMD for bundled conductors can be

calculated as shown below,
Induced emf in a1
1
 a1  (I  Lself  I  L ma )
2
I
= (Lselfa  L a1a 2 )
2 1
 0 r I  1 1   0 r  I 
=  ln  ln   I  ln  
2 2  r1 ' s  2  r 's 
 1 
Since, these two conductors belong to a single phase the flux linkage between the two
conductors will also be counted as self-flux.
The effective distance for self-flux linkage will now be called as self GMD instead of GMR.
GMR is used in context of a single conductor.

(Self GMD)a1  r1 's

(Self GMD)a 2  r2 's
1 1
(Self GMD)a  (Self GMD) a1  (Self GMD) a 2  (r 's) 2  (r 's) 2
 (r 's)
Here, we have assumed that r1 '  r2 '  r '
Inductance of Bundled Conductors
There are ‘n’ conductors in the forward path and m’ conductors in the return path.
If the total current in forward path is ‘I’ and total current in return path is ‘-I’.
I
The current per conductor in the forward path is
n
I
The current per conductor in the return path is 
m'
The flux linkage of conductor ‘i’ is
 0 r I   1   1   1 
i  ln    ln    ..............  ln  
2 n   Di1   Di2   Din  
 I   1   1   1 
 0 r ln    ln    ..............  ln  
2 m '   Di1'   Di2'   Dim '  
This can be represented as,
   Di1'  Di2'  .........  Dim ' 1/m ' 
i  0 r I ln 1/n 
2   Di1  Di2  .........  Din  
The inductance of conductor ‘i’ is given by,

 0 r n   Di1'  Di2'  .........  Dim '  
1/m '
i
Li   ln 
I/n 2   Di1  Di2  .........  Din 1/n 

This is the inductance of conductor ‘i’ but average inductance of ‘n’ conductors is
n
L i
 n  Di1'  Di2'  .........  Dim'  
1/m'
Lavg  i 1
 ln
 0 r 1/n 
n 2
 i 1  Di1  Di2  ......... Din  
 0 r   i 1  Di1'  Di2'  .........  Dim '  
n 1/m '
Lavg  ln 
2   in1  Di1  Di2  .........  Din 1/n 
The total inductance of forward path will be given by parallel combination of all inductances
as they are connected between same two points.

Lavg   in1  Di1'  Di2'  .........  Dim ' 1/m ' 
L1   0 r ln 1/n 
2n   i 1  Di1  Di2  .........  Din  
n
n
 0 r   n  D  D  .........  D 1/nm ' 

L1  ln i 1 i1' i2' im '

2   i 1  Di1  Di2  .........  Din 1/n 
2
n
 
  D  D  ....  D  D  D  ....  D  .......  D  D  ....  D  1/nm ' 
 0 r ln  11' nm ' 

L1 
12' 1m ' 21' 22' 2m ' n1' n 2'
2   D11  D12  ...  D1n  D 21  D 22  ...  D 2n  .......  D n1  D n 2  ...  D nn  

1/n 2 
 
So, the inductance is given by,

 0 r  Mutual GMD 
L1  ln Self GMD 
2  
where,
mutual GMD   D11'  D12'  ...  D1m'  D21'  D22'  ...  D2m'  ....  Dn1'  Dn 2'  ...  Dnm'  
1/nm'
self GMD   D11  D12  ...  D1n  D21  D22  ...  D2n  .......  Dn1  Dn 2  ...  Dnn 
1/n 2
Advantages of Bundle Conductor System
 Electric field intensity decreases, so corona loss decreases & hence efficiency increases.
0  GMD 
 L / ph  ln   H/m Bundle Conductor system
2  Self GMD 
Due to increase in self GMD the inductance of Bundled Conductor system reduces due to
which voltage drop line to line reduces.
20r
 C / ph  F/m Bundle conductor system
 GMD 
ln  
 Self GMD 
Due to increase in self GMD C/ph is more for bundled conductors, so power factor of system
improves.

 Due to decrease in Inductance of the line, the reactance of the line reduces and thus Pmax
increases so stability is improved.
Vs Vr
Pmax 
X
 Due to decrease in Inductance and increase in capacitance the surge impedance of the
lossless line
L
Zc  decreases
C
Due to this Surge Impedance Loading which is ideal loading capability of the line
V2
SIL  , increases
Zc
 Radio interference is reduced due to reduced current per conductor or we can say due to
increase in self GMD the inductance reduces and thus the flux linkage with telephone lines
also reduces.
Three phase conductor configurations

There are two types of 3-phase system conductor configuration
 Symmetrical configuration
 Asymmetrical configuration
Symmetrical Configuration
In this configuration the 3 conductors are placed at the
edges of an equilateral triangle.
Since, radius of each conductor is same
(GMR)a  (GMR)b  (GMR)c  r '
GMR of system will be geometric mean of all GMR
(GMR)sys   r ' r ' r '  r'
1/3
Since, distance between any two conductors is also same

So, (GMD)a  (GMD)b  (GMD)c  d
GMD of system will be geometric mean of all GMD
(GMD)sys   d  d  d  d
1/3
Asymmetrical Configuration
There are two configurations
possible as shown in the
adjoining figure.

(GMR)a  (GMR) b  (GMR)c  r '

(GMD)a  xz ; (GMD) b  xy
1
(GMD)c  yz ; (GMD)system  (xyz) 3
 Due to unequal GMD the inductance of all three phases are unequal and this leads to
unequal voltage drop in each line. Due to this the receiving end voltages may become
unbalanced whereas receiving end voltages are balanced for symmetrical configuration.
 The danger happening for the system is due to galloping phenomenon or dancing
conductors. Swinging is more in vertical configuration rather than horizontal configuration.
Galloping is the swinging of conductors when placed in horizontal and vertical configuration.
 There are low frequency oscillations (1-2 Hz)
 Stock Bridge Damper shown below is used to reduce this phenomenon.
By using bundled conductors, the corona loss will be reduced & these are economical only
for more than 220kV level.
Radio interference with communication system
Usually, telephone lines are running parallel to power lines. So, the flux produced by Power
Lines links the telephone conductors which causes emf to be induced in the communication
lines.
Resultant flux on communication system
r   a  b   c
 dr 
If r  0 then there is induced emf in communication Lines  e  
 dt 

 Due to this emf there is some current circulated in communication lines.

 It is called as noise in communication Lines or radio interference.
 It is measured in V / dB
Symmetrical configuration of power conductors

If the three phase conductors are placed in symmetrical configuration then the inductance of
all the three phases will be equal.
System is carrying balanced currents

Ia  I00 A
I b  I  1200 A
Ic  I1200 A
The GMR and GMD of all the three conductors is same for all the three conductors.
(GMD)a  (GMD)b  (GMD)c  d
Thus, the inductance of all the three phases are equal.
L a  Lb  L c
flux:  a  L aIa 0   a 0
 b  L bIb   120   b   120
 c  L cIc   240   c 120
here  a   b   c
 r   a 0   b   120   c 120
r  0
No radio interference on radio communication lines in case of symmetrical configuration.

Unsymmetrical Power Conductor
Assuming the power conductors are carrying balanced currents

Ia  I00 A
I b  I  1200 A
Ic  I1200 A
Since, the radius of all conductors is same. Thus,
(GMD)a  xz
(GMD)b  yz
(GMD)c  xy
(GMD)a  (GMD)b  (GMD)c
Since, mutual GMD are unequal. Their inductances are unequal
L a  Lb  L c
The flux due to individual phases is given by,
 a  L aIa0   a0
b  LbIb   120  b   120
 c  L cIc   120   c 120
Due to unequal inductances the magnitude of fluxes are unequal.
 a  b   c
r   a0  b  120   c120
r  0
There is some Radio Interference in communication system.
Determining emf induced in communication lines

We assume that two telephone lines t1 and t2 are running parallel to three phase power
conductors a,b and c.
The distances between different conductors can be written as,

Distance between a and t1 = Dat1

Distance between b and t1 = D bt1
Distance between c and t1 = Dct1
Distance between a and t2 = D at2
Distance between b and t2 = D bt2
Distance between c and t2 = D ct2
The flux induced in conductor t1 is given by,

0   1   1   1 
 t1  Ia  ln    Ib  ln    Ic  ln   
2   Dat1   Dbt1   Dct1  
The flux induced in conductor t2 is given by,
0   1   1   1 
 t2  Ia  ln    Ib  ln    Ic  ln   
2   Dat2   Dbt2   Dct2  
The net flux linkage is given by,
0  D  D   D 
 t   t1   t2  Ia  ln  at2   Ib  ln  bt2   Ic  ln  ct2  
2   Dat1   Dbt1   Dct1  
Here, currents Ia ,Ib and Ic are taken as phasors.
Induced emf is given by,
d t   D  D   D 
e  j t  j 0 Ia  ln  at2   Ib  ln  bt2   Ic  ln  ct2  
dt 2   Dat1   Dbt1   Dct1  
Transposition of Transmission Lines

Transmission Lines are transposed to reduce radio interference on communication lines.
Transposition makes the GMD of all the conductors equal.
Inductance of any conductor depends on the GMD of that conductor which depends on the
position of conductor.
In transposition the position of conductors will be changed such that all 3 conductors have
to experience all 3 positional GMDs.

Since, each conductor experiences all the positional GMDs the inductance of each conductor
is given by,
L a  Lb  L c  20  15  22  47mH
Since, the inductances of all three phases now become equal the voltage drop in case of
balanced system is equal and we have balanced receiving end voltages.
Also, due to equal inductances the net flux induced in telephone line is 0 due to which there
is no Radio Interference.
 There is some radio interference in communication system if conductors are carrying
unbalanced currents irrespective of configuration of power conductors (Symmetrical,
Unsymmetrical, Transposed).
 Due to corona discharge in HVDC conductors there is radio interference. Corona
discharge distorts the flux and causes harmonics which can cause interference with the
telephone lines.
 The case of Radio Interference due to unsymmetrical currents is the presence of zero
sequence currents or zero sequence flux.
Since no zero sequence flux current can exist in star connection with isolated neutral, so no
radio interference.
Note: Zero Sequence Currents and Voltages will be studied under Fault Analysis.
Transmission Line Constants

The equivalent circuit for a Transmission line is shown below,
Shunt Conductance is placed in the circuit to represent leakage current from the
transmission line through the insulator and tower to the ground.
Ileakage & G depend on atmospheric conditions such as Temperature & Pressure and it
depends on foreign particles depositing on surface of insulators (dust, rain drop, ice on
insulators)
Insulators have negative temperature coefficient.
In most cases this leakage current is neglected for the analysis of Transmission Lines as this is
very small as compared to the load current.

Calculation of R of Transmission Line

The resistance of a conductor can simply be calculated as shown below,
l
R dc   - DC resistance
a
a - Physical Cross Sectional area
But in case of AC Transmission the effective cross sectional area of conductor is reduced due
to Skin effect. So, AC resistance is given by,
l
R ac   - AC Resistance
A
A - electrical cross-sectional area
Since, area is reduced due to Skin Effect
R ac  R dc
But we cannot use this expression to calculate AC resistance so we multiply DC resistance by
an empirical factor to account for Skin Effect. In our course, we will use the values of DC
resistance as line resistance and neglect Skin Effect.
Usually, we consider distributed parameters in a Transmission Line so resistance per unit
length is more commonly used.
Significance of Resistance
 To represent heat produced by conductor or power loss in the conductor.
 To represent voltage drop happening in conductor due to resistive property.
 Total Power Loss in 3-phase AC Transmission. ( 3I2R ), R = effective resistance of conductor.
1 phase 2 wire system

By Applying KVL in the line
Voltage Drop = V  Vload
Voltage Drop = V  Vload  I  Ra  I  Rb  I  Ra  Rb 
Loop or system resistance = Ra  Rb 
If both conductors are identical Ra  Rb  R Rloop  2R

In case of single wire, earth acts as second conductor or
the return path.
So, Total Resistance is given by,
R total  R a  R e arth
Resistivity of earth is almost 100   m

Radius of earth = 6400 km

Resistance of earth is almost zero due to large cross sectional area. Hence,
R total  R a
 For the case of three phase, we calculate the effective resistance per phase of the system.
Calculation of Inductance of Power Lines

The Inductance of Power Lines can be calculated by the expression given below,
Magnetic flux Linkages

Induc tance 
Current
d
L
dI
Significance of ‘L’
 It is used to represent reactive power Q absorbed by the line.
 It represents flux linkages in a conductor. There are two types of flux linkages in
conductors
o Internal magnetic flux linkages
o External magnetic flux linkages
 For Inductance calculation we neglect skin effect.
Inductance of Single Conductor

As we calculated earlier, there are two flux linkages in a single conductor i.e. Internal and
External Flux Linkages.
Due to Internal Flux Linkages, the inductance is given by,
0r
Lint  H/m
8
Due to External Flux Linkages, the inductance is given by,
 0 r  D 
L ext  ln   H / m
2  r 
The total inductance is given by,
 0 r  D 
L  Lint  L ext  ln  H / m
2  re1/ 4 
 0 r  D 
L ln   H / m
2  r ' 
Where, r’=0.7788r is called as Geometric Mean Radius or GMR of the conductor.

Single Phase 2-wire line

The inductance of Single Phase two wire line derived
earlier is given by,
 0 r  D 
L ln  H / m
  r ' r ' 
 1 2 
Here, r1 ' r2 ' is called as GMR of the system.
Hence, GMR of the system is geometric mean of individual GMRs.
If r1  r2  r then r1 '  r2 '  r '
Then, Inductance is given by,
 0 r  D 
L ln   H / m
  r' 
Single Phase 1-wire line

Here, earth acts as return conductor.
Since, radius of earth is large, its inductance
can be neglected.
 0 r  h 
L total  L a  L earth  La  ln   H / m
2  r ' 
Stranded Conductors
For Stranded Conductors we calculate GMR in same way as Self GMD.
 0 r  d 
La  ln  H / m
2   GMR  
 a 
  d 
Lb  0 r ln  H / m
2   GMR  
 b 
The total Inductance is given by,

0r  d 
LSYS  ln  H / m
   GMR  
 SYS 
Where, GMR SYS

 GMR  GMR 
a b
GMR for stranded conductors is not equal to r’=0.7788r.

GMR of stranded conductors is less than Solid Conductors so, GMR < 0.7788r.

Three Phase Single Conductor System

Assuming that the lines are transposed so the Inductance per phase is same.
0r   GMD sys 

Lph  ln H/m
2   GMR  
 sys 
The GMD and GMR of individual conductors are mentioned below,

GMD  a
 DabDac GMR  a
 ra '
GMD  b
 DabDbc GMR  a
 rb '
GMD  c
 DbcDac GMR  a
 rc '
The GMD and GMR for the system is given by,
1/3
 GMD  sys
  GMD a   GMD b   GMD c 
 
1/3
 GMD  sys
  DabDac  DabDbc  DacDbc 
 
 GMD 
1/3
sys
 Dab  Dac  Dbc 
GMR 
1/3
sys
 ra ' rb ' rc '
Three Phase Bundled Conductor System

In case of bundled conductors the GMR is replaced by self GMD.
0r  mutualGMD sys 
Lph  ln H/m
2   self GMD  
 sys 
Inductive reactance in a system will be, XLph  Lph  2fLph  / km

Reactive Power absorbed by Inductor = QLph  I2 XLph VAR
For, three phase it will be QL (3  )  3I2 XLph VAR
Calculation of ‘C’ for Power Line
The capacitance of a Power Line can be calculated as,
Electric flux linkages

Capacitance=
Voltages
 or q
C=
V
1
Electrostatic energy = CV Joules
2
2
Significance of Capacitance
 It represents reactive power (Q) supplied by line.
 It represents changing current carried by line.
Potential due to line charge

Electric Field due to a line charge at distance ‘x’

E
20r x
The potential difference between two points at distance ‘a’ and ‘b’
a b 
Va  Vb   E.dx   dx
b a 20 r x
 b   1 1
Va  Vb  ln    ln  ln 
20 r  a  20 r  a b
So, by generalization the potential at a distance ‘x’
  1
VX  ln  
20r  x 
Potential at a point ‘P’
q  1 q  1 
VP  ln    ln  
20 r  da  20 r  db 
q d 
VP  ln  b 
20 r  da 
If da  db point P is midway between conductors

Vp =0, so we can treat the point P as neutral point.
To calculate potential difference between A and B we make use of the superposition
theorem.
Potential difference between A and B due to A,
q   1  1  q  d  r2 
Vab,a  ln    ln    ln  
20 r   r1   d  r2   20 r  r1 
Potential difference between A and B due to B,
q   1   1  q  r  q  d  r1 
Vab,b  ln    ln      ln  2   ln  
20 r   d  r1   r2   20 r  d  r1  20 r  r2 

The total potential difference between A and B

q  d  r1  q  d  r2 
Vab  Vab,a  Vab,b  ln   ln  
20 r  r2  20 r  r1 
q   d  r1  d  r2   q
 d  r d  r  
ln 
1 2
Vab  ln  
20 r  r1  r2  0 r  r1  r2 
  
Assuming d  r1 ,r2
q  d 
Vab  ln  
0 r  r  r 
 1 2 
The capacitance between A and B is
q 0 r
Cab  
Vab  d 
ln  
 r r 
 1 2 
This can be modelled as series combination of two line to neutral capacitances,
 d 
ln  
1 1 1  r r 
  
1 2
 
Cab Can Cbn 0 r
 d 
ln   ln  d  ln  d 
 r r     
1

1

1
 
1 2    r1    r2 
Cab Can Cbn 0 r 20 r 20 r
The line to neutral capacitances are given by,
20 r 20 r
Can  Cbn 
d d
ln   ln  
 r1   r2 
If r1  r2  r
20 r 20 r
Can  Cbn 
d  d
ln   ln  
r r
Effect of earth on Capacitance Calculation

Whenever a Transmission line runs above earth there is some charge induced in the earth
and that changes the electric field distribution. This causes variation in Capacitance
calculation.

 Image charges will be placed into the ground

for earth physical charge existing above the
ground.
 The quantity of image charge should be same
as physical charge with opposite sign.
The image charges will be placed below
ground at same distance as physical charge
above the ground.
Aim: to make earth potential zero.
q
 Cab 
Vab
Vab  Van  Vbn

Potential of conductor "a"
q 1 q 1 q  1 q  1 
Van  ln  ln  ln    ln  
2 r 2 d 2  2h  2  4h2  d2 
q   2dh
Van  ln  
2  r 4h2  d2 
Similarly
q 1 q 1 q  1 q  1 
Vbn   ln  ln  ln    ln  
2 r 2 d 2  2h  2  4h2  d2 
q   2dh
Vbn  ln  
2  r 4h2  d2 
q  2dh 
Vab  Van  Vbn  ln  
  r 4h2  d2 
0 r
Cab 
 
2dh
ln  
 r 4h2  d2 
2 2
Can  Cbn  2Cab  
 2dh   
ln    
 r 4h2  d2  d
ln  
 d2 
 r 1 2 
 4h 
As the height of the conductors above the ground is increased the capacitance reduces.

Three phase Single Conductor System

Per Phase Capacitance i.e. Capacitance to neutral of the system is given by,
20r
Cph  F/m
 GMD 
ln  
 r 
 
1/3
where, GMD  Dab  Dac  Dbc 
Three phase bundle conductor system

In Capacitance calculation for Bundled Conductors, the concept remains same as Inductance
calculation just there is no concept of Internal Flux Linkage and thus there is no factor of
0.7788.
So, at all places r’ is replaced by r.
20 r
Cph  F/m
 GMD 
ln  
 self GMD 
1 1
Capacitive Reactance per phase = XC/ph    / km
Cph 2f  Cph
1
Capacitance Susceptance/ph = Bc / ph =  Cph = 2f  Cph S/km
Xc
Vph
Charging current carried by power line: Ic ph    X c ph
Ic (line)  Ic (ph)  CphVph  Vph (2f)Cph
Reactive Power supplied by line,
V 
2
 
ph 2
Q (ph) 
c
 Cph Vph
Xc
For three phase power is given by,
 
2
3 Vph
Q c 3     
2
 3Cph Vph
Xc

Effect of various parameters on Transmission Line

 If length of power line increases
l
o R  R  l so R increases
A
o L increases  Xl increases
o C increases  X c decreases
o C increases  Ic increases
 If radius of conductor increases

o R decreases as cross section area increases.
 GMD 
o L  ln   , L decreases as GMR increases
 GMR 
1
o C , C increases  Xc decreases
 GMD 
ln  
 GMR 
o C increases  Ic increases
 If the distance between conductors increases

o Resistance is constant
 GMD 
o L  ln   , L increases as GMD increases
 GMR 
1
o C , C decreases as GMD increases  Xc increases
 GMD 
ln  
 GMR 
o C decreases  Ic decreases
 If supply frequency increases

o Small increment in R due to skin effect
o L & C have no effect
o X c decreases & X L increases
o Ic increases as charging current is proportional to frequency
 If supply voltage increases

o R,L,C  no change
o X L & X c  no change
o Ic increases as it is proportional to voltage.

