Overvoltage Considerations in Applying
Distributed Resources on Power Systems
Phil Barker, IEEE Senior Member
Abstract— Distributed Resources (DR) can be a source of
overvoltage problems for the electric power system if care is
not exercised in the design and interface of the DR
equipment. Conversely, DR may be adversely impacted by
overvoltage conditions that originate on distribution feeders
during faults, switching events, or as a result of lightning. Use
of the appropriate DR grounding, interface transformer
winding, proper switching methods, anti-island protection
settings, lightning surge protection, and equipment voltage
withstand ratings can help reduce the chance that either the
DR or the utility system will be adversely impacted by
overvoltages. This paper reviews the overvoltage issues
associated with the application of DR on power systems and
recommends approaches for prevention of problems.
Index Terms—Distributed Generation, Distributed
Generation Interconnection, Overvoltage Protection,
Generator Grounding, Transformer Configuration
I. INTRODUCTION
T oday there is much interest in distributed resources
(DR) due to advancements in these technologies and
the belief by many that DR is a viable alternative to
conventional transmission and distribution system
enhancements. However, it is important to recognize that
there are many power system interface issues that must be
dealt with in the design, operation and protection of DR. A
key area of concern is the potential for DR to create
overvoltages that are damaging to the power system and
customer loads. This paper focuses on the overvoltage
issues of DR and provides some solutions to those issues.
The main overvoltage related issues associated with DR
include:
Avoiding severe ground fault overvoltages on four-
wire multigrounded neutral circuits
Identifying the potential for and avoiding resonant
overvoltages during islanding conditions
Preventing voltage regulation related overvoltages
due to high DR power injection
Designing and specifying DR installations to be
resistant to common surge and power frequency
overvoltage conditions imposed by the operating
environment.
The first three of these issues deal with preventing the DR
from damaging the power system or customer load
connected to it. The last issue is for the protection of the
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DR itself.
II. GROUND FAULT OVERVOLTAGES
Proper grounding and use of the correct interface
transformer for DR is important to avoid causing
overvoltages on the power system during ground faults.
This is important when interfacing DR to four-wire
multigrounded-neutral distribution circuits. This type of
circuit grounding design represents the vast majority of
distribution circuits in the United States.
To understand how DR can generate an overvoltage during
a ground fault, consider Figure 1. In this example, we have
a four-wire multigrounded-neutral distribution circuit that
has one conductor (phase-C) faulted to the neutral. Once
this occurs, a high fault current is generated until the
substation circuit breaker opens (typically after about five
cycles). Once the substation source is cleared, if the DR is
still feeding into the system, then the potential of the
neutral (earth) essentially becomes that of phase C of the
DR. Any loads or equipment connected between an
unfaulted phase (A or B) and neutral will suddenly be
subjected to voltages that are equivalent to the line-to-line
voltage – that is about 1.73 times time higher than the
prefault condition! The distribution transformers serving
customers on these phases are connected line-to-neutral and
thus would subject customer equipment to such
overvoltages.
A Transformer
B experiences
C overvoltage
Neutral
A
Substation
Breaker
Opens
C
Gen.
Phase C is Faulted -
Raising neutral to
potential of Phase C
Figure 1 – Overvoltage due to an ungrounded DR
feeding into a power system
For a more detailed explanation of the ground fault
overvoltage, consider the vector diagram of Figure 2. At the
time of pre-fault conditions, the phase-to-neutral (earth)
voltage is in the normal range with all three voltages
balanced 120 degrees apart. Once the fault occurs, and after
the substation breaker opens, the neutral (earth) essentially
 rises to the same potential as phase C and line to neutral
voltage on phases A and B become 1.73 times the pre-fault
level. Since the nominal prefault voltage may be as high as
105% due to the ANSI voltage regulation allowance, the
voltage could go as high as 182% of nominal during the
faulted condition. Utility equipment such as lightning
arresters and loads can be damaged in just a few cycles by
voltage this high and so this poses a serious risk to utility
equipment and loads.
Va
by utilities (and recommended by most interconnection
experts) as the proper way to interface a distributed
generator to a four-wire multigrounded distribution circuit.
Effective grounding means that the generator is grounded
sufficiently well that the voltage rise on the unfaulted
phases during a ground fault is no greater than about 125%
above the nominal voltage rating of the system. This is the
same standard that the utility system is designed for. ANSI
C62.92 (see reference 1), defines an effectively grounded
system as one where the following criteria are achieved:
Xo/X1 ≤ 3 and Ro/X1 ≤ 1