Conductor Configurations
Bundled Conductors
0r  GMD 
Lph  ln  H / m
2  self GMD 
Double Circuit Lines
Here, distance between conductors corresponding to same phase is almost same as the
distance between conductors of different phases.
Here, S cannot be neglected.
0r  GMD 
Lph  ln  H / m
This is used above 250kVA.

Parallel Line System
The distance between conductors of individual phase is much greater than conductors of
different phases. So, mutual flux linkages can be neglected.
Solved Examples
Problem: Calculate loop inductance of following single phase system.
Solution: GMD between forward and return path

(GMD)  D14  D15   D24  D25   D34  D35 
1/6
 (3  10)  (3  10)  ( 10  19) 6 =3.17m

 
Self GMD of forward path
1
Self GMD f  D11  D12  D13   D21  D22  D23   D31  D32  D33   9
1 1
= (r1 ' 1 2)(r1 '11)(r1 '1 2)  = (r1 ')3 4  9  0.33m
9

Self GMD r  D 44  D 45   D54  D55   4

1
 (r2 ' 1)(r2 ' 1) 4  0.176m

 3.17 
L f  2  10 7 ln    0.45 mH / km
 0.33 
 3.17 
Lr  2  10 7 ln    0.57 mH / km
 0.176 
Lnet  L f  Lr  1.02 mH / km
Problem: Calculate inductance per phase of following circuit.
Assume Radius of conductor =1cm.

Solution: The GMD of a three phase system is given by,
1
(GMD)  (Dab,eq  Dbc,eq  Dac,eq ) 3
We have to calculate the equivalent distance between every two phases.

1
(Dab )eq  (Da1,b1  Da1,b2  Da2,b1  Da2,b2 ) 4
1
=(3  12  12  3) 4
 6m
1
(Dbc )eq  (Db1,c1  Db1,c2  Db2,c1  Db2,c2 ) 4
1
 (3  6  6  3) 4
 4.24m
1
(Dac )ef  (Da1,c1  Da1,c2  Da2,c1  Da2,c2 ) 4
1
 (6  9  9  6) 4
 7.348m
1
GMD  (6  4.24  7.348 ) 3
 5.71m
Self GMD of each phase can be calculated as
1
(self GMDa )  Da1,a1  Da1,a2   Da2,a1  Da2,a2  4
1
 (r1 ' 15  r1 ' 15) 4
 0.341m

1
(self GMDb )  Db1,b1  Db1,b2   Db2,b1  Db2,b2  4
1
 (r1 ' 9  r1 ' 9) 4
 0.2647m
1
(self GMDc )  Dc1,c1  Dc1,c2   Dc2,c1  Dc2,c2   4
1
 (r1 ' 3  r1 ' 3) 4
 0.1528m
Self GMD of the system will be geometric mean of individual GMDs.
1
(self GMDc )   self GMDa    self GMDb    self GMDc   3
1
 (0.341 0.2547  0.1528) 3
 0.2398m
Inductance per phase is given by,
0  GMD 
L ln  
 5.71 
L=2  10 7 ln    0.634 mH / km
 0.2398 
Problem: Find the emf induced in telephone lines which are strung symmetrically below one
phase power line as shown below. The rms value of current carried by power line is 100A at
50Hz frequency. The largest & smallest distance between power conductor & telephone
conductors are 3m & 2.5m respectively. Also calculate mutual inductance between telephone
line and power line.
Solution: Flux linkage in telephone lines is given by,

0  I    1 
Mutual flux linkage on T1= I  ln    0 I  ln 
2  Da, T1  2  D 
   b,T1 
  1   1 
=0.2  100  ln    100  ln   
  2.5   3 
  3 
=0.2  100  ln     3.646 mWb-T/km
  2.5  

0  I    1 
Mutual flux linkage on T1= I  ln    0 I  ln 
2  Da, T2  2  D 
   b,T2 
  1  1 
=0.2  100  ln    100  ln  
 3  2.5  
  2.5  
=0.2  100  ln     3.646 mWb-T/km
  3 
Net Flux linkage is given by,
net   T1   T2  7.292 mWb-T/km
e    7.292  2    50
=2.29 V/km
Mutual Inductance is given by,
net 7.292
M  =0.007292 mH/km
I 100
Problem: Two conductors of equal radius r=2cm displaced by d=4m. What is self-
inductance of each conductor, mutual inductance between conductors and total inductance
of the system?
Solution: The self-inductance is given by,
0  1 
Ls  ln   H/m
2  r ' 
 1 
=0.2  ln   = 0.83 mH/km
 0.7788  0.02 
Mutual Inductance is given by,
0  1   1
Lm  ln    0.2ln    0.27 mH/km
2  d  4
0  d   4 
Total inductance = ln    0.4ln  2 
  r'   0.7788  2  10 
=2.21 mH/km
Note: The formulae used above have been taken from the derivation of flux linkage of a
conductor in a group of conductors.
Also, observe Ltotal  Ls  Ls  2  Lm  2  0.83  2   0.27   2.2mH / km
Problem: Determine the capacitance / phase / km and charging current per phase / km of a
line operating at 132 KV and the conductors are arranged as shown below. The radius of the
conductor is 10 mm?

Solution: GMD for 3-phase system is
1 1
GMD  DabDbcDac  3
 3  3  6  3
 3.7797m
Capacitance per phase/km is
20 r 2  8.85  1012
Cph  
 GMD   3.7797 
ln   ln  
 r   0.01 
 9.369  1012 F / m  9.369nF / Km
Line charging current= Cph Vph
132  103

  2    50  9.369  109   3
 224.32 mA / km
Problem: Calculation GMR of stranded conductor shown below:
Each strand has a radius r.

Solution: GMR for stranded conductors is calculated in a manner similar to self GMD.
1 1
1
GMR 1  D11D12D13 ............D17   r ' 2r  2r  .......  2r   r ' 2r  
7 6 7
7
Since conductors 2-7 are symmetrical with respect to central conductor, their GMR will be
same

1
GMR  2
 D21D22D23 ............D27  7
D 21  2r
D27  2r
D 22  r '
D25  4r
D 23  2r
To calculate D24 & D26
OC r
OAC  sin1  sin1  300
OA 2r
AC  OA cos30  2r  3  r 3
D24  AB  2AC  2 3r  D26
1

 

2 7
 GMR    2r  r '   4r   2 3r 
3
2
 
1
 GMR  2
  GMR 1  GMR 2  GMR 3 .............  GMR 7 
 
7
 
  
6 7
6 
 
2
  r '  2r   r '  2r   4r  2 3r  
3
 2.176r
   
Radius of equivalent solid conductor=3r
GMR  solid
 3r 0.7788   2.3364r
Hence, in case of stranded conductor effective radius reduces. So corona increases.

Steady State Performance of Transmission Line

To know whether the equipment is working properly, we need to study the steady state
behaviour of Transmission Line. Generally the performance indices that are studied are:
Efficiency
 Power efficiency
 Energy Efficiency or All Day Efficiency
PR PR
Efficiency, =  100%=  100%
PS PR + losses
The various losses in a Transmission Line,
 I R Losses: These losses are variable with the load.
2
 Corona Loss: These losses are variable with atmospheric conditions.

 V 2G Loss: This is due to leakage current in the insulator.
Energy Consumed by Load(kWhr)

All Day Efficiency =  100%
Energy Generated(kWhr)
Regulation
 Static Regulation
Apparatus giving electrical energy as output e.g. Transformer, Generator, Transmission
Line etc.
 Dynamic Regulation
Apparatus giving mechanical energy as output e.g. Motor
Static Regulation is also called as Voltage Regulation. It is the difference between No Load
and Full load as a ratio of full load voltage or No-Load Voltage. There are two types of
Voltage Regulation defined,
| VNL |  | VFL | | Vr0 |  | Vr |
Regulation Up  VR    100%
| VFL | | Vr |
| VNL |  | VFL | | Vr0 |  | Vr |
Regulation Down  VR    100%
| VNL | | Vr0 |
In Transmission Lines, we use Regulation Up.
Conditions
 Only magnitude of voltages need to be considered
 Voltage Regulation is calculated at a specified pf
 During No load & Full load calculations, Vs should be same

Classification of Transmission Lines

Transmission lines are classified on the basis of wavelength of frequency of signals
transmitted to the line. The physical length of the line is compared with the wavelength of
the wave propagating on the line. The following categories are defined.
Short line
For 50Hz frequency, length must be less than 80km for a line.
L < 80km, Lf < 4000
For a short Transmission line, we neglect any shunt element i.e. Conductance and Line
Charging Current.
Medium line
For 50Hz frequency, length must be more than 80km and less than 200km for a line.
80km< L < 200km, 4000 < Lf < 10000
For a medium Transmission line, we neglect shunt conductance.
Long line
For 50Hz frequency, length must be more than 200km for a line.
L > 200km, Lf > 10000
If the frequency of operation is changed, the length criteria for classification will be changed.
Here, we use distributed parameter model of a Transmission Line.
Note: Always steady state analysis is done on lumped model & transient analysis on
distributed model.
Solved Examples
Problem: For a 500Hz frequency excitation, a 50km short power line will be modeled as?
Solution: Product of length & frequency=lf=500x50=25000km/s
Lf>10000 so it behaves as long line
Short Transmission Line

In case of Short Transmission Line, we lump the resistance and inductance, but capacitance is
neglected. The circuit model is shown below,

Medium Transmission Line

In Medium Transmission Line, the line charging current is appreciable and thus Shunt
Capacitance cannot be neglected. But there can be various configurations based on where
the Shunt Capacitance is placed. The parameters are distributed so when we lump them we
can connect them in different manner as shown below.
Receiving end “C” model
In this model, the shunt capacitance is connected at the receiving end.
Sending end “C” model

In this model, the shunt capacitance is connected at the sending end.
Nominal T-model
For more accurate modelling of the line we divide the line into two parts and model them
individually. These models are then connected together to form the complete circuit for the
line. For Nominal T-Model we represent the first half of the line by receiving end “C” model
and second half by Sending end “C” model.

Nominal  - model
 1st half - Sending end “C“ model
 2nd half – Receiving end “C“ model
 In nominal T-model, there is a creation of new node in an inter-connected system, if a

Transmission line are represented by Nominal “T” model, then the total number of nodes will
be increased & size of power system matrices ( YBUS , Z BUS ) increases which makes analysis
difficult. So Power lines are always represented as  model.
 Generally power lines are modelled as 2 – port network for the ease of analysis.
 For long line we do not lump the parameters and we use distributed model of the line.
ABCD Parameters
 Transmission Lines when modelled in terms of 2-port network is represented in terms of
ABCD parameters or Transmission Parameters. These parameters relate the sending end and
the receiving end parameters.
 The benefit of representation in ABCD parameters is that entire analysis of Transmission
line performance can be done in terms of ABCD parameters. All the expressions derived will
be same for all lines regardless of model of the line.
 Parameters of the line will depend on the modelling of the line.
 Vs   A B   VR 
   
 Is   C D   IR 
Vs  AVR  BIR
Is  CVR  DIR

Receiving end open circuited

IR  0
VR0 = No – load or open – circuit voltage
VS  AVr  VS  AVr0
IS  CVr  IS  CVr0
VS
A  reverse voltage gain under open circuit
Vr0
IS
C=  transfer admitance of Transmission line
Vr0
A VS
Zoc    open circuit impedance of Transmission Line
C IS IR 0
Receiving end short circuited

VR  0
IR = Steady State Short Circuit Current
VS  BIr Vr  0
IS  DIr Vr  0
VS
B  Transfer Impedance of Line under short circuit
Ir Vr 0
I
D= S  Reverse Current Gain of Line under short circuit
Ir Vr 0
B VS
ZSC    Short circuit impedance of Transmission Line
D IS VR 0
Characteristic Impedance of Power line

It is geometric mean of open & short circuit input impedances of power line.
 A  B 
Z c  Z oc Z sc    
 C  D 
Sending End Driving point impedance
VS A
ZS  
IS IR 0
C

Receiving End Driving point impedance

VR D
ZR  
IR IS 0
C
 If driving point impedances from both end of network are same then network is
symmetrical
Z S  ZR
A D

C C
A D
For symmetric property A=D
A B
 If  1 or AD -BC  1 network is reciprocal
C D
 Always, practical Power line are symmetric and reciprocal
For a practical line A=D
A B B
Zc   
C D C
Two Transmission Lines in Cascade

Transmission Lines are connected in cascade to increase the length of line.
For line – 1
 Vs   A1 B1   V 
   
 Is   C1 D1   I 

For line – 2
 V   A2 B2   VR 
   
 I   C2 D2   IR 
 Vs   A1 B1   A 2 B2   VR 
 I   C D  C D   I 
s  1 1  2 2  R 
So, the equivalent matrix becomes

 Vs   A1A 2  B1C2 A1B 2  B1D 2   VR 
 I   C A  D C  
C1B 2  D1D 2   IR
s  1 2 1 2 
Example
 Vs   1 Z   VR 
   
I
s  0 1   IR 
 Vs   1 0   VR 
   
 Is   Y 1  IR 
Two networks in cascade
 1 Z   1 0  1  YZ Z 
   
 0 1  Y 1   Y 1
 A  D unsymmetrical
 AD  BC  1, reciprocal Network
So, if two networks are connected in cascade, then resultant network may not be
symmetrical always.

Two Transmission line connected in parallel

Two Transmission lines are connected in parallel to increase the reliability of the system, so
that if one transmission line fails other can take the load.
Is  Is1  Is2 Vs  Vs1  Vs2

Ir  Ir1  Ir2 Vr  Vr1  Vr2
For Line-1
 Vs   A1 B1   Vr 
   
 Is1   C1 D1   Ir1 
Vs  A 1Vr  B 1Ir1 ..........(1)
Is1  C 1Vr  D 1Ir1 ..........(2)
For Line-2
 Vs   A2 B2   Vr 
   
Is2   C2 D2  Ir2 
Vs  A 2 Vr  B 2Ir2 ..........(3)
Is2  C 2 Vr  D 2Ir2 ..........(4)
(1)  B1  (3)  B2
Vs (B1  B2 )  (A1B2  A 2B1 )Vr  B1B2Ir
(A1B2  A 2B1 ) B1B2
Vs  Vr  Ir
(B1  B2 ) B1  B2

(2)  (4)
Is1  Is2  (C1  C2 )Vr  D1Ir1  D 2Ir 2
Substitute Ir1 & Ir 2 from (1) and (3) respectively
 Vs  A1Vr   Vs  A2 Vr 
Is  Is1  Is2  (C1  C2 )Vr  D1   
 B 1   B2 
D A D A  D D 
Is  (C1  C2 )Vr  Vr  1 1  2 2   VS  1  2 
 B1 B2   B1 B2 
(A1B2  A2B1 ) B1B2
Substitute, Vs  Vr  Ir
(B1  B2 ) B1  B2
 (A1  A2 )(D2  D1 )   D1B2  D2B1 
Is  (C1  C2 )   Vr  Ir  
 (B1  B2 )   B1  B2 
 If two symmetric Network are connected in parallel then resultant Network is also
symmetrical.
This can be observed from the above equivalent parameters that if A1  D1 A2  D2
 A1B2  A2B1 
Deq     A eq
 B 2
 B1 
Voltage Regulation and Line Charging Current
Under No-Load Conditions IR  0

By ABCD parameter model
Vs  AVR0 where VR 0 is the receiving end voltage at No-Load
VS
VR 0 
A
The voltage regulation is given by,
V s
 VR
VR 0  VR A
VR   100%   100%
VR VR
The sending end current under No-Load conditions is used to store charge on the line and is
called as Line Charging Current.

Is  CVR 0 , the voltage here must be per-phase voltage.

C
It can also be expressed as, Is  VS
A
Note: Whenever using ABCD parameters the voltages and currents must always be per-
phase.
Short Transmission Line
The Short Transmission line model is represented as,
Applying KVL,
VS  VR  IR Z where Z  R  jL
Also, IS  IR
Hence, the ABCD parameters of Short Transmission Line,
 VS   1 Z   VR 
   
 IS  0 1   IR 
From the matrix A=D, hence the network is symmetrical

Also, AD-BC=1, the network is reciprocal
The Voltage Regulation of the line is (A=1),

V s
 VR
A VS  VR
VR   100%   100%
VR VR
Since, C=0 for Short Transmission Line so Line Charging Current is zero.
Phasor Diagram of Short Transmission Line

From the phasor diagram shown below, we can determine the horizontal and vertical
components of Sending end voltage.

The horizontal component of Vs is

OB=OA+AB  VR cos R  IRR
The vertical component of Vs is OD=OC+CD  VR sin R  IR X
 V cos   IRR    VR sin R  IR X 

2 2
So Vs  OD2  OB2  R R
For leading pf it becomes
 V cos   IRR    VR sin R  IR X 

2 2
Vs  R R
Condition for Zero and Maximum Voltage Regulation

Zero Voltage Regulation
Vs  VR
V cos R  IRR    VR sin R  IR X 

2 2
VR  R
VR   VR cos R  IRR    VR sin R  IR X 

2 2 2
   
 VR2 cos2 R  sin2 R  IR2 R 2  X 2  2IR VR R cos R  X sin R 
R  jX  Z
R  Z cos  X  Z sin 
2 2
VR  VR  IR2 Z 2  2IR VR  Z cos  cos R  Z sin  sin R 
IR2 Z 2  2IR ZVR cos    R    0
IR Z
cos    R   
2VR
Here,  represents impedance angle.

Maximum Voltage Regulation
V cos R  IRR    VR sin R  IR X 

2 2
Vs  R
 
Vs  VR  IR2 R 2  X 2  2IR VR R cos R  X sin R 
2 2
2 2
Vs  VR Should be maximum
d  V 2  V 2  0
So
dR  s R 

0  2IR VR  R sin R  X cos R   0
R sin R  X cos R  0
tan R  X
R
tan R  tan 
R  
Hence, Load pf should be equal to impedance angle of the transmission line for maximum
Voltage Regulation.
Phasor Diagram for zero pf lagging load
From the phasor diagram,
R   S
cos R  cos  S
Higher Sending end power factor is always desirable.
High Power Factor indicates that major fraction of total
Power is Real Power.
For a lagging Load i.e. RL load we can say,

X
R  tan1  
 R Load
The impedance angle of the Transmission line is given by,
X
  tan1  
 R Line
Based on comparison of receiving end power factor angle and impedance angle of the
Transmission Line, there can be two cases.
X X
Case-1:      at lagging Pf
 R line  R load
The phasor diagram for this case is shown,
From the phasor it can be observed that

R   S
cos R  cos  S
A low value of sending end power factor is
an undesirable condition.
X X
Case-2:      at lagging pf
 R line  R load
The phasor diagram for this case is shown,
From the phasor it can be observed that
R   S
cos R  cos  S
A high value of sending end power factor is
a desirable condition.
Approximate Voltage Regulation for Short Transmission Line

The phasor diagram for a lagging power factor load is shown below with receiving end
voltage as reference.
For determining Voltage Regulation, we are interested in magnitude of voltages so if VS

phasor is rotated to align in the horizontal direction. Then, VS  OB
Approximately OC=OB
OC = OM + MD + DC
OC  VR  IRR cos R  IR X sin R
| VS || VR |  | IR | (R cos R  X sin R )
| VS |  | VR | |I |
Voltage regulation =  100% = R (R cos R  X sin R )  100%
| VR | | VR |
For leading power factor loads this expression becomes,

| IR |
VR  (R cos R  X sin R )  100%
| VR |
Assuming the base values of per unit system as follows,

VR  Vbase IR  Ibase
Vbase | VR |
Zbase  
Ibase | IR |
The Voltage Regulation then becomes,

| IR | (R cos R  X sin R )
VR  (R cos R  X sin R )  100%   100%
| VR | Zbase
VR  (Rpu cos R  Xpu sin R )  100%
For leading power factor loads, VR  (Rpu cos R  Xpu sin R )  100%
Note: Here the actual operating values of VR , IR are assumed as base values and they need
not be the rated values.
Condition for Maximum and Zero Voltage Regulation

For Maximum Voltage Regulation
Maximum Voltage Regulation occurs for lagging power factor loads. For maximum voltage
regulation,
d  VR 
  Rpu  sin R  Xpu  cos R   0
dR
Xpu X
tan R    tan 
Rpu R
R  
For the Transmission Line,
R pu  Z pu cos 
Xpu  Z pu sin 
Maximum value of Voltage Regulation,
 Rpu Xpu   R 2pu  X2pu 
VR =  Rpu   Xpu     Zpu
 Zpu Zpu   Zpu 

Hence, per unit value of line impedance is equal to maximum Voltage Regulation.
For maximum voltage regulation
cosR  cos  S
So VS & VR are in phase

For zero voltage regulation
Possible only for leading pf load

VR  RpucosR  Xpu sin R
Rpu R
tanR    cot   tan  90   
Xpu X
R  90  
R    90
The Voltage Regulation curve vs power factor angle is shown in the figure above.
Hence, for most leading power factor loads the voltage regulation is negative.
Solved Examples
Problem: A single-phase transmission line of impedance j0.8ohm supplies a resistive load of
550A at 300V. The sending-end power factor is?
Solution: The circuit for the system looks like as shown,
Assume VR  30000 V, IR  50000 A
Applying KVL
Vs  3000  5000  j0.8  3000  j400  50053.130 V
Sending end pf= cos 53.13  0  0.6lag
Lagging because current angle is 00.

Problem: A 220kV, 20km long, 3-phase transmission line has the following A, B, C, D
constants
A  D  0.9630
B  55650 / Phase,
C  0.5  10 4 900 / Phase,

Its line charging current per phase is?
Solution: The no-load receiving end voltage=220kV
Line charging current= CVR0 ph
220 11
 0.5  104   A
3 3
Problem: The generalized circuit constants of a 3-phase, 220kV rated voltage, medium
length transmission line are

A  D  0.936  j0.016  0.9360.980
B  33.5  j138  142.076.40 
C   5.18  j914   106 

If the load at the receiving end is 50MW at 220kV with a power factor of 0.9 lagging, then
magnitude of line sending end voltage should be?
Solution: Receiving end load
PR  50MW, VR  220kV, p.f  0.9
Receiving end current
PR 50  106
IR    145.795A
3VR cos  3  220  103  0.9
IR  145.795  25.840 A
Sending end voltage,
VS  AVR  BIR
220  103
 0.9360.98   14276.4  145.795  25.84
3
 133.2467.770 kV
Line to line voltage= 3  133.246 =230.788kV
Problem: The A, B, C, D constant of a 220kV line are:

A  D  0.9410, B  130730 , C  0.00190 0
If the sending end voltage of the line for a given load delivered at nominal voltage is 240kV,
then % voltage regulation of the line is?
Solution: Sending end voltage=240kV
Vs 240
No-load receiving end voltage= 
A 0.94
VR0  255.32kV
Full load receiving end voltage, VR  220kV
VR0  VR 255.32  220
Voltage regulation=  100% =  100%  16%
VR 220
Problem: A 50Hz transmission line 300km long has a total series impedance of 40+j125
ohms and a total shunt admittance of 10-3 mho. The receiving end load is 50MW at 220kV
with 0.8 lagging power factor. Find the sending power with the short line approximation.
50  106
Solution: Receiving end current=  164A
3  220  103  0.8

Losses in a short line= 3IR2R  3  164   40 =3.228MW

2
Sending end Power = Receiving End Power + Losses = 50 + 3.22 = 53.22 MW
Medium Transmission Line
Receiving end “C” model
Z  R  jL  (R  jX)
Y  jC  jB
B  suscep tance
Applying KVL and KCL

IS  IC  IR
=VR Y  IR
VS  VR  IS (R  jX)
=VR  (VR Y  IR )Z
=VR (1  YZ)  IR Z
Thus, the relation between sending end and receiving end parameters are,
VS  VR (1  YZ)  IR Z
IS  VR Y  IR
In matrix form it can be represented as,

 VS  1  YZ Z   VR 
   
 IS   Y 1   IR 
From the matrix,
A  D Asymmterical Network
AD  BC  1 Reciprocal Network
Ferranti Effect
Under No load or light load conditions, the magnitude of receiving end voltage may be
more than sending end voltage, which is called as Ferranti Effect. This is due to charging
current carried by the line.

The phasor diagram of the Transmission Line under No-Load Condition is shown in the
figure. Here, IR  0  IS  IC and this is capacitor current so it leads the voltage by 900. From
the figure it can be observed that magnitude of sending end voltage is less than no-load
receiving end voltage.
Sending end “C” model

VS  VR  IR (R  jX)
=VR  IR Z
IS  IC  IR
=VS Y  IR  Y  VR  IR Z   IR
 YVR  IR 1  YZ 
Thus, the relation between sending end and receiving end parameters are,
VS  VR  IR Z
IS  VR Y  IR (1  YZ)
In matrix form it can be represented as,

 VS   1 Z   VR 
   
 IS   Y 1  YZ   IR 
From the matrix,
A  D Asymmterical Network
AD  BC  1 Reciprocal Network
The no-load receiving end voltage is given by,

VS
VR0 
A
Since, A=1
VR 0  VS , so No Ferranti effect is exhibited by this model as for Ferranti Effect No-Load
Receiving end voltage should be greater than Sending End Voltage.
Nominal T – model

Z Z
VS  IS    IR    VR
2 2
IS  IR  Ic
 Z
V1   VR  IR 
 2
Then capacitor current is,
 Z
IC  V1Y   VR Y  IR Y 
 2
 YZ 
IS  VR Y  IR 1  
 2 
Sending end voltage is given by,
  YZ    Z  Z
VS   VR Y  IR 1       IR    VR
  2   2  2
 YZ   YZ 
=VR 1    IR Z 1  
 2   4 
In matrix form we can express as,
 YZ   YZ  
 1   Z 1  
 VS   2   4    VR 
     
 IS    YZ    IR 
Y 1  
  2  
From the matrix we can observe,
A=D; Symmetrical Network
AD-BC=1; Reciprocal Network

The magnitude of A is less than 1 though it may appear that it will be greater than 1 as,
 YZ 
A  1   , but A is always less than or equal to 1.
 2 
Then, no load voltage is
| VS |
| Vr0 | | VS |
A
Hence, Ferranti Effect is included in this model.
Nominal  - model
This can be treated as cascading of three network one shunt admittance, one impedance and
one other shunt admittance.
 1 0  1 0
A B    1 Z   
 
 Y   Y
C D  
1 0 1  1
2   2 
  YZ  
1 Z   1 0   1   Z 
A B        2  
   Y YZ   Y 


C D  1 1  YZ   YZ  
2 2   2   Y 1   1  
  4   2  
A=D; Symmetrical Network

AD-BC=1; Reciprocal Network
| VS |
As A<1 , | Vr0 | | VS |
|A|
So, Ferranti Effect will be exhibited by this model.
The Transmission parameters of Nominal  Model and Nominal T model are different and
hence they cannot be achieved from each other by Star-Delta conversion.
Nominal T & Nominal  have same Ferranti effect whereas receiving end “C” model has
highest Ferranti effect.
Solved Examples
Problem: A 66kV three phase, 150km long over-head Transmission Line is having each
conductor resistance as 0.25  /km & inductive reactance of 0.5  /km. Capacitive
4
susceptance to ground B= 0.04 10 S/km. The receiving end load is 30MW at 0.8 pf
lagging 66kV. What is VR &  of power line by nominal  method.

Solution: The ABCD parameters of Nominal  model are,

  YZ  
 1   Z 
A B    2  
 
C D  YZ   YZ  
 Y 1   1  
  4   2  
Total Resistance of the line is R= 0.25  150  37.5 

Total Reactance of the line is X = 0.50  150  75 
Thus the impedance is given by, Z  R  jX  37.5  j75  83.8563.430 
Shunt Admittance of the line is, Y  jB  j0.04 104 150  6 104 900 S
Thus the parameters are,
 A B   0.9770.660 83.8563.430 
  
 C D  5.93  10 90.32 0.9770.660 
4 0
Receiving end current is given by,

P 30  106
IR    328.03  36.860 A
3VR cos R 3  66  10  0.8
3
Sending end parameters are,

66000
VS  AVR  BIR  0.9770.66   83.8563.430  328.03  36.860
3
VS  63.1211.63 kV 0
66000
IS  CVR  DIR  0.9770.66   83.8563.430  328.03  36.860
3
IS  307.57  32.81 A 0
 
Sending end Power is, PS  3VSIS cos S  3  63.12  307.57  cos 11.63  32.81 
PS  41.583 MW
VS 63.12
No-Load Voltage at receiving end is VR0    64.6kV
A 0.977
64.6  66
VR0  VR 3  100%  69.53%
Thus Voltage Regulation is, VR   100% 
VR 66
3
30
Efficiency is given by,    100%  72.14%
41.583
Such a high value of Voltage Regulation is impractical and so the system is Voltage Unstable
as Voltage Regulation is out of acceptable range.

Long Transmission Line
For Long Transmission Line analysis, we use distributed model instead of Lumped Parameter
Model. So, we try to model a small region of long line of length Δx .
Series impedance /km = z  r  jl /km

Shunt admittance /km = y  g  jc S/km
A small length “ Δx ” will be considered on Transmission line at x km from receiving end.
Using Taylor’s series

f Δx  2f  Δx 
2
f(x  Δx)  f(x)    ....

x 1! x2 2!
Neglect higher order terms
f
f(x  Δx)  f(x)  Δx
x
V(x)
V(x  Δx)  V(x)  Δx
x
V(x) V(x  Δx)  V(x)

x Δx
 I(x)
Similarly, I(x  Δx)  I(x)  Δx
x
I(x) I(x  Δx)  I(x)

x Δx

Here, we are using partial derivatives as Voltages and Currents are function of distance and
time.
By KVL, V(x  Δx)  V(x)  I(x)z(Δx)

Here, we are assuming the current I(x) through impedance as I(x  Δx)  I(x)
V(x  Δx)  V(x)
 zI(x)
Δx
V(x)
 zI(x) ……………….(1)
x
Applying KCL,
I(x  Δx)  I(x)  V(x)yΔx
I(x  Δx)  I(x)
 V(x)y
Δx
I(x)
 V(x)y ……………….(2)
x
(1) and (2) are mixed differential equation and we need to separate the variables V and I
Differentiate equation (1)
 2 V(x) I(x)
z  yzV(x) ……………..(3)
x 2
x
Similarly
 2I(x) V(x)
y  yzI(x) ………………(4)
x 2
x
Characteristic roots of equations (3) & (4)

D   yz
  yz = propogation constant
The solution for equation (3) is,

V(x)  Ve
1
x
 V2ex (5)
Current can be derived from equation (1) as,

1 V(x) 1
I(x) 
z x

 V1ex  V2ex
z

 yz y 1
  
z z z Zc

 V1 V2 x 
I(x)   ex  e  ...........(6)
 Zc Zc 
Boundary Conditions for the Transmission Line are,
x0 VX  VR IX  IR
x l VX  VS IX  IS
We wish to use Receiving end parameters as independent variables so we make use of first
boundary condition.
Substitute x=0 in (5) and (6)
VR  V1  V2
V V 
IR   1  2 
 Zc Zc 
V1  V2  IR Z c
Solving these equations we get,

 V I Z   V I Z 
V1   R R c  ; V2   R R c 
 2   2 
Thus the voltage at any point is given by,
 VR  IR Z c  x  VR  IR Z c  x
V(x)   e   e
 2   2 
e e 
x x
 e  ex 
x
V(x)  VR    IR Z c  
 2   2 
V(x)  VR cosh x  IR Z c sinh x
Similarly, current at any point is given by,

VR
I(x)  sinh x  IR cosh x
Zc
By using distributed parameters, we can calculate the current & voltage at any point whereas
it is not possible for lumped network.
Applying second boundary condition,

VS  VR cosh l  IR Z c sinh l
VR
IS  sinh l  IR cosh l
Zc
These equations can be expressed in matrix form as,

 cosh l Z c sinh l

 VS     VR 
  =  1 sinh l cosh l   
 IS   Z I
  R 
 c
This matrix gives ABCD parameters of a long Transmission Line.
A=D, distributed model is symmetrical
AD-BC=1, reciprocal network
Here,  is called as Propagation constant.

Z c is called as Characteristic Impedance or Surge Impedance of the line.
Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
In the voltage equation of long line, the term

 VR  IR Zc  x
  e represents Incident Wave as it travels from Sending End to Receiving End.
 2 
 VR  IR Z C  x
  e represents Reflected Wave as it travels from Receiving End to Sending End.
 2 
If ZL  Z C i.e. line is terminated in characteristic impedance.
VR  IR ZL  IR Z C
The reflected wave in the long line equation,
 VR  IR ZC  x
 e  0
 2 
A line terminated in characteristic impedance does not suffer any reflection from receiving
end.
 The incident wave under this condition cannot distinguish between a termination & on
infinite continuation of line.
 Z C is also called as surge impedance & it has a value of 400 ohm for over-head line &
phase angle is 0  15
1
 For UG cable Z C is of value for OH line.
10
2
VR
 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) = , where VR is line to line receiving end voltage.
ZC
 It is the receiving end power when line is terminated in characteristic impedance.
Equivalent Networks of Long Transmission Line
For a long Transmission Line we wish to design equivalent circuits which have same
Transmission Parameters as the original Transmission Line.

Equivalent  model
In this circuit Y’ and Z’ do not represent actual
Impedance and Admittance of the Transmission
Line but these are impedance and admittance
Which give same ABCD parameters as long
Transmission Line.
We derived ABCD parameters for  model in case of Medium Transmission Line,
  Y'Z'  
 1   Z' 
A B    2  
 
C D  Y'Z'   Y'Z'  
 Y' 1   1  
  4   2  
Comparing with original ABCD parameters

Z'  B  Z C sinh l
Z'Y' Y'  A  1  cosh l  1
1 A  
2 2  B  Z C sinh l
Equivalent T – Model
The equivalent T-model Looks like as shown below,
The ABCD Parameters of T model are,
 Y'Z'   Y'Z'  
 1   Z' 1  
 A B   2   4 
 
C D  Y'
 Y'Z'  
 1   
  2  
Comparing with the original parameters,
1
Y'  C  sinh l
ZC
Z'Y' Z'  A  1   cosh l  1 
1 A    ZC  
2 2  C   sinh l 
 ABCD parameters of Nominal T & Nominal  model are different but parameters of
Equivalent T and equivalent  model are same.
 Thus, equivalent T-model and equivalent  model can be obtained from each other by
Star-Delta Conversion.

Approximate ABCD parameters of long power line

It is difficult to calculate line voltages and currents using hyperbolic functions as calculations
would be complicated. So, we approximate these functions using Taylor’s Series.
( l)2 ( l)4
cosh l  1    ...
2! 4!
( l)3
sinh l  ( l)   ...
3!
Neglecting higher order terms
( l)2
cosh l  1 
2!
( l)3
sinh l  ( l) 
3!
These functions can be simplified as,
( l)2  ( zy )2 l2  ZY
 ZY 
A  D  cosh yl  1  
 2 

 ( l)2  Z  (zy) 2   YZ 
B  Z C sinhyl  Z c 1   ( l)= 1  l  zy =Z 1+ 

 6  Y 6   6 
1  YZ 
C= sinhyl  Y 1  
Zc  6 
z zl Z
Here, we have used the property that Z C   
y yl Y
So, characteristic impedance is independent of length of the line.
Here, Y and Z are lumped admittance and impedance of the line whereas z and y are
impedance and admittance per unit length of the line.
Per Unit ABCD Parameters

 A, B, C, D are always per-phase & these are complex numbers.
In per unit
 Z 
   YS Zbase 
ZPuYPu Z
APu  1   1   base 
2 2
Z Y
APu  1   S  A
2
Where, Z  and YS are impedance in ohms and admittance in Siemens.
In nominal   B=Z

Z
BPu 
Zbase
 Z Y 
C  YS 1   S 
 4 
 Z Y 
CPu  YS Zbase 1   S   CPu  CS Zbase
 4 
 B 
 APu BPu   A
  Zbase 
C D 
 Pu Pu 
CS Zbase D 
Also, since A and D are unit-less, their per-unit and actual values are same but B has the
units of impedance so per unit value is obtained by dividing by base impedance.
C has the units of admittance so per unit value is obtained by multiplying by base
impedance.
Complex Representation of ABCD Parameters
A  A 
A  1 but A is very close to 1
=0 - 10
B  B   represents series impedance

B  Z  (R  jX)
X
| B |  | Z |  ==tan1  
R 
    60  90
C | C |   represents shunt admittance

C  Y  G  jB
C  jB ; G is neglected
C= |C| = |Y|90
  90
D  D 
Usually, due to symmetry D = A

Solved Examples
Problem: Estimate the distance over which a load of 15000 kW at 0.85 pf can be transmitted
by a 3 – phase transmission line having the conductors each of resistance 0.905 ohms / km.
The voltage at the receiving end is to be maintained at 132 kV and the loss in transmission is
to be 7.5 % of the load.
15000  103
Solution: Load current=  77.185A
3  132  103  0.85
7.5
Losses=  15000  112.5kW
100
In 3   system
Loss= 3I2R  3   77.185   R  1125  103

2
R  62.945
Resistance length=0.905Ω/Km
62.945
Length=   69.553km  70km
0.905
Problem: A 275kV, 3-phase 50Hz 400km loss less line has following parameters
x = 0.05  / km , line charging susceptance is 3 micro-siemens/km. Calculate receiving end
voltage on open circuit, if the line is represented by Nominal  method.
Solution: Line Impedance is,
Z  j0.05 / km  400  j20
Y  j3  106  400  j1.2  103 S

In nominal  model
A  1 
 3

YZ 1  j1.2  10  j20 
 0.988
2 2
No load receiving end voltage
VS 275
VR0    278.34kV
A 0.988
Static Power Transfer Equation

 = load angle of transmission line

Represent quantity of load on Power Line
The line here is represented using ABCD parameter model.
Complex Power on receiving end side
SR  VRIR *
VS  AVR  BIR
VS  AVR
IR 
B
|V | A
IR  S (  )  | V | (  )
B B R
| VS | A
IR *  (  )  | V | (  )
B B R
 | Vs | |A| 
Complex power = SR  VRIR * | VR | 0  (  )  | VR | (  )
 |B | |B | 
| VS || VR | |A|
SR  (  )  | VR |2 (   )
|B | |B |
The Real and Reactive Receiving end powers are,

| VS || VR | |A|
PR  cos(  )  | V |2 cos(   )
|B | |B | R
| V || V | |A|
QR  S R sin(  )  | V |2 sin(   )
|B | |B | R
Note:
If | VR | , | VS | are per phase then PR , Q R also are per phase.
If | VR | , | VS | are line-to-line rms values then PR , Q R value represent three phase Active &
Real Power.
Condition for Maximum Power Transfer ( Pmax )

 Practically, it has been observed that the sensitivity of real power with respect to |V| is
neglected (or very low), so that variation in real power mostly decided by voltage angle 
i.e. P=f(  ).
 The sensitivity of reactive power with respect to voltage angle is very less. So reactive
power mainly depends on magnitudes of voltages i.e. Q=f(|V|)
 This is decoupling phenomenon.

dPR
 For maximum PR , 0
d
dPR | VS || VR |
 sin(  )  0
d |B |
=>   
Thus real and reactive power under maximum power condition is,
| VS || VR | | A |
Pmax   | V |2 cos(   )
|B | |B | R
|A|
QR   | VR |2 sin(   )
|B |
Reactive power is injected into the system from receiving end.
During PR(max) , Q is always negative so load should be a leading load or capacitive load which
is impractical or hypothetical condition.
    stability angle of Power Line

system is marginally stable
dPR
if      0 , system is unstable
d
dPR
If      0 , system is stable
d
For transient stability, usually operating angle of system   30  40
Maximum Steady State Power is Steady State Stability Limit of the system.
Power Angle Characteristics of Power Line
| VS || VR | |A|
PR  cos(  )  | V |2 cos(   )
|B | |B | R
| VS || VR | |A|
OA  cos  ; OB   | VR |2 cos(  )
|B | |B |
| V || V | |A|
PR |0  S R cos   | VR |2 cos(  )
|B | |B |
Assume that | VS || VR |

| VR |2 |A|
PR |0  cos   | VR |2 cos(   )
|B | |B |
| VR |2
PR |0 
|B |
cos  | A | cos(  )
Power Transfer Equation for Short Transmission Line
The ABCD parameters for a short Transmission Line are,

A B  1 Z 
  
 C D  0 1 
Where, Z = R + jX = Z 
Thus, B  Z ; 
Thus, receiving end real and reactive power is given by,
| VS || VR | | VR |2
PR  cos(  )  cos 
|Z| |Z|
| VS || VR | | VR |2
QR  sin(  )  sin 
|Z| |Z|
Usually, X>>R, so R can be neglected

Thus, Z  X;   900
Thus, Real and Reactive Power at receiving end is,

| VS || VR |
PR  sin 
X
| V || VR | | V |2 | V |
QR  S cos   R  R | VS | cos  | VR |
X X X
Condition for Pmax ,     90
| VS || Vr |
Pmax 
X
| VR |2
During Pmax , Q R  
X

Q R is negative during Pmax condition ,load should be a capacitive load or leading load which
is impractical.
  90 , stability limit of line
dPR
  90 ,  0 , unstable system
d
dPR
  90 ,  0 , stable system
d
Sending end Power Transfer Equation
Sending end power = Ss  VsIs *
 Vs   A B   VR 
   
 Is   C D   IR 
 VR   D B   VS 
   
 IR   C A   IS 
Vr  DVs  BIs
 DV  VR  | D |  | Vs |  | VR | 0
Is   s 
 B  | B | 
|D | |V |
Is  | Vs | (     )  R   
|B | |B |
|D | |V |
Is *  | Vs |   (   )  R 
|B | |B |
|D | | V || VR |
Ss  VsIs * | Vs |2 (   )  s (  )
|B | |B |
Real and Reactive Power at Sending End is given by,
|D | | V || VR |
Ps  | Vs |2 cos(   )  s cos(  )
|B | |B |
|D | | V || VR |
Qs  | Vs |2 sin(   )  s sin(  )
|B | |B |
Maximum Sending End Power

dPs
Condition for (Ps )max 0
d

| Vs || VR |
sin(  )  0
|B |
     ;   90 so we don't take     0

|D | | V || Vr |
(Ps )max  | Vs |2 cos(   )  s
|B | |B |
|D |
Qs  | Vs |2 sin(   )
|B |
Approximate Sending End Power Equation
R & C can be neglected
A B  1 jX   1 X90
   
 C D  0 1  0 1 
| A | 1 , =0
| B | X , =90
The real and reactive powers in this case are,
Vs VR
PS  sin 
X
Vs
QS   V  VR cos  
X  s 
Important Points

Vs VR
PS  sin  1  2 
X
Vs
QS   V  VR cos  1  2  
X  s 
 If 1  2  0 or 1  2
Then, P  0 , power flows from bus 1 to bus 2
 If 1  2  0 or 1  2
P  0 , power flows from bus 2 to bus 1

 Thus, Real Power flows from higher angle to lower angle.
 If | V1 | cos   | V2 |
Then Q  0 ; Q flows from bus 1 to bus 2

 If | V1 | cos   | V2 |
Then Q  0 ; Q flows from bus 2 to bus 1

 Reactive power flows from bus with higher voltage magnitude to bus with lower voltage
magnitude.
Solved Examples
Problem: Consider two buses connected by an impedance of 0  j5  . The bus 1 voltage is
100300 V and bus 2 voltage is 10000 V . The real and receive power supplied by bus 1
respectively, are?
Solution: The given data is,
Vs  100300 V VR  10000 V
X  5
Vs VR 100  100
Ps  sin    sin30  1000W
X 5
Vs 100
Q  Vs  VR cos    100  100 cos30   268VAR
X   5 
Problem: The ABCD constants of a three phase Transmission Line are A  D  0.951.270 ,
B  92.476.870  and C  0.0006900 S . Find maximum steady state limit if both sending
end and receiving end voltages are held at 138kV with the given ABCD constants and with
series impedance and shunt admittance neglected.