Where the DR equivalent source impedances feeding

into the power system are:
Earth
Vc Vb Xo = the zero sequence impedance of the
DR
Pre-fault Conditions
Va X1= positive sequence impedance
Ro= Zero sequence resistance

The DR machine characteristics, the grounding impedance

Vb
Vc
Earth
During fault Conditions
Figure 2 – Vector diagram showing neutral offset during
line-to-ground fault.
The extreme voltage rise shown in Figure 2 (during the
fault) doesn’t actually occur until the substation breaker
opens and an island forms. Until that time the line-to-
ground voltage on the power system will be held “in check”
to a certain extent by the “grounding bank” effect of the
substation transformer. It is not until the feeder circuit
breaker opens that the DR begins to impose the serious
overvoltage on the feeder. However, a partial overvoltage
could occur prior to opening of the breaker depending on
how strong the DR source is relative to the utility system at
the point of connection.
In practice, transformer saturation can reduce the severity
used (if any), and the type of interface transformer
employed for the interconnection are the factors that
determine these impedance ratios. Basically, if the above
ratios are satisfied then this is equivalent to saying that the
zero sequence path (neutral and grounding return path) for
the generator has sufficiently low impedance relative to the
positive sequence that not much neutral shift will occur
during a fault to ground.
Certain types of transformers don’t provide any zero
sequence path (Xo and Ro are essentially infinity). For
example, an interface transformer using a delta winding on
the high-side would appear as an ungrounded DR source
with respect to the utility system – even if the DR is
grounded on the low voltage side. To be effectively
grounded, only a grounded-wye winding on the high side
will generally work. Figure 3 shows four common
transformer interfaces.
Low Voltage
Low Voltage Side
Side
High Voltage
High Voltage Side
Side
Distribution System
(Utility Distribution System Primary)
Primary) (to DG
(to DG facility)
facility)

of the ground fault overvoltage slightly and loading on the Neutral wye
delta
delta DG
Configuration 1
generator (if the generator is small relatively to the island)
can significantly limit the severity of the overvoltage too.
However, despite these limiting effects, the overvoltage can wye wye
Configuration 2
Neutral
Neutral wye wye
DG
DG
be high enough to cause damage – especially for a larger
generator. Interconnection designs should implement Neutral
Neutral

means to prevent or at least limit the overvoltage. There are

several approaches to limit the impact of ground fault
Configuration 3 delta
delta wye
wye DG
overvoltages:
Neutral
Neutral

1. Use “effective grounding” of the generator

Configuration 4
interface. delta
delta delta
delta DG
2. Locally detect the ground fault as quickly as
possible to trip the DG unit prior to islanding
Figure 3 – Four common transformer interfaces for DR.
3. Use a transfer trip to trip prior to islanding
Only the first two can provide effective grounding
Configuration 1 – Grounded-wye to delta
A. Effective Grounding Approaches
This type of arrangement provides the best way to
The first approach, effective grounding, is usually required effectively ground a generator. It also provides good