Solution: Steady state limit is maximum receiving end power

VS VR A
PR max   VR cos    
2

B B
138  138 0.95

138  cos  76.87  1.27 
2
 
92.4 92.4
138 
2
 1  0.95cos 75.6   157.4MW

92.4 
The element B represents series impedance so Imaginary part of B indicates series reactance
X  92.4  sin76.87  90 
Maximum Power in this condition is,
138 
2
VS VR
PR max     211.6MW
X 90
Problem: A feeder with reactance of 0.2 pu has a sending end voltage of 1.2 pu. If the
reactance power supplied at the receiving end of the feeder is 0.3 pu, the approximate
voltage drop in the feeder will be?
Solution: Reactive power at receiving end
VR
Q  V cos   VR 
X  S 
Approximately   0
VR
Q  V  VR 
Z  S 
VR
0.3  1.2  VR 
0.2  
2
VR  1.2 VR  0.06  0
VR  1.142pu
Voltage drop= VS  VR  1.2  1.142  0.057pu

Characteristics of Transmission Lines
The equivalent circuit of a Long Transmission Line is shown below. Here each section of the
line is replaced by equivalent circuit, so each parameter is per unit length.
Here, each section of the line is assumed to have different length and thus the value of their
lumped parameters is different.
The value of distributed parameters is R/km, L/km, C/km, G/km.
Distortion Less Line
If the wave in the Transmission Line does not suffer any distortion in the wave shape as wave
propagates in the Transmission Line, it is called as Distortion Less Line. The condition of
Distortion less line is,
Time constant of series part = Time constant of shunt part
L C

R G
As shown in the figure above that due to resistance and conductance of the line the wave
may be attenuated i.e. amplitude may change but wave shape should remain constant.
Flat Line or Infinite Line

If the voltage magnitude and current magnitude remains same at all points on the
Transmission Line but the phase may be different, then it is termed as Flat Line or Infinite
Line. A Transmission Line terminated in Characteristic Impedance is termed as Flat Line or
Infinite Line.

Lossless Transmission Line

 If R=G, G=0, in each section of Transmission Line then the wave amplitude remains same
and does not decrease as the wave propagates forward in a Transmission Line.
 If R  0, or G  0, then it is called as lossy line or attenuated line.
 If RC=LG, R  0, G  0 then wave magnitude decreases without any distortion.
Surge Impedance / Characteristic Impedance / Natural Impedance
Z c  impedance offered by an apparatus for surges, travelling waves / Transients. It is the

voltage to current ratio on Power line during wave propagation
z
Zc 
y
Where, z and y and impedance and admittance of the line per unit length.
r  jL
For attenuated or lossy line , Z c 
g  jC
Z c | Z c |  (always capacitive in nature)
The characteristic impedance angle is given by,
1  1  L  1  c 

 tan    tan  
2  r   g 
 L 
tan1    60  70
0 0
 r 
 c 
tan1    90
0
 g 
 c  1  L 
Thus,tan1    tan  ;   0
 g   r 
Hence, Characteristic Impedance is capacitive in nature.
For distortion less line,
RC  LG , R  0, G  0
L C

R G
R  jL I  j L
Zc   R R
G  jC I  j C G
G
R L
Zc  
G C
Purely resistive in nature but there are losses in line.

For loss less line R=G=0

jL L
Zc   purely resistive in nature
jC C
But it does not create any loss in line.
For overhead line, range of characteristic impedance is 200-500 

Typically, Z c  400
Practically for 132kV line, 400 
for 220 kV line, 295 
for 400kV line, 250 
For UG cable, Z c  40  480
Typically Z c  40
 For lumped inductive loads, Z c is ideally infinite & practically of the order of 1000 of
ohms.
 For power transformer winding, Z c =5000 ohms.
 For transmission line Z c is independent of length
 For attenuated line, Z c depends on frequency of surge whereas loss less line Z c is
independent of frequency.
Propagation Constant (  )
Represents changes happening in V, I waves during propagation.

Changes – (1) physical displacement of wave
(2) decrement in the wave magnitude
  zy , z  r  jL
y  g  jC
Here, all parameters are per unit length.
For attenuated Power Line
  (r  jL)(g  jC)    j rad/sec
 =attenuation constant
Represents decrement in V & I magnitude
 =quadrature component
Represents physical displacement in the wave
For lossless Transmission Line
R=0 , G=0

  j LC  j
   LC rad/km
No attenuation in wave magnitude i.e. the wave amplitude remains constant.
Wavelength of Transmission Line (  )
 Period after which wave gets repeated.

 Wave length of Power Line is distance travelled by wave to get one repetition or 2
radians.
 With  rad/km physical displacement
2
= km

For a lossless line,    LC rad/km
2 1
Therefore,   = km
 LC f LC
1
Velocity of wave, v  f  km/sec
LC
ABCD Parameters of lossless line (R=0, G=0)
 cosh l Z c sinh l

A B   
    1 sinh l cosh l 
 C D  Z
 c 
y  j
 cos l jZ c sin l
 Vs     VR 
    j sin l cos l   IR 
 Is   Z 
 c
Angles of A & D are zero
Angles of B & C are 90
2
If physical length of line ( l )    then Vs=Vr ; Is=Ir

 
If l  = ; Vs  Vr , Is  Ir
2 
In both these cases the magnitude of sending end parameters are equal to magnitude of
receiving end parameters. Such a line is called as Tuned Power Line.

Surge Impedance Loading (SIL)
SIL is loading on Transmission line when load impedance is exactly matching surge
impedance of line.
ZL  Z c
VR
VR  IR ZL  IR 
ZL
VR 2
Loading,  IR 2 ZL  VRIR
ZL
At SIL, ZL  Z c
Sending end voltage
Vs  (cos l) VR  jIR Z c sin l = ( cos l)VR  ( jsin  l) VR
=VR cos l  jsinl  VR l
Sending end current
VR
Is  j sin l  IR cos l
Zc
=IR (cos l  jsin l)  IR l
 Under SIL, voltage & current magnitude are same at any point on Transmission Line, with
a phase displacement  x measured from receiving end of line.
Vx  VR  x
 Receiving end power factor = cos 0  1 due to resistive load
 
Sending end power factor = cos l  l  cos0  1
Solved Examples
Problem: Calculate Sending end voltage, sending end current and sending end power factor
if the line parameters are Zc  200 ,   1.047 103 rad / km, l  100km, f  50Hz .
Assume ZL  200  and VR  10000 V

Solution: Since, ZL  Z c so Loading = SIL

VR 100
IR    0.50A
ZL 200
l  1.047 103 100  0.1047rad  60
Vs  VR cos l  jIR Z c sin l  100cos6  j0.5  200sin6
 100  cos6  jsin6   1006 V
VR 100
Is  IR cos l  j sin l  0.5cos6  j  sin6
Zc 200
 0.5  cos6  jsin6   0.56 A
(p f)r  cos0  1 ; (p f)s  cos  6  6   cos0  1
Problem: In the previous problem what happens if ZL  100  ?

Solution: Since ZL  Z C
VR 2 VR 2
 so Loading > SIL
ZL ZC
VR 100
IR    1.00A
ZL 100
l  1.047 103 100  0.1047rad  60
 100  cos6  2  jsin6   101.611.87 V
Vs  101.6 V  VR ;   11.870  l
VR 100
Is  IR cos l  j sin l  1 cos6  j  sin6
Zc 200
 0.5  2  cos6  jsin6   0.9953 A
Is  0.995A  IR
(p f)r  cos0  1 ; (p f)s  cos 11.87  3   cos8.87  0.988 lag

Problem: In the previous problem what happens if ZL  400  ?

Solution: Since ZL  Z C
VR 2 VR 2
 so Loading < SIL
ZL ZC
VR 100
IR    0.250A
ZL 400
l  1.047 103 100  0.1047rad  60
 100  cos6  0.5  jsin6   99.5893 V
Vs  99.589 V  VR ;   30  l
VR 100
Is  IR cos l  j sin l  0.25  cos6  j  sin6
Zc 200
 0.5  0.5  cos6  jsin6   0.254 11.87 A
Is  0.254 A  IR
(p f)r  cos0  1 ; (p f)s  cos  3  11.87   cos8.87  0.988 lead
Note: When Loading = SIL, flat voltage profile is obtained on Transmission Line and hence
SIL is called as ideal loading capability of the line.
Thus, based on above examples we can make following observations for different loadings of
a Transmission Line.
Parameter Loading=SIL Loading>SIL Loading<SIL

ZL  ZC  ZC  ZC
VS  VR  VR  VR
  l  l  l
IS  IR  IR  IR
cos S unity lag lead
Reactive Power Neither absorbs nor Absorbs from Delivers to Sending
delivers Sending end End
Loading on Lossless Transmission Line
The ABCD parameters of a lossless Transmission Line are,

 cos l jZ c sin l
A B   
  j cos l 
 C D   Z sin l 
 c

  90 ,   0
Maximum power transfer capability for loss less transmission line
  90 ,   0
| Vs || VR | A
Pmax   | VR |2 cos(   )
|B | B
| Vs || VR | | Vs || VR |
Pmax  
|B | Z C sin l
For a TL generally | Vs || VR |
| VR |2 SIL
Pmax  
Zc sinl sin l
For practical TL, sinl  1; Pmax  SIL
For economic reasons to transfer more amount of power through the transmission line
always loading greater SIL is preferable.
The variation of maximum power with length is shown below,
Maximum Power is also called as Steady State Stability Limit as if an attempt is made to draw
power more than maximum power then system becomes unstable.
 If l < 80km, loading on the power line is based on thermal limit i.e. it is based on
temperature rise in the Transmission Line.
 If 80km < l < 300km , in this case the loading of Transmission line based on voltage drop
criteria the voltage regulation must lie within 5%
| VR |
0.95   1.05
| Vs |
 If l > 300km, in this case the loading of power line is based on steady state stability limit.
Note: Pmax & SIL are very high for underground cables so loading is decided by Thermal
Limit.

Wave Propagation in lossless line (R=0, G=0)

At t=0 , before closing the switch, there is no charge on Transmission Line
1 2 1 2
Li  CV  0
2 2
i  0 , V=0

At t=0 , switch gets closed
 L acts as open circuit
 C acts as short circuit
1 2
 L1 will be charged to an energy of Li
2 11
1 2 1
 L1i1 will be transferred to C1 as C1V12
2 2
1 1
 C1V12 will be transferred to L 2 as L 2i22
2 2
1 2 1
 L1i1 will be transferred to C 2 as C2 V22
2 2
Same way energy will travel towards receiving end of line.
 The voltage & current waves will be propagated along transmission line By means of
electric field ( E ) & magnetic field ( H ) respectively.
1 2 1 2 1
L1I1  L2I2 ............. LnIn2
2 2 2
Assuming the length of line is same for each section so the inductance of each section
becomes equal.
L1  L 2  ............  L n
Thus, I1  I2  ............  In
The stored energy in electric field,
1 1 1
C1V12  C2 V22  ....... CnVn2
2 2 2
C1  C2  ............  Cn
Thus, V1  V2  ............  Vn

Since, the line is lossless the energy stored in electric field and magnetic field will be equal.
1 2 1
L1I1  C1V12
2 2
V1 L L
 1   Surge or characteristic impedance
I1 C1 C
V L
In general   Zc
I C
Velocity of wave propagation

Total magnetic flux linkages up to x km length
 x  L1I1  L 2I2  ...  L xIx
=(LI)x
d x
Voltage experienced by Power line = V =
dt
dx dx
V  LI ;  Velocity
dt dt
V  LIv
V L
 Lv  Z c 
I C
1
v
LC
Here, L and C are per unit length.
0  GMD 
L= ln   H/m
2  GMR 
20 r
C= F/m
 GMD 
ln  
 r 
1
=
0  GMD  20 r
ln 
2  GMR   GMD 
ln  
 r 
 GMD   GMD 
Assuming ln    ln  
 GMR   r 
1
 m/s
 0  0 r

For overhead Power line surrounding dielectric medium is air  r  1

1 1
 =
0 0 4   10 7  8.85  10 12
=3  108 m/s = velocity of light
For attenuated Transmission Line

  2.5  108 to 2.8  108 m/s
For UG Cable r  1
1 3  105
 = km/s
0 0 r r
Solved Examples
Problem: What is time taken by the wave to reach end of 400kV, 400km, 50Hz Power Line
(loss less)?
l 400km
Solution: T=   1.33 msec
 3  105 km / s
T=1.33ms = wave propagation delay
Problem: A cable has the following characteristics. L=0.201µH/m and C=196.2pF/m. the
velocity of wave propagation through the cable is?
Solution: L=0.201µH/m, C=196.2pF/m
1 1
v   159.2m / s
LC 0.201  196.2  1018
Wave Propagation Phenomenon

Steady State Analysis of the Transmission Line has been dealt with and now we will deal with
Transient or DC analysis of the Transmission Line. When a DC voltage is impressed on a
Transmission Line in the form of Surge or a Lightning Discharge it propagates as a surge in
Transmission Line.

At point “x” on Transmission Line

Voltage V(x,t)
Current i(x,t)
The equivalent circuit of a small section of Transmission Line is shown below,
By Taylor’s Series
x f(x) ( x)2  2f(x)
f(x   x)  f(x)    ...
1! x 2! x2
Neglecting Higher Order Terms
f
f(x   x)  f(x)  (  x)
x
f
f(x   x)  f(x)  (  x)
x
By Taylor’s Series
V
V(x   x)  V(x)  (  x) - (I)
x
By KVL
 i 
V(x   x)  V(x)    r  x  i L x   -(II)
 t 
From (I) & (II)
V i
(  x)  (r  x)i (L x)
x t
V i
 ri  L - (3)
x t
I
Similarly I(x  x)  I(x)   x (Taylor series)
x
Applying KCL,
i(x)  i(x  x)  current drawn by shunt branch
V
= (g x )V+(C x )
t

So,
 I  V
   x  (g  x) V  (C x)
 x  t
I CV
 gV  - (4)
x t

2V i   i 
 r  L   - (5)
x 2
x x  t 
2V  V   V 
 r   gV  C   L  gV  C  - (6)
x 2
 t  t  t 

 2i V   V 
 g C  
x 2
x x  t 
 2i  i   i 
 g  ri L   C  ri L  - (7)
x 2
 t  t  t 
Equations 6 & 7 are wave equations
For lossless Transmission Line

Wave equations become
2V V
 LC
x 2
t
i
2
i
 LC
x 2
t
Solution of these wave equations is
x  x 
V(x,t)  f1   t   f2   t 
v  v 
v = velocity of wave
f1 - forward moving wave
f 2 - backward moving wave
Suppose the voltage waveform looks like as shown
at t=0
There will be no change in the shape and magnitude of
the waveform as it is propagating in a lossless
Transmission Line.

Time variation for f1
x   x  vt 
f1   t   f1  
v   v 
At t = 0
The function is given by,
x
f1   , the waveform of the function is shown above
v
At t  t1
 x  vt1 
The function is f1  
 v 
This is right shifted version of original function by an amount vt1
At t  t 2  t1
 x  vt2 
 v 
This is right shifted version of original function by an amount vt 2  vt1
So, as the time progresses the right shift in the function increases and thus we can say that
wave travels forward.
Time variation for f2
x   x  vt 
f1   t   f1  
v   v 
At t = 0
The function is given by,
x
f1   , the waveform of the function is shown in the first figure
v
At t  t1
 x  vt1 
 v 

This is left shifted version of original function by an amount vt1

At t  t 2  t1
 x  vt2 
 v 
This is left shifted version of original function by an amount vt 2  vt1
So, as the time progresses the left shift in the function increases and thus we can say that
wave travels backward.
In case of wave propagation the backward travelling wave represents reflected wave.
Whenever the wave encounters a discontinuity
it is reflected from the boundary of media. Some part
of energy is transmitted in to the second medium.
Transmitted Wave = Incident Wave + Reflected Wave

Current Equation
From Equation (4)
I CV
 gV 
x t
For a lossless line, this equation becomes
I CV

x t
V    x  x 
 f1   t   f2   t  
t t   v  v 
V x  x 
  f1'   t   f2'   t 
t v  v 

I  x  x 
 C   f1'   t   f2'   t  
x  v  v 
I x  x 
 C f1'   t   C f2'   t 
x v  v 
x  x 
I  vC f1   t   vC f2   t 
v  v 
C x  C x 
I f1   t   f2   t 
L v  L v 
1  x  x 
I f1   t   f2   t  
ZC  v  v 
The forward and backward travelling current and voltage waves are related as,
Forward Voltage
Forward Current 
ZC
Backward Voltage
Backward Current  
ZC
Thus, forward current and voltage are in same phase whereas backward voltage and current
are in opposite phase.
Open Circuited Transmission Line

The surge voltage is induced almost instantaneously and thus
is modelled as a step voltage source.
Since, receiving end is open circuit,
Transmitted Current,I2  0
At sending end side, due to constant voltage source
VS  V
At t  0
Surge Voltage and Surge Currents are impressed on the Transmission Line as shown below,
If L is the length of the line and v is the velocity of the surge then time taken by the surge to
reach receiving end,
L
T
v

Since, the surge is assumed to be constant voltage source so the voltage is still applied at
Sending End.
At t= T, voltage and current waves look like
But at receiving end the Transmitted Current must be 0

Incident Current + Reflected Current = 0
Reflected Current = - Incident Current = -I
So, reflected current is –I and it travels backward and since backward voltage and current are
in opposite phase so the reflected voltage is V.
As reflected voltage and current waves forward the voltage and current in the line becomes
2V and 0 respectively.
When reflected voltage and currents reach sending end the voltage and current looks like,
But voltage at sending end must be V so the next forward wave from sending end must have
magnitude –V so that sending end voltage is restored to V.
But forward travelling wave has voltage and current in same phase so forward current is -I.
When these forward wave reaches receiving end the voltage and current waves look like,
Again, the current at receiving end should be 0 so reflected current from receiving end must
be I so that net current is zero. But reflected voltage must be in opposite phase with respect
to reflected current thus reflected voltage is –V.

When these voltages and currents reach the sending end then current and voltage
waveforms look like,
Thus, at t=4T the line is reduced to original operating conditions and if surge disappears in
that duration there will be no further surges and line will remain stable.
Current Coefficients
Refracted Current 0
Coefficient of Refraction   0
Incident Current I
Reflected Current I
Coefficient of Reflection    1
Incident Current I
Note: These coefficients are calculated at the time of first reflection.
Voltage Coefficients
Refracted Voltage 2V
Incident Voltage V
Reflected Voltage V
Coefficient of Reflection   1
Incident Voltage V
By default if current or voltage is not specified then we compute voltage coefficients.
Steady State Open Circuit of the line

For AC supply of frequency ‘f’
Incident Voltage = VS  V
VS VS
Receiving End Open Circuit Voltage = VOC  
A cos l
For the case of transients, the supply is DC
f=0 ;    LC  0
VS
Thus, VOC   VS  V
cos0
Thus, in steady state the entire line settles to a Voltage V.

Short Circuited Transmission Line
Since, receiving end is short circuit,

Transmitted Voltage, V2  0
At sending end side, due to constant voltage source
VS  V
At t  0
Surge Voltage and Surge Currents are impressed on the Transmission Line as shown below,
At t= T, voltage and current waves look like
But at receiving end the Transmitted Voltage must be 0

Incident Voltage + Reflected Voltage = 0
Reflected Voltage = - Incident Voltage = -V
So, reflected voltage is –V and it travels backward and since backward voltage and current
are in opposite phase so the reflected current is I.
When these reflected voltages and currents reach sending end the voltage and current
waveforms look like,
But voltage at sending end must be V so the next forward wave from sending end must have
magnitude V so that sending end voltage is restored to V.
But forward travelling wave has voltage and current in same phase so forward current is I.

When these waves reach the receiving end the current and voltage waveforms look like,
Again, the voltage at receiving end should be 0 so reflected voltage from receiving end must
be -V so that net voltage is zero. But reflected voltage must be in opposite phase wrt
reflected current thus reflected current is I.
When these waves reach the sending end the current and voltage waveforms look like as
shown below,
Thus, at t=4T the voltage becomes same as original but current keeps on building up and
thus Surges in Short Circuited Transmission Line are more dangerous.
Refracted Current 2I
Incident Current I
Reflected Current I
Coefficient of Reflection   1
Incident Current I
Note: These coefficients are calculated at the time of first reflection.
Re fracted Voltage 0
Coefficient of Re fraction   0
Incident Voltage V
Re flected Voltage  V
Coefficient of Re flection    1
Incident Voltage V

Steady State Short Circuit of the line

For AC supply of frequency ‘f’
Incident Voltage = VS  V
VS VS
Receiving End Short Circuit Current = ISC  
B ZC sinl
For the case of transients, the supply is DC
f=0 ;    LC  0
VS
Thus, ISC  
ZC sin0
Thus, in steady state the entire line settles to a Voltage V.
Thevenin Equivalent
To draw the Thevenin Equivalent of the Transmission Line for the surges at the time of first
reflection, we need to determine the Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current.
From the analysis of Open Circuit Transmission Line, the open circuit voltage at the time of
first reflection is VOC  2V
From the analysis of Short Circuit Transmission Line, the short circuit current at the time of
first reflection is ISC  I
Where V and I are incident Voltage and Current respectively.
Thevenin Voltage, VTh  2V
VOC 2V
Thevenin Impedance, Z Th    ZC
ISC 2I
Thus, Thevenin Circuit looks like as shown below
Here, ZL is the Characteristic Impedance of the second medium. Thus, transmitted voltage
and current from the circuit above can be calculated as,
ZL 2V
V2  (2V) ; I2 
ZL  Zc ZL  Zc
This circuit is used to find refracted quantities of wave
Reflected = refracted – incident
(V1 ,I1 ) (V2 ,I2 ) (V,I)

Refracted Current,
V  2Z c   2Z c 
I2     I 
Z c  ZL  Z c   ZL  Z c 
Reflected current, I1  I2  I
 Z  ZL   ZL  Z c 
I1  I  c   I  
 Z C  ZL   ZL  Z C 
Refracted Voltage,
 2ZL 
V2  V  
 ZL  Z c 
Reflected voltage, V1  V2  V
 Z  Zc 
V1  V  L 
 ZL  Z C 
Reflection and Refraction Coefficients

I1  Z C  ZL 
Reflection Coefficient=  
I  ZL  Z C 
I  2Z C 
Refraction Coefficient= 2   
I  ZL  Z C 
V1  ZL  Z C 
Reflection Coefficient=  
V  ZL  Z C 
V  2ZL 
Refraction Coefficient= 2   
V  ZL  Z C 
Note: Reflection coefficent always lies between -1 and 1 whereas Refraction or Transmission
Coefficient lies between 0 and 2.
Important Points
 If surge voltage enters from high surge impedance, medium (OH) line to low surge
impedance medium (cable) then surge voltage magnitude reduces.
 If surge voltage travels from low surge impedance medium to high surge impedance
medium then surge voltage magnitude increases.
L L
 Surge Impedance of Pure Inductor =  
C 0

L 0
 Surge Impedance of Pure Capacitor =  0
C C
Hence, if a shunt capcitor is employed it will bypass the surge by providing a low impedance
path and thus protecting the other devices in the system.
Bifurcated / Parallel lines

The electrical equivalent circuit for bifurcated line is shown below,
Z 2 Z3
Zeq  Z2 || Z3 
Z 2  Z3
The Transmitted Voltage in the two lines is,
Z2 Z3
2V
Z eq Z2  Z3  Z2 Z3 
V2  2V   2V  
Z eq  Z1 (Z 2  Z 3 )  Z 2 Z 3  Z1Z 2  Z 2 Z3  Z1Z 3 
Z1
(Z 2  Z 3 )
Refraction Coefficient is given by,
V2 2(Z2 Z3 )

V Z1Z2  Z2 Z3  Z1Z3
Reflected voltage is given by,
V1  V2  V
 Z Z  Z1Z 2  Z 3Z1 
V1   2 3  V
Z Z
 1 2  Z Z
2 3
 Z Z
1 3

Reflection Coefficient is given by,

V1  Z 2 Z3  Z1Z 2  Z 3Z1 
 
V  Z1Z 2  Z 2 Z 3  Z1Z 3 
The Transmitted Currents in the two lines can be computed as,
V2 V2
I2  ; I3 
Z2 Z3
Then Reflected Current is given by,
I1  I  I2  I3 
Solved Examples
Problem: A surge of 260kV travelling in a line of natural impedance of 500Ω arrives at a
junction with two lines of natural impedances of 250 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. The voltages
transmitted in the branch lines is
Solution: Equivalent impedance of parallel lines
250  50 250
Z eq   
300 6
 ZL   Z eq 
Transmitted voltage= 2V    2V  
 ZL  Z C   Z eq  Z C 
 250 
 2  260  6   520  1   40kV
 500  250   13
 6 
Problem: A surge of 20kV magnitude travel s along a lossless cable towards its junction with
two identical lossless over head transmission lines. The inductance and the capacitance of
the cable are 0.4mH and 0.5µF per km. the inductance and capacitance of the overhead
transmission lines are 1.5mH and 0.015µF per Km. the magnitude of the voltages at the
junction due to surge is
0.4  103
Solution: Surge impedance of cable=  28.28
0.5  106
Surge impedance of overhead line
1.5  103
Z C  OH   316.22
0.015  106
Since two overhead lines are connected in parallel
ZC  OH
Zeq   158.11
2
 2  Z eq   2  158.11 
Transmitted surge= 20     20     33.93kV
 Z c  Z eq   158.11  28.28 
 

Problem: A lightning stoke discharges impulse current of 10kV (peak) on a 400kV

transmission line having surge impedance of 250Ω. The magnitude of transient over-voltage
travelling waves in either direction assuming equal distribution from the point of lightning
strike will be?
10
Solution: Current travelling in either direction=  5kA
2
Surge voltage,
Vsurge  Isurge  Z c
Vsurge  5  250  1250kV
Problem: A 800kV transmission line is having per phase line inductance of 1.1 mH/km.
ignoring the length of the line, its ideal power transfer capability in MW is
L 1.1  103
Solution: Surge impedance=   305.58
C 11.78  109
Ideal power transfer capability=SIL
V 2  800 
2
SIL  R  MW  2094MW
Z c 305.58
Problem: A lossless transmission line having surge impedance loading (SIL) of 2280MW. A
series capacitive compensation of 30% is employed. Then SIL of the compensated
transmission line will be
Solution: Due to series capacitive compensation
XL  XL 1  0.3  0.7XL
Surge impedance Z C
XL 0.7XL
Z C  
Bc BC
 0.7Z c  0.836Z c
Surge impedance loading
SIL 
SIL   0.836
1
Beacuse SIL 
Zc
2280
SIL   0.836  2725MW
Problem: Two overhead transmission lines A and B having surge impedances of 400 ohms
and 420 ohms respectively are connected by a short underground cable ‘C’ of surge
impedance 50 ohms. A rectangular surge of magnitude 100KV and of infinite length travels
along A towards the cable C. Find out the surge voltage which is transmitted into the cable
at the junction of A and C when the first reflected wave from the junction of C and B reaches
the former junction.
Solution: When surge enters C from A
 2  50 
Transmitted voltage= 100     22.22kV
 400  50 
When it reaches junction of C & B, reflected into C
 420  50 
 22.22    17.49kV
 420  50 
This reflected surge travels in C towards its junction with A. then it reaches the junction some
part is again reflected into C
 400  50 
 17.49     13.60kV
 400  50 
Net voltage entering C=22.22+13.60=35.82kV

Voltage Control
The permissible range of voltage regulation is 5% . If operating voltage, V  Vrated  5%
or V  1.05pu else V  Vrated  5% or V  0.95pu then voltage control is done.
 Voltage control is done to correct steady state over – voltages & under – voltages.
 Steady state over voltages i.e. VS  VR are due to loading of the line being less than
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) i.e. ZL  ZC . It is also called as Ferranti Effect. This can also
be due to due to leading pf loads in our system.
 Steady state under voltages i.e. VS  VR are due to loading of the line being more than
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) i.e. ZL  ZC . This can also be due to due to lagging pf loads
in our system.
Types of loads in our system

1) Constant Power Load
Load draws constant P & Q from system irrespective of voltage & current.
eg. Induction Motor, Motoring Loads
2) Constant current load

These loads draws constant current from the source. eg. Power Electronic Converters.
3) Constant Impedance load

These loads have constant impedance and hence current or power drawn by these loads is
dependent on the voltage at load terminals.
Heater, incandescent lamp, Capacitor or reactor bank.
Note: Most of the loads that we consider during Power System Analysis are Constant Power
Loads.
Voltage control methods

 Internal Method
The excitation of alternator will be changed by using AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)
such that voltage will be corrected at the required buses. Since a generator supplies power
to multiple buses so this may cause other bus voltages to go out of limits. So, Voltage of a
single bus cannot be controlled without changing the voltage at other buses.
 External Method
A compensating equipment will be placed at the buses whenever it is required to do voltage
control, the other bus voltages are unaltered. As we saw earlier also that sensitivity if reactive
power is high with respect to voltage magnitude so, V is controlled by using reactive
power compensation.

Reactive Power
Whether the power is being delivered or absorbed by an apparatus depends on the direction
of current in the apparatus. If the current comes out of the positive voltage terminal i.e. the
device delivers current then it is said to deliver power like in the case of Generator. If the
current goes into the positive terminal, device is said to absorb power.
 For the case of Real Power, if current is assumed entering the device and P > 0 then the
device absorbs Real Power, but if P < 0 then the device delivers Real Power.
 If current is assumed leaving the device and P > 0 then the device delivers Real Power, but
if P < 0 then the device absorbs Real Power.
For the case of Reactive Power based on the sign of Q we define lagging and leading
reactive power. If Q > 0, then reactive power is lagging and if Q < 0 then reactive power is
leading.
 If current is assumed entering the device and Q > 0 then the device absorbs lagging
Reactive Power, but if Q < 0 then the device absorbs leading Reactive Power.
 If current is assumed leaving the device and Q > 0 then the device delivers lagging
Reactive Power, but if Q < 0 then the device delivers leading Reactive Power.
As for example we can consider the case of Inductor,
The phasor diagram is also shown alongside, the
Current is assumed to be entering the device
So by default it absorbs Power and from the
Phasor since current lags the voltage, so the
Inductor absorbs lagging reactive power.
If we reverse the direction of current i.e. replace

I by –I then current comes out of the device so
It must deliver power and –I leads V by 900 so it delivers leading reactive power. So,
delivering leading reactive power is equivalent to absorb lagging reactive power.
By default, when we talk about reactive power, we refer to lagging reactive power. Hence by
default Inductor absorbs reactive power.
We can consider another example for a capacitor. The circuit diagram and phasor are shown
below,
Current is assumed to be entering the device
So by default it absorbs Power and from the
Phasor since current leads the voltage, so the
Capacitor absorbs leading reactive power.
If we reverse the direction of current i.e. replace

I by –I then current comes out of the device.

Hence it must deliver power and –I lags V by 900 so it delivers lagging reactive power. So,
absorbing leading reactive power is equivalent to delivering lagging reactive power.
Since by default, when we talk about reactive power, we refer to lagging reactive power.
Hence by default Capacitor delivers reactive power.
The reactive power consumer or delivered by various apparatus under different conditions is
tabulated below,
Apparatus Sink Q Source Q Neither sink nor

source
Synchronous Under excitation Over excitation Normal excitation
Generator (leading pf) (lagging pf) (unity pf)
Induction Excitation=0
Generator (leading pf) × ×
Transformer √ × ×
Transmission Loading > SIL Loading < SIL Loading = SIL

Line (lagging pf) (leading pf) (unity pf)
Synchronous Under – excitation Over – excitation Normal excitation

Motor (lagging pf) (leading pf) (unity pf)
Induction Excitation=0
Motor (lagging pf) × ×
Heater × × Pure resistive
For the case of Transmission Line we consider delivering and absorbing reactive power from
the sending end.
Voltage control devices

1) Shunt Capacitor
2) Shunt Reactor / inductor
3) Series Capacitor
4) Synchronous Condensor
5) Synchronous coil / inductor
6) Synchronous phase modifier / advancer

The voltage drop in a Transmission Line is IZ so to increase the receiving end voltage we
must reduce the voltage drop in the line and for that purpose we can either reduce the
current carried by the line or the impedance of the line.
 To change current in Transmission Line, Shunt connected voltage control device can be
used.
 To change impedance of line, series connected voltage control device can be used.
Relation between receiving end voltage  Vr  & net reactive power Q s or Q shunt
Complex power at sending end side.
SS  VSIS 

 VS   Vr 0 
SS  VS   
 jX 

 VS V 
SS  VS       90   r   90
 X X 
 VS V 
 VS     90     r 90 
 X X 
2
V VS Vr
 S 90    90   
X X
2
V V Vr
SS  S 90  S   90   
X X
Thus Reactive power is given by,
V
Q S  S  VS  Vr cos  
X
X
Vr cos   VS  QS
VS
For small value of δ or variation in δ is very less in reactive power control or voltage control
i.e.   0
Note: This is just an approximation for qualitative analysis of various compensation devices.
X
Vr  Vs  Qs
Vs
Here, Q s is the net reactive power in the Transmission Line.
Thus, to control receiving end voltage we can,

 Change the value of Vs but it requires Internal Voltage Control which is not practical.
 Change the reactance of Transmission Line by Series Compensation.
 Change the net reactive power to be supplied by the system by the use of Shunt
Compensation.

Shunt Capacitor
 It is used to correct under voltages in the system i.e. it increases the receiving end voltage.
 Current in Transmission line can be modified to reduce the voltage drop in the line.
Without shunt capacitance

Since we are considering small δ, reactive power absorbed by line can be neglected. Hence,
Sending end Reactive Power is almost same as Receiving End Reactive Power.
Ps  Pload , Qs  Qload
X
Vr  Vs  Qs
Vs
X
Hence, Vr  Vs  Qload …(i)
Vs
With shunt capacitor

Ps  Pload
Qs  Qload  Qshunt
X
Vr2  Vs 
Vs
Q load
 Qshunt  …(ii)
Since, capacitor operates at leading power factor so

we have taken negative reactive power.
From equation (1) and (2)
X
Vr2  Vr1  Q shunt
Vs
Thus, change in receiving end voltage is,
X
Vc  Q shunt
Vs
Also, Vr2  Vr1 so Voltage at receiving end increases.
Rating of shunt capacitor bank to increase voltage by ‘ Vc ’

Vs Vc
Q shunt 
X
To get flat voltage profile or to maintain Vr2  Vs
Qshunt  Qload
It is desirable to achieve Vr2  Vs but not economical, because cost & rating of Q shunt is
more.
Shunt Capacitor must only be used for lagging pf loads where under voltages are observed
else for leading power factor it will cause over-voltages in the system.

Phasor Diagram
Initially, the current in the line is assumed to be at lagging power factor.
Is1  Il  l
l  s1
After, connecting the capacitor the current in the line is sum of load current and the
capacitor current.
Is2  Il  l  Ic   90
The phasor diagram for the system is shown,
s1  s2 & hence cos s1  cos s2 pf improves.
Also, it can be observed from the phasor diagram that,
I s1  I s2 so current in the line is reduced and hence the
Voltage drop reduces and voltage at receiving end increases.
Among four static devices of voltage control, only shunt

capacitor will improve the power factor.
So, it will be used as power factor correction device.
The Power Triangle for the system is shown below before and after the compensation,
Since, capacitor only consumes reactive power so
Real power remains constant before and after the
compensation.
1 = power factor angle before compensation
2 = power factor angle after compensation
Q 1 = reactive power without compensation
Q 2 = reactive power with compensation
Q 2  Q1  Q C
From OAC , Q1  P tan 1
From OAB , Q2  P tan 2
QC  Q1  Q2  P  tan 1  tan 2 
Here, all powers both real and reactive are three phase powers.
If C is capacitance per phase and Vph is phase voltage
Qshunt 3    3Vph
2
2fc
Shunt Reactor or Shunt Inductor

 It is used to avoid over – voltages in the system so it is used for leading pf loads.
 Current in Transmission line is modified to modify the voltage drop in the line.

Without Shunt Reactor

Ps  Pload
Q s  Qload because the load is assumed to
be leading pf load.
X X
Vr1  Vs  Qs  Vs  Qload …(1)
Vs Vs
Vr1  Vs
 At receiving end side lagging reactive power generation is more. So, reduce the net
reactive power a sink of lagging reactive power (shunt reactor) has to be placed.
With shunt reactor

Ps  Pload ; Qs  Qreactor  Qload
Receiving end voltage is given by,
X
Vr2  Vs  Qs
Vs
X
Vr2  Vs  Q  Qload 
Vs  reactor
X
 Vs  Q  Qreactor  …(2)
Vs  load
The change in receiving end voltage due to Shunt Reactor from (1) and (2) is,
X
Vr2  Vr1   Qreactor
Vs
Hence, Vr2  Vr1
So, voltage decrement by Shunt Reactor is,
X
VL  Qreactor
Vs
Rating of reactor to reduce voltage by VL
Vs VL
Qreactor 
X
To maintain Vr2  Vs
Qreactor  Qload
It is desirable to achieve Vr2  Vs but not economical, because cost & rating of Q reactor is
more.
Shunt reactor has to be called as Ferranti effect control device as it reduces the over-voltages
in the system.

Phasor Diagram
Initially, the current in the line is assumed to be at leading power factor.
Is1  Ill
l  s1
After, connecting the reactor the current in the line is sum of load current and the reactor
current.
Is2  Ireactor   90  I ll
Is2  Is2s2
Net pf angle s2  s1
cos s2  cos s1
pf improves in case of leading pf load.
If the shunt reactor is connected to a lagging load system
then net pf will be reduced.
From the phasor diagram, Is1  Is2
If magnitude of leading current reduces than receiving end voltage reduces.
For leading pf correction the rating of reactor required,
Qreactor  P tan 1  tan 2 
Here, P is the real power absorbed by the load.
1 = power factor angle before compensation
2 = power factor angle after compensation
The reactive power if a shunt reactor is given by,
Vph
2
Qreactor /ph 
XL/ph
Vph
2
Qreactor 3     3
XL /ph
From, the above expression we can calculate the value of per phase inductance required.
Series Capacitor
 It is used to avoid under voltages. We can change the impedance of Transmission Line with
the help of series capacitor so the reactive impedance of the line reduces and hence the
voltage drop in the line reduces and receiving end voltage increases.
 The approximate voltage drop for a Short Transmission Line is given by,
V  Vs  Vr  I R cos r  X sin r 
where, cos r is the receiving end power factor.

Without series capacitor

V  Vs  Vr1
 I R cos r  X sin r  …(1)
With series capacitor

The load is assumed to be constant Power Load and hence the Power of Load is constant
and thus it draws constant power and constant current. The change in current due to series
capacitor addition is neglected.
The change in the power factor is neglected due to series capacitor addition.
Vs  Vr2  V 2

 I R cos r   XL  XC  sin r  …(2)
From (1) & (2),
 Vs  Vr2    Vs  Vr1  Vr1  Vr2
 IXC sin R
Hence, Vr2  Vr1 and thus receiving end voltage is increased.
Increment in voltage due to series capacitor

Vc  IXc sin r
Reactive Power delivered by Series Capacitor,
Qse/phase  I2Xc/ph
Q se3  3I2 Xc/ph
Xc
% series compensation   100%
Xline
Impact on Stability
Before the addition of series capacitor, the power angle equation is given by
V Vr1
P1  s sin 1
Xline
The maximum power capability of the line is,
V Vr1
Pmax,1  s
Xline
And thus, P1  Pmax,1 sin 1
After, the addition of series capacitor the Power Angle equation is,
V Vr2
P2  s sin 
 Xline  Xc  2
The maximum power capability of the line now becomes,

V Vr2
Pmax,2  s
 Xline  Xc 
Thus, P2  Pmax,2 sin 2
If the Load Real Power is constant i.e. P1  P2
Since, Pmax,2  Pmax,1 then sin 2  sin 1
⟹ 2  1
So, angular stability of system increases.
 Series capacitor will improve angular stability of system along with voltage control or
voltage stability. The angular stability of system is more critical than voltage stability.
So series capacitor is preferred as angular stability improving device.
Impact on Fault Current

Before compensation the circuit is shown in the adjoining figure,
Fault current is given by,
Vs 0 V
If1   s   90
Xline 90 Xline
After compensation the circuit is shown below,
Fault current is given by,
Vs 0 Vs
If2     90
 XL  XC  90  XL  XC 
Hence, If2  If1
So, fault level in the system increases.
The value of fault current determines the rating of the circuit breaker.
Hence, the rating and size of circuit breaker required is more.
It increases the cost of the system.
 Series connected devices carry load current and thus they must have high current rating,
low voltage rating
 Shunt connected devices have load voltage across them and thus they must have high
voltage, low current rating.
 During fault, high voltage appears across capacitor due to high fault current which can
damage the capacitor as it has low voltage rating.
So sphere gap or spark gap is connected in parallel to series capacitor for protection from
over-voltages. Sphere Gap is actually two capacitors kept at a distance and when high
voltage appears across it the air in the gap ionizes and thus it will short circuit the capacitor
thus reducing voltage across it. It also provides an alternate path for fault current.