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 isolation of the generator from ground faults on the utility
side and isolation of triplen harmonics to/from the
generator. The generator does not need to have a grounded
neutral for this type of arrangement to serve as an
effectively grounded source.
A key drawback of this approach is that it is actually too
good of a grounding arrangement in that it has a very low
zero sequence impedance that can interfere with the normal
flow of fault current on the distribution system. This can
upset protection coordination by causing desensitization of
ground relays, nuisance fuse operations and false operations
of upstream protective devices (like reclosers and
sectionalizers). There can also be unwanted circulating
current in the delta winding due to the steady state zero
sequence component of the utility system voltage. Use of a
grounding-impedance in the neutral grounding connection
of the transformer, when appropriate, can reduce these
problems to acceptable levels in many cases. The
impedance must be selected to still not exceed the effective
grounding ratios of C62.92.
Configuration 2 – Grounded-wye to grounded-wye
This type of connection creates an effectively grounded
generator with respect to the utility system only if the
generator itself has a grounded neutral and can meet the
grounding ratios (Xo/X1 ≤ 3 and Ro/X1 ≤ 1). If the generator
does not meet these ratios or is not grounded at all, then
this type of transformer will not provide effective grounding
(even if the neutral connections to the transformer on both
sides are grounded).
A key drawback of this arrangement is that some generators
(certain inverters and rotating machines) don’t work well
or are not designed for a grounded neutral connection.
Triplen harmonics will also be directly passed to/from the
utility system and generator. Some rotating machine
designs need an impedance in the neutral connection to
limit the fault levels to magnitudes that won’t damage the
winding.
Configurations 3 and 4 – Delta on the high side
Either of these two configurations don’t provide effective
grounding for the utility system regardless of how the
generator is grounded. They do have some advantages from
the perspective of having less interference to utility ground
fault protection, isolation of harmonics, etc. These types of
transformers are ideal feeding into an ungrounded
distribution system (3 wire delta), but are not recommended
for a four-wire multigrounded neutral type of system. If
they are used on four wire multigrounded neutral systems,
then some form of ground fault overvoltage
detection/tripping is usually employed (see next section)
B. Ground Fault Overvoltage Detection and Tripping
Another way to limit the overvoltage during line to ground
faults is to limit its duration. This can be done by detecting
the overvoltage and shutting down the generator as quickly
as possible. The scheme consists a grounded-wye to delta
PT bank that feeds an overvoltage relay (59G) (see Figure
4). In this arrangement when a ground-fault occurs on the
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primary a large zero sequence voltage-component suddenly
appears across the broke delta terminals of the PT bank –
causing the relay to trip.
A
B
Phase C is Faulted -
C
Substation Raising neutral to
Neutral potential of Phase C
Breaker
Opens After Zero Sequence
5 cycles Components in phase
Gen.
59G
Trip Signal Grounded Wye /
Broken delta PT Bank
Figure 4 – Ground fault overvoltage detection scheme
using 59G relay and grounded-wye/broken delta PT
bank.
The major problem with this approach is that if it is used in
lieu of effective grounding, then the overvoltage still occurs
and the DR may not be tripped before damage occurs to
utility equipment and customer loads. This approach works
best if the 59G relay and breaker clearing time are fast
enough to trip the generator off-line before the upstream
utility protection opens. This cannot always be achieved
due to the need to time delay the relay to avoid nuisance
trips. Since loads may be damaged in just a few cycles of
extreme overvoltage, this can be risky.
C. Use of Transfer trip
A transfer tripping signal from the upstream feeder circuit
breaker at the substation to the DR can help prevent
overvoltages much in the same way the 59G relay can.
However, it can be employed with greater speed and
without fear of nuisance trips and should be more reliable
than the 59G relay method. The drawback is that the
generator still can create an overvoltage until it is tripped
and there may be scenarios where the feeder breaker does
not trip (send a transfer trip signal) but yet there is a fault
on the line and an open feeder between the DR and