Sub-Synchronous Resonance
It is a condition where the electrical network exchanges energy with the turbine generator at
one or more natural frequency of the combined system, below the synchronous frequency of
the system. The oscillations may be due to LC series circuit formed in case of Series
compensated Transmission Lines.
The frequency of oscillation is given by,
1 fsys 1
f 
2 LC 2fsys LC
fsys 1 1
f  fsys
sys LC   L   C 
sys sys
Xc
f  fsys  fsys k se
Xline
where, K se is the degree of series compensation.
Since, K se  1 so fsys  f
Thus, oscillations occur at Sub-synchronous frequency.
If this frequency matches the torsional frequency of the generator shaft then damaging
torques may be produced due to resonance phenomenon. The electrical energy resonating
with shaft energy of generator causes the rotor vibrations to grow and can damage the shaft
of the machine.
Series Capacitor Vs Shunt Capacitor

Rating
The increment in receiving end voltage is given by,
X
For shunt, Vc  Q sh
Vs
I2 Xc sin r Q se sin r
For series, Vc  IXc sin r 
I I
X Q sin r
If same Voltage improvement is desired, Qsh  se
Vs I
Q sh sin r sin r
 
Q se IX  pu voltage regulation of TL
Vs
Most of the loads have a pf of about 0.8 i.e. cos r  0.8 and thus sin r  0.6
0.6
For practical TL, 1
pu VR
Qsh  Qse
So, rating of shunt capacitor required is more as compared to series capacitor.

Voltage Profile
The voltage drop in a line is approximately,
V  I R cos r  X sin r 
Since, R and X are directly proportional to length so the voltage drop increases linearly with
length and receiving end voltage decreases linearly with length.
 Due to Shunt Capacitor, current in the line is reduced so the slope pf characteristics is
reduced and thus uniform voltage improvement is observed.
 Due to series capacitor the reactance of line is suddenly reduced as the series capacitor is
encountered and thus there is abrupt change in the characteristics.
This effect is shown below,
Surge Impedance and Surge Impedance Loading

Without compensation the Surge Impedance of the line is given by,
L Xline
Zc  
C Bline
For Shunt Capacitor,

Xline
Z c2 
Bline
 Bc 
Hence, Surge Impedance reduces and thus SIL increases
For Series Capacitor,
Z c2 
X line
 Xc 
Bline
Hence, Surge Impedance reduces and thus SIL increases

For Series Reactor,

Xline  XL
Zc2 
Bline
Hence, Surge Impedance increases and SIL decreases
For Shunt Reactor,
Xline
Z c2 
B line
 BL 
Hence, Surge Impedance increases and SIL decreases
The differences, between Series and Shunt Compensation are summarized below,
Shunt Capacitor Series Capacitor

Current in the line is modified Reactance of the line is modified
Uniform Voltage Improvement Non-uniform Voltage Improvement
High Voltage, Low Current Rating Low Voltage, High Current Rating
Reactance is high and capacitance is
Reactance is low and capacitance is
low high
Reactive Power of capacitor does not
Reactive Power of Capacitor changes
change much with Load variations. by large amount due to Load
variations.
Small Increment in Maximum Power Large Increment in Maximum Power
due to increment in receiving end due to reduction of line reactance.
voltage.
Power Factor Correction Device No Power Factor Correction
Solved Examples
Problem: The characteristic impedance of an uncompensated line is Z0 , what is the
characteristic impedance of compensated line with degrees of series & shunt compensation
as K se & K sh respectively.
Solution: The characteristic impedance of uncompensated line is given by,
Xline
Zc 
Bline
The characteristic impedance of compensated line is,
Xline  Xc
Zc 
Bline  BL
Xc BL 1  K se
 K se ;  K sh , Hence, Z c  Z 0
Xline Bline 1  K sh

Note: Series Reactor is not very commonly employed as it increases the reactance of the line
and thus reduces the maximum power capability of the line and thus reduces the stability of
the line.
Dynamic Voltage Control

The devices that we have covered upto now are stationery in space i.e. they do not have any
moving parts. But the use of Synchronous Motor for Voltage Control is called as Dynamic
Voltage Control as it has rotor which is rotating part. Based on excitation of Synchronous
Motor we can control the reactive power of the motor.
Synchronous Condenser & Synchronous coil

Synchronous Condenser is an over – excited synchronous motor operating under no-load
condition.
Synchronous coil is an under – excited synchronous motor operating under no-load
condition.
The Schematic representation of Dynamic

Voltage Control is shown in the adjoining
figure. The excitation of machine is variable to control
The power factor of the machine.
The reactive power input to a synchronous motor is given by,

V
Q SM 
Xs
 V  E cos  
This is the reactive power absorbed by the synchronous motor from the bus. Thus, reactive
power delivered by synchronous motor into the bus,
Q 'SM  Q SM
V
Q'SM   E cos   V 
Xs
Under No-Load Condition, PSM  0
Thus, sin   0 and hence   0
V
Q'SM   E  V 
Xs 
Synchronous Condenser
In case of Over excitation E  V
Thus, Q 'SM   ve
Synchronous condenser supplies reactive power into the system. Thus, it is similar to Shunt
Capacitor.
Synchronous condenser is also a power factor correction device.

Pf of synchronous condenser
PSM
cos SM  leading
PSM
2
 Q SM
2
For practical sync- condenser, pf is 0.01 – 0.02 leading

For improvement in pf from cos 1 to cos 2 lag.
QSM  P1  tan 1  tan 2 
In this case, PSM is assumed to be zero and thus pf of Synchronous Motor is assumed to be
zero pf leading.
Synchronous Coil
In case of under-excitation, E  V
Thus, reactive power delivered by Synchronous Motor to the bus,
Q'SM  0
So, Synchronous Motor absorbs reactive power from the bus and thus acts as Shunt Reactor
and is called as Synchronous Coil.
Pf of synchronous coil cos r  0 lagging.
Synchronous coil is used to control over-voltages and is thus called as Ferranti effect control
device.
Synchronous Phase Modifier or Phase Advancer

 It is an over – excited synchronous motor operating with some mechanical load.
 pf of phase modifier cos sm  0 leading
Power balance
Psource  Pload  PSM ; Qsource  Qload  QSM
Real power absorbed

E V
PSM  sin  0
Xs
Reactive power delivered
V
QSM   E cos   V 
Xs 

Synchronous Motor will inject reactive power into the bus when,
QSM  0 when E cos   V
To inject some amount of reactive power excitation required for synchronous phase modifier
will be more compared to synchronous condenser.
The phasor diagram for lagging power factor load is shown below,
Before compensation the source current is same as load current,

Is1  Il  l
After compensation, the source current becomes,
Is2  Il  l  ISMSM
From, the phasor diagram
s2  s1
cos s2  cos s1
Thus, pf of system is improved.
It is a power factor correction device, so to improve

pf from cos 1 to cos 2
QSM  Q1  Q2  P1 tan 1  P2 tan 2 
P1 is the real power before compensation i.e. real power
absorbed by the load.
P2  P1  PSM is the real power after compensation i.e. real power
absorbed by the load and Synchronous Motor.
Solved Examples
Problem: A 275kV, 3-phase, 50Hz, 400km lossless line has following parameters:
x=0.05ohms/km, line charging susceptance y=3.0 micro-Siemens/k
(a) Calculate the receiving end voltage on open circuit .
(b) What load at the receiving end will result in a flat voltage profile on the line?
(c) If the flat voltage profile is to be achieved at 1.2 times the loading in (b) what will be
nature and quantum of uniformly distributed compensation required?

Solution: The line parameters are,

X  0.05 / km  Z  j0.05 / km
y  3  106 s / km  y  j3  106 s / km
Propagation constant,   yz  j0.05  j3  106  j3.872  104 rad / km
l  3.872  104  400  0.15488rad
z j0.05
Characteristic impedance=   129.1
y j3  10 6
ABCD parameters of lossless line
 cos l jZ c sin l 
A B    0.988 j19.91 
  1  
 C D   Z sin l cos l   j1.19  10 0.988 
3
 c 
Vs 275kV
(a) VR0    278.34kV
A 0.988
(b) For flat voltage profile
ZL  Z c  129.1
 V L  L     275  10 
2 2
3
R
Load power=  585.786MW
Zc 129.1
1
(c) PL 
ZL
PL2 ZL1

PL1 ZL2
ZL1
1.2 
ZL2
ZL1
 ZL2 
1.2
For flat profile ZL  Z c
Z c1
Z c2 
1.2
XL
Zc 
Bc
XL2 1 XL1
 
Bc 1.2 Bc

XL2 XL1  0.694 XL1 1  0.306 

 
Bc Bc Bc
Therefore, we need 30.6% series capacitive compensation.
Problem: A transmission line has equal voltages at the two ends, maintained constant by
two sources, a third source is to be provided to maintain constant voltage (equal to end
voltages) at either the midpoint of the line or at 75% of the distances from the sending end.
Then the maximum power transfer capabilities of the line in the original case and the other
two cases respectively will be in the ratio?
Solution: Without compensation
V2
Pmax 
X
Compensation at midpoint
V  V 2V2
Pmax,2  
X/2 X
Compensation at ¾ th length
Between sending end & compensator
4V 2
Pmax  V
2

3X / 4 3X
Between compensator & receiving end
V2 4V 2
Pmax  
X X
4
Compensator never delivers or absorbs active power. So real power must remain same from
4V 2
sending to receiving end & sending end cannot deliver beyond
3X
4V 2
Pmax,3 
3X
Ratio=1:2:4/3
Problem: A 3-phase 11-kV generator feeds power to a constant power unity power factor
load of 100 MW through a 3-phase transmission line. The line-to-line voltage at the
terminals of the machine is maintained constant at 11kV. The per unit positive sequence
impedance of the line based on 100MVA and 11kV is j0.2. the line to line voltage at the load
terminals is measured to be less than 11kV. The total reactive power to be injected at the
terminals of the load to increase to line-to-line voltage at the load terminals to 11kV is

Solution: Assuming Vbase  11kV,Sbase  100MVA

100MW
X  j0.2pu ; P  1pu
100MVA
pf  1 ; V  11  1pu
11
Real Power is given by,
VS VR
P sin 
X
X
1 sin     11.54 0
0.2
Reactive Power at receiving end is,
VR 1
QR   VS cos   VR   1 cos11.54  1  0.101pu
X   0.2 
By power balancing
QR  QL  QC
Due to UPF load QL  0
QR  QC
Q C  0.101pu
Q C  0.101  100  10.1MVAR
Problem: The ABCD parameters of a 3-phase overhead transmission line are A=D  0.90,
B  200900  and C  0.95  103 900 S . At no-load condition a shunt inductive reaction is
connected at the receiving end of the line to limit the receiving end voltage to be equal to
the sending-end voltage. The ohmic value of the reactor is
Solution: Since A<1, no load receiving end voltage
VS
VRO   VS
A
This is Ferranti effect and we connect a shunt reactor to minimize it.
V 
IR   R 
 jX 
Sending end voltage is
VS  AVR  BIR
VR  200 
VS  0.9  VR  20090    0.9  V
jX  X  R

Since VS  VR  after compensation

200
0.9  1
X
X  2000
Problem: A balanced delta connected load of 8  j6  per phase is connected to a 400V,
50Hz, 3-phase supply lines. If the input power factor is to be improved to 0.9 by connecting a
bank of star connected capacitors the required KVAR of the bank is?
Solution: Load voltage=400V
400
Load current=  40  36.860 A
8  j6
Load active power= 3VphIph cos   3  400  40  cos36.86
P  38.405kW
1  36.86 2  cos10.9  25.840
Q C  P  tan 1  tan 2   38.405 tan36.86  tan25.84   10.2KVAR
Problem: The Thevenin’s equivalent Impedance of a bus bar in a three-phase 220KV system
is 0.25PU at a base of 250MVA. Calculate the reactive power needed in MVAR to boost the
voltage by 4KV and also to reduce the voltage by 2KV. What equipment is needed in each
case.
Solution: Converting the system to actual values from pu values
VS  220kV
 220 
2
X  0.25   48.4 
250
XQ
VC 
VS
VS VC
Q
X
For voltage boost, shunt capacitor is employed
220  4
Q  18.18MVAR
48.4
For reducing voltage, shunt reactor is employed
220  2
Q  9.09MVAR
48.4
Problem: A 275kV line has the line constants as A  0.8550 , B  200750  . What is the
rating of compensating equipment required at the receiving end to maintain the sending

end and receiving end voltages at 275 kV? The load at receiving end is 150 MW at 0.8 pf
lagging.
Solution: After compensation, real power remains same as capacitor does not consume any
real power
PR  150MW
VS VR A
cos      VR cos    
2
PR 
B B
VS  VR  275kV
 275  275  10 6
cos  75  8  
0.85
 275   106 cos  70 
2
150  106 
200 200
150  106  200
 cos  75  8   0.85 cos 70
 275  10
2 6
cos  75  8   0.6874
  28.420
Reactive power at receiving end
VS VR A
sin       VR sin    
2
QR 
B B
 275
2
0.85
sin  75  28.42    275  sin70  27.37 MVAR
2

200 200
Reactive power in load= P tan  150  tan cos1 0.8  112.5 MVAR  
After compensation QR  QL  QC
QC  QL  QR  112.5   27.37  139.87 MVAR
Problem: For the system shown below, SD1 and SD2 are complex power demands at bus 1
and bus 2 respectively. If V2  1 pu, the VAR rating of the capacitor QG2  connected at bus
2 is

Solution: The complex power demands at the buses are,

SD2  PD2  jQD2  1  j0
PD2  1pu QD2  0pu
SD1  PD1  jQD1  1  j0
PD1  1pu QD1  0pu

Assuming V2  1   because power travels from higher angle to lower angle.
PR  1pu (Real power in capacitor is zero)
V1 V2
sin  1  2   1
X
11
0.5
  
sin 0    1
sin   0.5    300

Reactive power at receiving end
V2
QR   V cos   V2 
X  1 
1
 1  cos30  1  0.268pu
0.5 
QR  QD2  QC
QC  QD2  QR  0   0.268   0.268pu

Load Frequency Control

Power input to a machine must continuously be regulated to match the active power
demand, otherwise the machine speed will change with consequent change in frequency
which is undesirable.
When the load on a generator or a group of generators increases, the rotors slow down
resulting in reduction in frequency. However, the governors adjust the input so as to bring
the frequency to the original level. The control of frequency by the action of governors is
called the Primary Control. The action of the governors is automatic. However, frequency
control by governors alone is not adequate and secondary control is required. In secondary
control loading on different plants is changed. Load Frequency control in an interconnected
system is more difficult as compared to system with one or two machines.
Flat Frequency Control
If two generating stations are connected by tie line and additional load demand is taken care
of by only one station and other station is not regulated. If load at any of the two stations
change, the generation at only one station is changed to maintain a balance between
generation and load.
The drawback of this method is that one station must have enough capacity to absorb load
variations for the entire system.
Parallel Frequency Control

In this method both alternators are regulated simultaneously to maintain the frequency
constant.
Flat Tie-Line Control

In this method of frequency control the increase in load of one area is met by increasing the
generation in that area and thus keeping the power flow through the tie line constant. This
method is used when a small system and large system is interconnected by a tie line.
Area Frequency Response Characteristics

These characteristics represent how the system frequency changes with change in load
demand in an area.
 
 1 
f     PD
B  1 
 
 R
P
Where, B  D (MW/Hz) shows how the load is sensitive with changes in frequency and can
f
be called as Load Frequency Constant.
R (Hz/MW) is the speed regulation parameter of an area. It represents how generated power
changes with frequency.
1
PG   f
R

Solved Examples
Problem: The speed regulation parameter R of a control area is 0.025 Hz/MW and load
frequency constant B is 2 MW/Hz. The Area Frequency Response characteristics has a slope
of (MW/Hz)?
Solution: Slope of AFRC(MW/Hz) is given by,
1 1
B 2  42 MW / Hz
R 0.025
Area Control Error

It is difference between scheduled and actual power generation within a control area in
power grid taking frequency bias into account.
ACE  Ptie  bf
Where b is called as frequency bias.

Underground Cables
Underground Cables are used for Transmission and Distribution of Power where it becomes
impracticable to use overhead construction. Such an area may be congested urban area or
crossing wide water bodies where Overhead construction is not possible. An electric cable
may be defined as a single conductor insulated through its full length or two or more
conductors each provided with its own insulation and laid up together under one protective
outer covering.
Construction
Different layers involved in an Underground Cable are shown in the figure below,
Insulation
To avoid the flow of leakage current to ground (or) other live parts of the system.
Properties of Insulators
 High Insulation Resistance
 High Dielectric Strength
 Non – hygroscopic (less corrosive)
 Free from impurities
 Insulators should be electrically & chemically inactive.
Generally, the following materials are used as insulators and their dielectric strengths are also
mentioned against each material
 Vulcanized Rubber : 10 – 20 kV/mm
 Poly Vinyl Chloride : 18 kV/mm
 Impregnated Paper : 30 KV/mm
 XLPE (cross linked polyethene) : 20 KV/mm
Metallic Sheath
To avoid moisture, gases or alkali content from earth to insulator eg. Al or lead
Bedding
It is placed to avoid corrosion on metallic sheath
eg. Fibrous Material (low grade insulator) such as Jute, Cotton or Hessian Tape.

Armouring
It is placed to avoid mechanical damages or mechanical injuries to the cable during laying &
transportation of cable.
eg. Galvanized Steel Tape.
Serving
Used to avoid corrosion on surface of armouring.
eg. fibrous material similar to bedding.
Underground Cables Vs Overhead Lines

 Insulation placed on surface of conductor in UG cables whereas insulator is connected
between conductor and tower in case of Overhead Lines.
 The radius of conductor is almost same in case of UG cables and Overhead Lines and
hence GMR also remains same.
 From, the figure we can see the distance between conductors is reduced in case of UG
cables and thus GMD of UG cable is less as compared to Overhead Lines.
 GMD 
 The inductance of Transmission Line is given by, L  2  107 ln  H / m
 GMR 
Due to reduction in GMD per phase inductance is reduced in case of UG cables.
Lph UG cable  Lph OH line
20 r
 The capacitance in a Transmission Line is given by, C 
 GMD 
ln  
 r 
Due to reduction in GMD the capacitance is increased in case of UG cables.
Cph UG cable  Cph OH line 
 Due to reduction in Inductance, the reactance of line is reduced and thus maximum power
transfer capability of UG cable is increased as compared to Overhead Line.
L
 Surge Impedance of a Transmission Line is given by, Z C 
C

Due to increase in Capacitance and reduction in Inductance, surge impedance of UG cable is

reduced as compared to Overhead Lines.
V2
 Surge Impedance Loading of a Transmission Line is given by, SIL 
ZC
Due to decrease in Surge Impedance, the Surge Impedance Loading of an UG cable is more
as compared to Overhead Line.
Due to this reason, the loading in case of UG cable is decided on the basis of Thermal Limit
and thus Loading < SIL.
 Due to increase in capacitance, the line charging current is more in UG cable as compared
to Overhead Line so Ferranti Effect is more in case of UG cables.
To reduce Ferranti effect in the cable, Ferranti surge absorber in used or series reactor will be
used whereas in Transmission line shunt reactor will be used.
Proximity Effect
The inductance and current distribution in a conductor is affected by presence of other
conductors in its vicinity, this is called as Proximity Effect.
If conductors carry current is opposite direction, the magnetic fields tend to increase the
current density in adjacent portions of the conductor and thus current is concentrated in
small regions causing an increase in the resistance of the conductor just like the case of Skin
Effect.
In case of UG cables the conductors are more closely located as compared to Overhead Lines
and hence Proximity effect is more pronounced in case of UG cables.
Insulation Resistance of cable

The DC distributed model for a UG cable is shown below,
As current flows in the conductor it encounters the conductor or core resistance and the
leakage current flows through the insulator to the ground and is represented by Insulator
Resistance.
The resistance is the conductor or core is given by,
 l
R core  core
a
where l is the length of cable and a  r 2 is the cross sectional area of the conductor.