substation.
III. RESONANT OVERVOLTAGES DURING ISLANDING
Another form of overvoltages that can occur are resonant
overvoltages. If islanding of the DR occurs, it is possible for
a series resonant condition to develop between the
generator and power factor correction capacitor banks
connected on the feeder (see Figure 5). This resonance can
occur during faulted or unfaulted conditions with any type
of transformer interface. The simplest form of series
resonance occurs between the generator subtransient
reactance and the system capacitors [2]. The severity of the
overvoltage that occurs will depend on the Q of the
resonant circuit this is formed and the characteristics of the
generator. Loads on the island act as damping resistors,
lowering the Q of the resonance, and so the worst scenarios
 occur under light load conditions on the island. This type
of resonance is also referred to as self-excitation and is the
phenomenon that occurs with induction motors with
capacitors and, of course, induction generators.
Open
Resonance creates
high voltage on line
Impedance
Capacitor
Bank
Figure 5 – Series resonance condition between DR and
feeder capacitor bank
Another form of resonance is ferroresonance. This is an
interaction between the non-linear magnetizing reactance
of transformers and other magnetic devices and system
capacitance. When DR serves as the driving source for
ferroresonance, overvoltages can occur that can reach as
high as three per unit [3][4]. Both induction and
synchronous generators can excite this resonance and it can
occur with all three phases connected (single phasing is not
a requirements as with conventional ferroresonance) during
islanding. The worst forms of this condition tend to occur
on ungrounded DR interfaces (e.g. delta or ungrounded-
wye) but the phenomenon can occur to some degree with
any type of interface transformer. There are many
opportunities for interactions between DR and feeder
devices that can lead to such ferroresonances (see Figure 6).
R Open recloser
G
DG capacitors
utility
capacitors
Figure 6 – There are many possible interactions between
capacitors, DR and transformer devices that may lead to
either series resonance or ferroresonance conditions
DR ferroresonance can cause surge arrester failures in cases
where tightly rated arresters have been applied [5]. A
tightly rated arrester is one where the primary arrester
rating is applied such that its MCOV (maximum
continuous operating voltage) has little margin above the
nominal system rating. For example, an arrester with an
8.4-kV MCOV applied on a 13.8-kV feeder with a line-to-
ground voltage of 7.97-kV.
There are four conditions necessary for ferroresonance with
DR to occur. These are:
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1. The generator must be operating in an islanded
state
2. The generator must supply more power than there
is load on the island
3. Sufficient capacitance must be available on the
island to resonate (typically 30-400% of the
generator rating)
4. A transformer must be present on the island to
Voltage
Source serve as the non-linear reactance.
The best way to prevent ferroresonance conditions with DR
is to insure that the generator has reliable, fast acting anti-
islanding protection and cannot be isolated with large
capacitor banks. Good anti-sland protection is also helpful
in reducing other potential system impacts too – such as
ground fault overvoltages. Anti-island protection is
accomplished by use of tight voltage and frequency
operating windows where voltage and frequency relays are
employed to quickly detect when the voltage and/or
frequency at the terminals of the machine are outside of
“normal” limits. Typical windows are fairly tight such as
+/-10% for voltage and within +/-1% or tighter for
frequency. IEEE 929-2000 is a currently active standard
for PV inverters that prescribes the settings for PV inverters
[6]. UL1741 is another standard that specifies the settings
(they are the same as 929 settings) for all types of inverter
or converter packages [7] and IEEE P1547, once it becomes
an active standard, will prescribe settings for all types of
DR devices including both rotating machines and inverter
type devices) [8].
IV. VOLTAGE REGULATION RELATED OVERVOLTAGES
Regulation related overvoltages are not as severe as those
due to ground-fault related neutral shift or system
resonance. However, they can still pose a threat to loads.
Under the right conditions, it is possible for the voltage to
be pushed above the normal limits when DR feeds a large
amount power into the system (see Figure 7). The normal
maximum limit is 106% per ANSI C84.1-1989 Range B
(see reference 9). One might think that the voltage-window