Consider a small ring of radius x and width dx inside the insulator as shown below,
 dx
resistance of small ring  ins
2xl
Total Insulator Resistance is given by,
R  dx  R 
R   ins  ins ln  
r 2xl 2l  r 
This is the total resistance of Insulator and not the resistance per unit
Length.
From the equations above,
As length of conductor increases, then R core increases but R ins decreases
Insulators have negative temperature coefficient so as Temperature increases the resistance

of Insulator will decrease and thus leakage current through the insulator will increase.
Conductor or Core Resistance increases with increase in temperature due to positive
temperature coefficient of conductors.
Electrostatic Stress Distribution in Cable Cross Section

λ is line charge C/m
The electric field due to line charge at a distance x from the cable is given by,

Ex 
2x
At x  r , on surface of core the electric field is,

Er 
2r
At x  R , on surface of sheath the electric field is,

ER 
2R
According to Ohm’s law J  E
J
E  , for ideal conductor   

Einside  0
So, there is no electric field present inside the conductor.

Potential difference between core and sheath is given by,

R R   R 
r 
VrR  Exdx  r
2x
dx  ln  
2  r 
Thus, charge density is given by,
V  2

R 
ln  
r
Thus, electric field at a distance ‘x’ in terms of Potential Difference is given by,
V
Ex 
R 
x ln  
r
V
At x  r , Er 
R 
r ln  
r
V
At x  R , ER 
R 
R ln  
r
Er  ER
‘E’ on core surface is very high.
Since, electric field is inversely proportional to distance so maximum electric field occurs on
the surface of conductor. The variation of Electric Field Intensity with distance is shown in the
figure above.
The choice of Insulating material is based on Maximum electric Field as the dielectric
strength of the insulator must be higher than maximum electric field so that it does not
breakdown. High Value of Maximum Electric Field increases the dielectric strength
requirement of insulator and thus cost of cable increases.
Most economical radius of core

‘E’ on core surface will be minimised by keeping R & V constant to reduce the dielectric
strength requirement of Insulator.
Electric Field on surface of conductor is given by,
V
Er 
R 
r ln  
r
To minimize the maximum electric field intensity,
dEr
0
dr
R 
To minimise E, we should maximise r ln  
r

d   R 
 r ln     0
dr   r  
R  r  R  R 
ln    r   2   0 => ln    1
r R r  r
R
r
e
At this value of core radius the electric field on the surface of conductor is minimized.
Grading of cables
 Potential Gradient is maximum at conductor surface and decreases towards inner surface
of sheath. We want to use different dielectric materials to decrease difference between
minimum & maximum gradient so that electric field is uniformly distributed and dielectric
strength requirement of Insulator is reduced.
 The most ideal condition is if the potential gradient is constant throughout the insulator
width. Potential Gradient at distance x is given by,

g
2x
If g is constant ⟹ x  cons tant
 This method requires infinite number of dielectric materials of varying permittivity which
is not possible practically.
 We try to obtain approximation of this condition by using 3 or 4 dielectric materials with
varying permittivity.
 There are two ways to arrange different dielectrics in a cable.
o Factor of safety of all materials is same.
o Working stress of all materials is same.
Factor of safety
It is the ratio of dielectric strength of a material and the maximum electric field intensity in
the material.
G G
F  Emax 
Emax F
So, for material 1
 G
 1
21r F
G1 = dielectric strength of material 1
For second layer of dielectric
 G
 2
22r1 F
For third layer of dielectric

 G
 3
23r2 F
Since, charge density is same for all three materials
G G G
  21r 1  22r1 2  23r2 3
F F F
1r G1  2r1 G2  3r2 G3
Since, r  r1  r2
Thus, 1G1  2G2  3G3
So material with highest product of dielectric strength and dielectric strength should be
placed closest to core & then others should be placed in decreasing order.
Working stress is same

Working Stress refers to maximum electric field in a material.
  
gmax   
21r 22r1 23r2
1r  2r1  3r2
Since, r  r1  r2
Thus, 1  2  3
Materials should be arranged in decreasing order of permittivity.
The gradient distribution shown above is for the case when working stress is same for all
materials and there we can clearly the variation in electric field intensity is reduced.
Capacitance of single core cable

Capacitance of a cable can be computed as,

Cn  F / m
V
V  2 
Where,  
R 
ln  
r
20 r
Thus, capacitance is given by Cn 
R 
ln  
r
V
Charging current, Ic   V  2fCn
Xc
Capacitance of 3 core cable
In a three core cable all the three conductors belonging
to three different phases are contained inside the same cable.
There are two types of capacitances formed
in a three core cable,
Cc = inter core capacitance

Cs = capacitance between core & sheath
These capacitances are represented in circuit model as shown,
To calculate per phase capacitance,

Convert ∆ into Y
The neutral point of Y connection is connected to sheath
Effective capacitance between each core to neutral
C ph  Cc  3Cc
Cs  Cc
The core to sheath insulation level is based on per-phase voltage whereas core to core
insulation is based on line-line voltage. So core to sheath distance is less compared to core
to core distance i.e.,
Cs  Cc
Methods to calculate Cs , Cc & C ph

Case-1: Any of two cores or conductors are connected to sheath & capacitance will be
measured between remaining core & sheath.
The equivalent circuit when lower two cores are connected to sheath is shown below,
Due to connection two cores to sheath the two sheath
Capacitances are shorted and one core capacitance is
also short-circuited.
Ceq  Cs  2Cc (All capacitance are in parallel)
C1  Cs  2Cc
Case-2: All the three cores are bunched (or) connected together & capacitance will be
measured between any core & sheath.

In such a case all core capacitances are short circuited and sheath capacitances are
connected in parallel.
C2  3Cs
C2
Thus, Cs 
3
Substituting this value in case-1,
C C
Cc  1  2
2 6
Effective capacitance / ph  Cs  3Cc
C2 3C1 C2
  
3 2 2
3C1 C2
C ph  
2 6
Case-3: Any one of the core is connected to sheath and capacitance is measured between
remaining two cores.
The equivalent circuit in such a case is shown below,
 C  Cc 
C3  Cc   s 
 2 
3C C
C3  c  s
2 2
C ph  2C3
Losses / Heating in UG cable

 I2R loss or core (or) conductor loss in cable
 Dielectric loss in cable dielectric
 Sheath loss & Armouring loss
Dielectric Power Loss

R ⟹ represents dielectric loss
V2
Dielectric loss  IR2 R   VIR
R

For 3 – core cable

Vph
2
Dielectric loss ph 

Rph
3Vph
2
Dielectric loss 3    
Rph
There are two major causes of Dielectric Loss in a cable:
 If a dielectric material is placed under the presence of electric field then the dielectric
material will be polarized and the dipoles will be aligned in one specified direction. If the
field direction is reversed than polarization direction & dipole alignment direction will be
reversed. During this process, it consumes some energy called as dielectric loss. The field
direction reverses after every half cycle in case of AC Transmission. So, this hysteresis loss is
only present in AC Transmission and not in DC Transmission.
 The other reason is flow of leakage current through the dielectric due to finite insulator
resistance. Ideally, Insulator resistance should be infinite so no leakage current shall flow.
This loss is present in case of AC as well as DC Transmission.
 Hysteresis Loss is much higher than Leakage Loss.
The phasor diagram for the above mentioned RC circuit representation of dielectric is shown
below,
pf  cos 90    sin 

Dielectric loss  VIR
IR
tan   , IR  IC tan 
IC
Dielectric loss  VIC tan 
Dielectric power loss  V 2 2fC tan 
As δ is very small ; tan    radians
Dielectric loss  V2f C 
  2fC  tan 
2
For 3 core cable, Dielectric power loss  3 Vph
Sheath loss or Armouring loss

Due to flux produced by the core, there is some statically induced emf in sheath and
armouring layer of the cable which causes induced currents and hence losses in the cable.
d
es  core
dt
Sheath current = is
Sheath loss = i2sR

In case of 3-ϕ balanced system

Ia , Ib , Ic are balanced
a , b , c are balanced
net  a  b  c  0
emf in sheath, es  0 , no sheath loss
So, in case of 3-phase 3 core cable Sheath Loss is zero.
But for high voltages above 33kV we use three single core cables for three phase
transmission and then resultant flux is non-zero so there are Sheath Losses.
Effect of various parameters on Losses in a Cable

 If current carried by Core increases
 I2R loss increases
 No change in dielectric loss (constant loss)
 Sheath loss increases because increase in current causes increase in flux linkage
and thus emf and current induced in Sheath Layer also increases.
 If supply frequency increases

 I2R loss slightly increases due to increase in resistance because of skin effect and
proximity effect
 Dielectric losses are directly proportional to frequency and hence dielectric losses
increase.
 Induced emf is always proportional to frequency so Sheath Losses also increase.
 If length of line increases

 I2R loss increases due to increase in core resistance
 Dielectric loss increases as capacitance increases
 Sheath loss increases
Overall loss in cable is more, so more heating due to length increment & can cause thermal
damage.
In case of HVDC  f = 0 
 I2R loss is very less as there is no skin effect or proximity effect.
 Dielectric loss is almost zero as Hysteresis part is zero but due to leakage it will
have a small dielectric loss.
 Sheath loss = 0 but small amount occurs due to ripple currents in HVDC.
Hence, HVDC cables have less heating as compared to HVAC cables.

Solved Examples
Problem: A 110 KV, single core coaxial XLPE insulated power cable delivering power at 50Hz,
has a capacitance of 125nF/Km. if the dielectric loss tangent of XLPE is 2  104 , then
dielectric power loss in this cable in W/km is?
Solution: Per-phase voltage is given by,
110
Vph  kV
3
tan   2  104
 
2
Dielectric loss= 2    f  Cph  Vph  tan 
2
 110 
=  2    50   125  10  
9
 
 103   2  104  31.7 W / km
 3 
Problem: The insulation resistance of a cable of length 10km is 1MΩ. For a length of 100km
of the same cable, the insulation resistance will be?
1
Solution: Insulation resistance 
length
R1 l2

R 2 l1
l1R1 1M  10
R2    0.1M
l2 100
Problem: A 6.6 KV, 50Hz single core lead sheathed cable has the following data: Conductor
diameter: 1.5 cm, length: 4km
Internal diameter of the sheath: 3cm,
Resistivity of insulation: 1.3  1012   m , Relative permittivity of insulation: 3.5
Calculate
(a) The insulation resistance,
(b) The capacitance and
(c) The maximum electric stress in the insulation.
Solution: (a) The radius of two layers are,
1.5  10 2
Internal radius, r   0.75cm
2
3  10 2
External radius, R   1.5cm
2
Insulation Resistance is,
 R 1.3  1012 1.5  102
R ln  ln  35.85 M
2l r 2    4  103 0.75  102
(b) Capacitance of Cable is,

20 r 2  8.85  1012  3.5
C   0.28 F/ km
ln R  1.5 
ln 
r 
 0.75 
V
(c) Maximum electric stress 
R 
r ln  
r
6600
Vph  V
3
6600 / 3
Emax   7.329KV / cm
0.75  102  ln2
Problem: Consider a three-core, three phases, 50Hz, 11kV cable whose conductors are
denoted as R, Y and B in the figure. The inter-phase capacitance (C1) between each pair of
conductors is 0.2µF and the capacitance between each line conductor and the sheath is 0.4
µF. the per phase changing current is?
Solution: C1  0.2F C2  0.4F

CPh  C2  3C1  0.4  3  0.2  1F
11 103
IC  CPh VPh   2  50   10 6   2A
3
Problem: The inner and outer diameter of a cable are 3 cm and 8.5 cm. The cable is
insulated with two materials having permittivity of 5 and 3 respectively with the
corresponding stresses of 38KV/cm and 28 KV/cm. Calculate the radial thickness of each
insulating layer and the safe working voltage of the cable.
Solution: Assuming charge density to be λ
Working stress of material 1

  38kV / cm
20  5  r
Working stress of material 2

  28kV / cm
20  3  r1
Divide both equations
3r1 38

5r 28
38 5 38 5
r1   r    1.5
28 3 28 3
r1  3.392cm
Thickness of material 1 = r1  r  3.392-1.5=1.892cm
8.5
Thickness of material 2 = R  r1   3.392  0.857cm
2
V1
Emax,1 
r
r ln 1
r
3.392
V1  38  1.5  ln  46.5kV
1.5
V2  4.25 
Emax,2   V2  28  3.392  ln  
R  3.392 
r1 ln
r1
V2  21.41kV
Voltage across cable=46.5+21.41=67.91kV  68kV
Problem: The charging current drawn by a cable with 3 cores and protected by a metal
sheet when switched on to a 11 KV, 50Hz supply. The capacitance between two cores with
the third core connected to the sheath is measured to be 3.7 .F?
Solution: When one core is connected to sheath & cap is measured between two cores
Cph
Cm 
2
Cph  Cm  2  7.4F
Line changing current,

IC  Cph Vph
11000
  2    50   7.4  10 6   14.77A
3
Overhead Insulators
The overhead line insulators are bare and not covered with any insulator and therefore they
are secured to supporting structures by means of insulating fixtures, called as Insulators in
order that there is no leakage current to the earth through the insulator.
Insulators are mounted on cross arm and the line conductors are attached to the insulators
so as to provide necessary clearances between conductors and metalwork. Insulators also
prevent short circuiting between different phase conductors and provide necessary
mechanical support to line conductors.
For EHV & above voltage levels switching over-voltages are dominating over lighting over-
voltages.
Properties of Insulators
The overhead line insulators should have high mechanical strength to support the weight of
conductors.
Other properties are same as UG cable insulators.
Materials to be used
 Porcelain (or) glazed porcelain
 Toughened glass
 Epoxy Resin
 Magnesium Silicate
Types of Insulators
Pin type insulators
 This is one of the earliest designs and used for supporting line conductors.
 It provides the most economic, simple and efficient method of conductor and bus bar
voltages upto 33kV.
 This pin type insulator is mounted on a pin
which in turn is secured to the cross arm of the pole.
 The insulator is placed in the groove at the top
of insulator and is tied down with soft copper or soft
aluminium binding wire according to conductor material.
 Bottom shell is protected by top shell from dust
deposition & rain drop fall i.e. why top shell is widest
and bottom shell is narrowest.
 Beyond 33 KV, the pin type insulators become too
bulky & hence uneconomical.
Suspension Type Insulators

 At high voltages pin type insulators become too bulky so it cannot be used for the lines
which use extremely high voltages say 765kV.

 Suspension Type Insulators consist of a number of

porcelain discs flexibly connected by metal links in the
form of a string. The suspension insulator hangs from the
cross arm of a supporting structure and the line conductor
is attached to its lower end.
 We can increase working voltage by adding extra disc.
 Each unit is designed for low voltage say 11 KV approx.
 If one disc is damaged, whole unit is not damaged.
Strain Type Insulators

 When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected
to greater tension.
 Pin Type insulators cannot be used in such situations because they cannot take conductor
load in tension which often occurs in such situations.
 To relieve the tension, strain insulators are used.
 Strain Insulators are an assembly of suspension type insulators connected horizontally.
A cable is connected between two transmission lines connected to different insulator units.
 Shackle insulators are used as strain insulators for low voltage lines (V < 11 KV).
Shackle Type Insulators

 Similar to strain insulators but at V < 11 KV.
 Used on sharp curves, end poles & in section poles.
 Every insulator is coated with an extremely hard,
smooth glaze that reduces accumulation of surface
deposits.

Number of discs required
Line Voltage Suspension Type Strain Type

66kV 5 6
132kV 9 10
220kV 13-15 14-16
400kV 20-25 23-26
765kV Around 35 Around 36
Flashover and Puncture Voltage

The voltage at which the air surrounding the insulator breaks down then an arc is formed
between the conductor and the tower. This causes a current to flow between tower and
conductor through the arc. It is called as Arcing Ground or Flashover of the Insulator.
The voltage at which conduction starts taking place through the insulator is called as
Puncture Voltage as it seems that the insulator is punctured and allows the flow of current
through it.
Voltage distribution across suspension type string insulator

Each string insulator unit behaves like a capacitor having dielectric medium between the two
metallic parts (viz pin and cap). The capacitance due to two metal fittings on either side of
Insulator is called as Mutual Capacitance represented by Cm.
Further there is a capacitance between metal fitting of each unit and earthed pole or tower.
The capacitance so formed is called as Shunt Capacitance represented by CS.
The model for 3 disc insulator is shown below,
Apply KCL at node 1

I2  I1  I1
V2  jCm   V1  jCm   V1  jCS 
CS  C 
V2  V1  V1  V1 1  S 
Cm  Cm 

CS shunt capacitance
Let m ; 0 m1
Cm mutual capacitance
V2  V1 1  m ...(i)
Apply KCL at node 2

I3  I2  I2
V3  jCm   V2  jCm    V1  V2  jCS
V3  V2   V1  V2  m

V3  V2  V1  V1 1  m m 
V3  V1 m2  3m  1
Since m>0, V3  V2  V1
 So there is non-uniform voltage distribution across the string.

 Due to non-uniform distribution the discs near to power conductor are over-stressed
whereas discs near to tower are under-stressed.
 To represent degree of non-uniformity, we use string efficiency.

Total voltage across string
String efficiency 
Number of discs  Voltage across bottom string
string 
V
1
 V2  V3 
 100
3  V3
string  100%
It is due to charging current carried by shunt capacitances.
 In strain type insulators, since the distance between insulator disc & tower goes on
increasing so shunt capacitance goes on reducing & thus voltage is distributed more
uniformly & hence it has more string efficiency.
 A
CS  0
d
As distance from tower increases CS reduces.
 For HVDC, charging currents in shunt & mutual capacitance are zero
So, string  100%
Methods to improve String Efficiency

Reduce ‘m’ value
 Can be reduced by reducing CS
 This can be done by increasing the distance between string & tower.

 For that length of cross- arms has to be increased.

 Size & cost of tower increases in this case.
1 1
 Practically, m  to
10 6
Insulator Grading / Capacitance Grading

 Dissimilar discs will be used such that mutual-capacitance of each disc is different.
 To make string  100%
V1  V2  V3  V
I1 Xc1  I2 Xc2  I3 Xc3
Since I3  I2  I1
Xc1  Xc2  X c3
Hence,  C1  C2  C3 
Applying KCL at node 1

I2  I1  I1
V2 C2  V1C1  V1Cm
Cm
C2  1  m C1 ; m 
C1
V3C3  V2C2   V1  V2  Cm
C3  1  3m C1
For nth disc

Cn  Cn1  n  1 Cm
C1 : C2 : C3 : C4  1 : 1  m : 1  3m : 1  6m
 Manufacturing dissimilar discs is difficult so practically insulator grading can’t be used for
string efficiency improvement.
Static Shielding / Guard wire

 Capacitance of each disc is same or similar discs.
 Guard Ring is usually a large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit and connected to
metal work at the bottom of this unit.
 The guard wire will be placed under the conductor such that charging current caused by
static capacitances (guard wire to metal line) will compensate charging currents carried by
shunt capacitances.
 Vph  V1  V2  V3  V4
 Cx , Cy = static capacitances

The current in each mutual capacitance should be same for voltage of each unit to be equal
and obtain 100% string efficiency.
Thus, I1  I2  I3  I
V1  V2  V3  V
I2  I x  I1  I1
I x  I1
V 2
 V3  Cx   V1  CS
CS mCm
Cx  
2 2
I3  I y  I2  I2
Iy  I2
 
V3 Cy   V1  V2  CS
Cy  2CS  2mCm
 If there are n-disc insulators, static capacitance between p th metal link from the top &
guard wire is
p mCm 
CP 
np
 For long length we provide metal link up to some disc only such that major charging
currents are minimized &  increases.
Solved Examples
Problem: The equivalent capacitor arrangement of the two string Insulator is shown below.
The maximum voltage that each unit can with stand should not exceed 17.5 kV. The line to
line voltage of the system is?
Solution: Maximum voltage appears across unit nearest to conductor

V2  17.5kV
Cs
m  1
Cm 8
V2  V1 1  m
17.5
V1   15.55kV
9
8
Conductor voltage= V1  V2  15.55  17.5  33.05kV
Line to line voltage= 3  33.05  57.25kV
Problem: In a transmission line each conductor is at 20kV and is supported by a string of 3

suspension insulators. The air capacitance between each cap-pin junction and tower is one-
fifth of the capacitance C of each insulation unit. A guard ring, effective only over the line-
end insulator unit is fitted so that voltages on the two units nearest the line end are equal.
(a) Calculate the voltage on the line end unit
(b) Calculate the value of capacitance Cx required.
Solution: Since the voltage across lower two units is same

V2  V3  V
And V2  V1 1  m
C
CS
m  5  0.2
CM C
V2  1.2V1
Total voltage= V1  V2  V3  V1  1.2V1  1.2V1  3.4V1
3.4V1  20kV  V1  5.882kV
V2  V3  7.05kV
2  Cs
Capacitance of grounding CX   2Cs  2  C  0.4C
32 5
Problem: Each conductor of a 33kV, 3 phase system is suspended by a string of three similar
insulator. The ratio of shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance is 0.1. Calculate the voltage
across each insulator, and the string efficiency.
Solution: In a 3-insulator string

V2  V1 1  m

V3  V1 m2  3m  1 
m  0.1
V2  1.1V1
V3  1.31V1
Total voltage= V1  V2  V3  3.41V1
3.41V1  Vph  33
3
V1  5.587kV
V2  6.146kV
V3  1.31  V1  7.319kV
V1  V2  V3 3.41V1
String efficiency=  100%   100%  86.76%
3V3 3  1.31V1

Corona
 In a transmission line, voltage gradient is maximum at the surface of conductor when
voltage gradient exceeds break down strength of air, air surrounding the conductor gets
ionized & bluish – green or reddish glow forms around the conductor & produces a hissing
sound. This effect is called as Corona.
 If distance between conductors < 15 × radius of conductor distance between conductors

taken place but usually distance is kept more than that.
Critical Disruptive Voltage (optional)

 The potential gradient at which a dielectric disrupts fully is called as dielectric strength.
For air go  30KV max  / cm at NTP
go  21.1KV rms / cm at NTP
At NTP, T  25C   300K  , P=1 atm
 The voltage at which maximum electric field equals the dielectric strength of air
surrounding the conductor is called as Critical Disruptive Voltage.
 Consider a single phase transmission line. Let, ra , rb be radius of conductors &

D = distance between 2 conductors.
D  ra ,rb
Electric field at P which is at a distance ‘x’ from first conductor
q q
Ex  
2o x 2o D  x 
q 1 1 
Ex    
2o  x D  x 
q = linear charge density (C/m)
D r q D 
V    Ex dx  ln   ...(i)
r o  r 
gradient at P
q 1 1  q D
Ex    
2o  x D  x  2o x D  x 

o V D VD
Ex   from (i)
D x D  x  D 
2o ln x D  x  ln  
r r
V
V 
2
V = line to neutral voltage of system
V
For 3-ϕ Vph  line  V '
3
Maximum Electric Field occurs at the surface of conductor. Hence,
VD V
gmax  Er  Emax  
D  D 
r D  r  ln   r ln  
r r
As D  r
D 
V  r gmax ln  
r
Air medium breaks down when gmax  go
At conditions other than NTP
g  go 
3.92b
=
273  t
t=Temperature, b=relative air density
g0  30kV max  / cm  21.2kV rms / cm
Critical disruptive voltage
D 
Vd  rg0  ln   kV
r
We assumed conductor surface is smooth, to account for surface irregularity due to
stranding
D
Vd  rg0 m0 ln
r
kV rms Line to neutral
m0  Irregularity or stranding factor
 For smooth polished wires, m0  1
 For rough surface conductor 0.92  m0  0.98
 For stranded conductor 0.82  m0  0.88
Though corona starts at Vd but it is not visible till at a higher voltage Vdv because electron
require some more energy for further isolation.

Corona Loss
240 r
 f  25   V  Vd   105 kW/ph/km
2
Pc 
 D
Factors affecting corona loss
 Supply Frequency
With increasing frequency the corona loss increases.
 Spacing of conductors
Symmetrical spacing causes equal corona loss all phase but unsymmetrical placing causes
unequal loss. With increase in spacing the corona loss reduces.
 Atmospheric conditions
Corona loss is more in foul weather conditions than in fair weather conditions. Pressure is
less in hilly areas so corona loss is more.
 Dust, Rain & Snow
All these factors lower critical disruptive voltage & increases corona loss.
 Conductor Radius
Increasing radius reduces corona loss so bundled conductors are used which reduce radio
interference & inductive interference with communication lines.
 Surface conditions
Rough surface reduces Vd & thus increases corona loss.
 Profile
Cylindrical conductor has less corona loss.
Advantage & Disadvantages of Corona
 It dissipates energy of surges & reduces high voltage & steep frontend waveform.
 Due to corona, effective diameter of conductor is increased so capacitance increases & so
does the line charging current.
 Because of corona, third harmonic currents are induced which give rise to third harmonic
emfs which act as zero sequence emfs which gives interference with communication lines.
 Corona interferes with communication lines & wireless signal
Methods to reduce Corona Loss

 Large diameter conductors
 Hollow conductors
 Bundled conductors

Solved Examples
Problem: The corona loss on a particular system at 50Hz is 1kW/Km per phase. The corona
loss at 60Hz would be
Solution: Since Pc   f  25
Pc2  f2  25

Pc1  f1  25
Pc2  1
 60  25  1.13 kW / km / ph
50  25

Distribution Systems
There are two Distribution systems:-
 DC  Substation, Generating station for protection of equipment & back up
 AC  Public utility
DC Distribution
For protection of equipments in the generating stations & the substations DC system is used
This DC is maintained by using battery source containing 110 shells, each shell having a
voltage of 2V. So that total voltage of 220V is maintained.
Source Fed from one end
DC Distribution
r=resistance of each conductor   / m

2r=total resistance of distributor   / m
Total resistance is doubled as the distributor is two wire line.
R AB  2rl1 ; RBC  2rl2 ; R C D  2rl3 ;
VA  V
VB  VA  I1  I2  I3  R AB
Vc  VB  I2  I3  RBC
VD  VC  I3R CO
Voltage drop of distributor, VAD  VA  VD
Solved Examples
Problem: Find the voltage drop from
point A to D in a distributor which supplies
concentrated loads as shown in the figure.

Solution: The voltages at different points is given by,

VA  250V
VB  250  60  0.1  244V
VC  VB  50  0.15  236.5V
VD  VC  30  0.2  230.5V
VAO  19.5V
AC Distribution
Assuming Load 3 is unity power factor load.

Load 2 has a power factor of cos 2 lead
Load 1 has a power factor of cos 1 lag
 If the voltage at point D is given as VD  V0
 Current in section CD is, ICD  I30
 Voltage at point C will be, VC  VCC  V0  I30  Z33
 Load 2 current will then be, I2  I2  C  2  due to leading pf

 Current in section BC is, IBC  I30  I2  C  2 
 Voltage at B is given by, VB  VBB  VCC  IBC  Z22
 Load 1 current will then be, I1  I1  B  1  due to lagging pf

 Current in section AB is, IAB  IBC  I1  B  1 
 Voltage at A is given by, VA  VBB  IAB  Z11
Then, we can calculate potential drop between A and D
If Voltage of point A is given,

Then all currents are assumed with respect to a common reference i.e. with respect to A.
Assume VA  V0
Then, currents are given as,

I1  I1  1
I2  I2 2
I3  I30
Currents in different sections of the line are,
ICD  I3
IBC  I3  I2
IAB  I3  I2  I1
Voltages at nodes are,
VA  V
VB  VA   I3  I2 2  I1   1  Z 2 2
VC  VB   I1  I2 2  Z 2 2
VD  VC  I3 Z 33
Voltage drop of distributor= VA  VD
Types of Distribution Systems
Radial Distribution
Distribution power is supplied from one substation. eg. The distributor after SS5 in the above
figure is a Radial Distributor.
Disadvantages
1) Consumers at far end from source experience low voltage as compared to consumers
nearer to the substation
2) Alternative or reliable power supply is not possible.

Advantages
Because of single line, between source and load the transmission losses are minimum.
Ring Distribution
It is a closed loop forming a complete distribution of all loads. e.g. the closed loop for
substations SS1 to SS4 is an example of Ring Distribution.
Advantages
 Uniform voltage is maintained at all loads
 More Reliable power supply as compared to Radial Distribution.
Disadvantages
Because of large number of transmission lines, losses are more.
Source fed from both ends

If a distributor has sources connected at both ends then minimum potential does not occur
at end of the line but at one of the loads connected to the line. We need to identify the point
of minimum potential and its voltage.
Assume I A from VA
Calculate currents in different sections
IAB  IA  I1 
IBC  IA  I1  I2 
ICD  IA  I1  I2  I3 
Applying KVL between A and B and calculate I A
VA  VB   IA  I1  r1   IA  I1  I2  r2   IA  I1  I2  I3  r3
Substitute I A in,  IA  I1  ,  IA  I1  I2  &  I A  I1  I2  I3  & check for sign change

Node for sign change=Node of minimum potential
Calculate minimum potential by KVL

Ring Distribution
Assume a ring distribution system looks like as shown below,
The currents in various parts of distributor are indicated in the figure
Assume I A from VA
The only difference is that initial and final points are same in this case.
Calculate I A from IAr1  IA  I1  r2  IA  I1  I2  r3  IA  I1  I2  I3  r4  0
Substitute I A in  IA  I1  ,  IA  I1  I2  &  I A  I1  I2  I3 
Node at which sigh change=Node at minimum potential
Find minimum potential by KVL
Uniform Distribution
Let AB be a distributor of length l and resistance r ohms per unit length and loaded with ‘i’
amperes per unit be fed from point A with VA
The current at point C =i(l-x)

Voltage drop in a small length ‘dx’ around point C
dv  i l  x  rdx
Total Voltage drop upto point C
V   dv

x
 x2 
V   i(l  x)rdx  ir  lx  
0  2
Voltage drop upto point B (x=l)
 l2  l2 1
V  ir  l2    ir = IR
 2 2 2
Solved Examples
Problem: A distribution feeder of 1km length having resistance but negligible reactance is
fed from both ends by 400V, 50Hz balanced sources. Both voltage sources S1 & S2 are in
phase. The feeder supplies concentrated loads of upf as shown in figure.
The contribution of S1 & S2 in 100A current supplied at location P respectively are?
Solution: Since both sources have same amplitude, same frequency and same phase
VS1  VS2  0
Assume resistance per unit length= r  / km
IS1  IA
VS1  VS2  IA  0.4r1   IA  200  0.2  r1  IA  300  0.2r1   IA  500  0.2r1 
0  IA 0.4  0.2  0.2  0.2 r1  r1 200  0.2  300  0.2  500  0.2
0  IA 1.0   250 
IA  200A
I AB  200A, IBP  0, IPC  200  300  100A
ICD  200  500  300A

So 300A current flows from S2 & S1 contribution to P load is 0 A
S2 Contribution to P load is 100A
Problem: A single phase AC distributor supply two single

phase loads as shown in the figure. Voltage at point ‘B’ is
220+j0 volts. What is source power factor?

Solution: VB  2200o and IB  300o

VA  VB  IAB Z2  220  300o   j1.5  224.5511.56 Vo
Pf angle of first load = 1  V  i  cos1 0.6  53.130

i  11.56  53.13  41.570
ISA  IA  IAB  10  41.57  300  38.064  10.04 o
Vs  VA  ISA Z1  224.5511.56o  38.064  10.04  j1.5  251.2423.75o V
pf 
s
 cos  23.75  10.04   0.831lag
Problem: A DC distribution system is shown in figure with load currents as marked. The two
ends of the feeder are fed by voltage sources such that Vp - VQ  3V . The value of the voltage
Vp are a minimum voltage of 220V at any point along the feeder is?
Solution: Assuming current Ip from Vp , the current distribution in various path of distributor
is shown
Applying KVL
     
Vp  VQ  Ip  10  0.1  Ip  30  0.15  Ip  60  0.2
3  0.45Ip  10  0.1  30  0.15  50  0.2   0.45Ip  17.5
0.45Ip  20.5
Ip  45.55A
Currents in different sections of the line are,

IPR  35.55A
IRS  15.55A
ISQ  14.45A
Since, sign change occurs at S. So, minimum potential occurs at S

Vp  220  0.15 15.55  0.1 35.55  225.89V

Problem: A single phase two – wire feeder 1500m long is shown below what is the voltage
at the sending end. The impedance A at the feeder is (0.06 + j0.1) ohms / km?
Solution: VD  22000 V
I3  50  cos1 0.88  50  28.3570 A
Current in CD= I3  50  28.3570 A
VC  VD  I3 Z CD
Z CD  0.3  0.06  j0.1   0.018  j0.03  
VC  2200  50  28.357  0.018  j0.03   221.500.230 V
 
IC  40 0.23  cos1 0.85  40  31.550 A
Current in section BC
IBC  I2  I3  40  31.55  50  28.357  89.96  29.780 A
ZBC  0.6  0.06  j0.1   0.036  j0.06 

Voltage at B
VB  VC  IBC  ZBC  221.500.23  89.96  29.788  0.036  j0.06   22710 V
Current I1  6010  cos1 0.8  60  35.860 A
Current in section AB= I1  I2  I3  149.76  32.210 A
ZAB  0.6 0.06  j0.1  0.036  j0.06
VA  VB  IAB  ZAB  22710  149.76  32.21 0.036  j0.06
 236.472.1060 V
Problem: A dc 2 wire ring main distributor is shown below. Find the total currents supplied
by two sources. The resistance of each conductor 0.01 ohms/km. The source voltages are
equal.

Solution: Assuming currents in the lines as shown below,
Loop resistance=0.02Ω/km=r Ω/km

Applying KVL in upper branch
V1  V2  I1  0.3r    I1  50  0.2r    I  90  0.4r 
0  I1  0.9r   46r
46
I1   51.11A
0.9
Applying KVL in lower branch
V1  V2  I2  0.15r    I2  60  0.25r    I 2  90 0.3r    I 2  110 0.2r 
0  I2  0.9r   64r
64
I2   71.11A
0.9
Current supplied by source 1=51.11+71.11=122.22A
Current in CD=  I1  90  38.89A
Current in ED=  I2  110  38.89A
-ve sign indicates current is supplied by source 2
ISource,2  38.89  38.89  77.78A

High voltage DC Transmission

Problems with HVAC
 AC charging current limit the use of AC for very long distance & also reactance is
increased which can cause stability problem.
 In AC frequency at both ends must be kept in a safe limit otherwise synchronous
generator at both ends will halt.
Principle of operation
 A HVDC system consists of a rectifier at sending end and an inverter at receiving end.
Both rectifier & inverter are same but just firing angle range is different for rectifier
0    1800
 In a practical HVDC station, 3   full control bridge, circuit is connected through
converter transformer by controlling firing angle of converter reversible.
 Operation of converters as well bi-directional power flow is possible.
 Power Electronics converters induce current harmonics on AC side and Voltage Harmonics
on DC side.
 Smoothing reactor is used to reduce the harmonics in voltage on DC side
 AC filter is used to reduce current harmonics an AC side.
 In AC transmission, power transferred depends upon voltage magnitudes of sending end
& receiving end, power angle & line reactance. But in case of DC, power transmitted
depends on magnitude of the terminal DC voltages & line resistance, so transmission is fast
& simple.
 The current flows from higher voltage to lower voltage by proper voltage setting of
rectifier & inverter.
 In DC line, reactive power is absent, but reactive power is required for converters & they
draw from AC side.

 Filters are applied an AC side to eliminate harmonic currents & voltages an AC side.
Otherwise, they would interfere with communication lines
 Filters on DC side are provided to smoothen the DC waveform.
V1  V2
I
R
3 2 3V 
V1   Vr cos   r Id 
   
3 2 3V 
V2   Vi cos   i Id 
   
  Firing angle of rectifier

  Extinction angle of inverter
Vr  RMS AC voltage of rectifier
Vi  RMS AC voltage of inverter
Xr  Commutation reactance of rectifier
X i  Commutation reactance of inverter
P  Id V2 
V
1
V2
 V2 
R
P=Power transferred
Types of DC link
Monopolar link
In this configuration, only one conductor
is used & ground is used as return path.
Negative polarity is used for conductor for
lesser radio interference.

Bipolar link
It has 2 conductors, one with positive polarity & another with negative polarity. In each
terminal, 2 converters of equal rated voltage are connected in series, neutral points being
grounded. If one conductor has a fault-then other conductor with ground return can supply
half rated load.
Homopolar link
In this two conductors of same polarity with ground return are used. Usually negative
polarity is used for reasons of corona & radio interference.
In case of fault, converter can be operated such that one conductor supplies power.
Advantages of HVDC
 No dielectric loss in DC, no distance limitation due to charging current.

 No skin effect so DC resistance is less as compared to AC resistance.
 No compensation required as there is no concept of reactive power in HVDC.
 Less corona & radio interference
Pc   f  25 , So Pc is less in DC as compared to AC
 No stability problem
V1V2
P sin 
X
As length increases, X increases due to which steady state stability limit is reduced & for
same power transfer,  should increase due to which transient stability limit is reduced.
Disadvantages of HVDC
 Power electronics converters have costly equipment & produces a lot of harmonics which
must be reduced by filters. Power converters require large reactive power which must be
supplied locally.
 Terminal equipment is costly, so useful only for long distance transmission.
Economic distance of HVDC line

The cost of terminal equipment is higher in HVDC as compared to HVAC but maintenance
cost of HVAC is higher so cost increases at a higher rate with distance in case of HVAC. The
distance at which both costs become equal is called as Breakeven Distance. Above this
distance HVDC has lower cost and thus it is employed and below this distance HVAC has
lower cost and thus HVAC is employed.
Solved Examples
Problem: Consider a HVDC link which uses thyristor based line- commutated converter as
shown in the figure. For a power flow of 750 MW from system 1 to system 3, the voltages at
the two ends, and the current are given by : V1 =500 kV, V2 =485 kV and I = 1.5 kA. If the
direction of power flow is to be reversed (that is from system 2 to system 1) without
changing the electrical connections, then which one of the following combinations is
feasible?
(A) V1  500 kV, V2  485 kV and I = 1.5 kA

(B) V1  485 kV, V2  500 kV and I =1.5 kA
(C) V1  500 kV, V2  485 kV and I = – 1.5kA
(D) V1  500 kV, V2  485 kV and I = – 1.5 kA
Solution: For reversing the power flow (P = VI) either the direction of current at the polarity
of voltage must be reversed but not both.

As per the directions shown in figure.

V V
I 1 2
R
In case of option (A), V  500kV, V  485kV
1 2
= I = - 1.5 kA So direction of current is also reversed & hence power flow is not reversed.
In case of option (B), V  485kV, V  500kV
1 2
485   500 
I  1.5kA
R
So, direction of current is same but polarity of voltage is reversed so power flow is reversed.
Problem: Two regional systems, each having several synchronous generators and loads are
interconnected by an AC line and a HVDC link as shown in the figure. Which of the following
statements is true in the steady state?
(a) Both regions need not have same frequency

(b) The total power flow between the regions Pac  Pdc  can be changed by controlling the
HDVC converters alone
(c) The power sharing between the AC line and the HDVC link can be changed by controlling
the HDVC converters alone
(d) The directions of power flow in the HVDC link Pdc  cannot be reversed
Solution: The total power transfer depends on the Load Flow solution i.e. how much power
is generated and what is the demand so that deficit power can be transferred from one
region to the other.
But if we increase the power of HVDC link then power of AC link is automatically reduced
and power angle also reduces to reduce the power of AC link. So, power sharing can be
altered by controlling HVDC converters alone.

Problem: Power in transferred from system A to system B by an HVDC link as shown in the
figure. If the voltage VAB and VCD are as indicated in the figure and I>0, then
(a) VAB  0, VCD  0, VAB  VCD

(b) VAB  0, VCD  0, VAB  VCD
(c) VAB  0, VCD  0, VAB  VCD
(d) VAB  0, VCD  0
Solution: In a DC link current always flows from higher voltage magnitude to lower voltage
magnitude. Thus,
VAB  VCD
The direction of power flow depends on the product of V and I. If the product is negative
power flows in a direction opposite to what is indicated. Thus Voltage polarities must be
positive. Hence, C is the correct choice.

Power Systems (T - D)

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Power Systems (Transmission and Distribution)

Transmission and Distribution

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Rating of Transmission Line

o S  3VL IL only for balanced 3 phase system

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Classification of Power line voltage levels

 High voltage (HV) – it is 11kV, 33kV

 Primary Distribution – 11kV (3-phase, 3wire)

For Indian system, tolerance provided for voltage distribution = ± 6%

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Discrimination between HV & UHV, EHV, MEHV

EHV, MEHV & UHV Level

Types of Transmission Lines

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Since, resistance is inversely proportional to area.

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Single Strand Conductor

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 Ideal conductors have max skin effect (    , =0 )

In case of DC transmission,   0 and hence    so current density is given by, J  J max .

 It is used to reduce skin effect

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Stranded Vs Solid Conductor

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l = span length; h = clearance provided for conductor

Composite Stranded Conductors

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 For power conductors, number of Al strands > number of steel strands.

Property Solid AAC ACSR

Skin effect Very high Very less Moderate

Mechanical Very high Very less Moderate

Equivalent circuit of Transmission Line

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Internal Inductance of a Conductor

Flux is given by,

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r’ is called as Geometric Mean Radius (GMR).

Single Phase two wire line

These two conductors form a part of two wire line.

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Distance ‘d’ is called as Geometric Mean Distance (GMD) of the system.

Flux linkage of conductor in a group

If point P tends to infinity then

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For the system shown below,

Total flux linkage in conductor ‘a’ is given by,

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The GMR or self GMD for bundled conductors can be

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(Self GMD)a1  r1 's

Inductance of Bundled Conductors

The inductance of conductor ‘i’ is given by,

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 0 r   n  D  D  .........  D 1/nm ' 

2   D11  D12  ...  D1n  D 21  D 22  ...  D 2n  .......  D n1  D n 2  ...  D nn  

So, the inductance is given by,

Advantages of Bundle Conductor System

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Three phase conductor configurations