protection used on most DR would protect against this.
However, such window protection is intended for anti-
island protection and the settings currently used (such as
those in IEEE 929-2000) do not protect against voltage
regulation problems that are just slightly outside the normal
ANSI operating windows. These settings allow sustained
overvoltages up to 110% of nominal to exist. Perhaps an
improvement in future versions of these standards would be
to use settings that coordinate better with the ANSI Range
B upper voltage limit.
112
 SUBSTATION
FEEDER End of Feeder
Injected Power
G volts into the wiring systems.
After DG
ANSI Range A
Upper Limit
Voltage
ANSI Range A
Before DG
Lower Limit
Substation End of Feeder
Distance
Figure 7 – Regulation related overvoltage
In applying DR, voltage regulation problems can be easily
screened by looking at the pre-DR voltage levels at the
connection point, the line impedances and regulator
settings employed, and the expected output current of the
DR. The voltage change on the line (not including voltage
regulator and switched capacitor bank interactions) can be
predicted from the following equation:
Voltage Rise = IDR (R cos[θ] + X sin[θ])
Where:
IDR is the injected current from the distributed resource
R and X are the line resistance and reactance looking back to the nearest
upstream regulator, and
θ is the angle of the injected current relative to the utility system reference
voltage.
V. OVERVOLTAGE ENVIRONMENT FOR DR
So far the discussion has centered on the overvoltage
impacts of DR on the power system. However, a variety of
anomalous voltage events that include transient
overvoltages as well as significant power frequency voltage
swells can originate on the power system. These result in
peak voltage levels that, while of short duration, may
damage DR if it has not been adequately specified to
withstand these events. This section discusses protecting
the DR from the power system!
Lightning Surges on Low Voltage Power Systems
Lightning surges are a threat to DR in locations that have
moderate to high lightning incidence. These are short
duration impulsive events a few hundred microseconds or
less in duration. Lightning surge magnitudes may be as
high as 6 kV on secondary power systems depending on the
nature of the system design and exposure. IEEE C62.41
characterizes the lightning and switching surge
environment that can be expected within buildings of
various types [10]. DR equipment should be designed to
withstand these surge voltages without damage. Properly
coordinated lightning arresters are key to insure that the
surge related equipment failures can be minimized. Good
protection practices for lightning surges should also protect
against most typical switching surges.
Some types of DR are more vulnerable than others. For
example, wind turbines towers can be struck by lightning
and PV arrays are often exposed on fields or rooftops and
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could be hit by direct lightning strikes. Even nearby
lightning strikes can induce surges of many thousands of
Inverters are exposed to these surges coming from many
directions; the DC input port, AC interconnection port and
via the communication and control ports (see Figure 8).
All ports must be protected with surge arresters connected
to a common ground reference. Even a nearby lightning
strike to earth can cause enough difference in ground
potential between different ground reference points to fail
sensitive solid-state components if proper ground reference
equalization is not provided.
Utility System
Primary
Service Panel
PV Array
AC Power Port
Neutral/GRND Inverter
DC Power Port
PWR Ground
reference
Connection
Communication 50 m Remote Array
Port Ground
Data/Control Line
Figure 8 - Inverters may be exposed to surges from
many different ports. All ports must be protectedwith
lightning arresters referenced to a single ground point.
The type of lightning arrester used to protect sensitive solid
state devices such as inverters is critical to the success of
the protection. Most simple gapped surge arrester devices
have a sparkover voltage that does not coordinate with the
surge withstand of transistors. An unpgapped metal oxide
surge arrester (MOV) is a much more suitable device that is
recommended for protecting the power (AC and DC) ports
of inverters. Communication ports may need other devices
due to the high capacitance of the MOV that can block
some communication circuits.
Lightning Surges on Medium and High Voltage DR
Larger DR will employ medium and high voltage rated
equipment such as transformers, switchgear, and
generators. In any area with at least modest lightning
activity or greater, these devices must be protected with
suitable lightning arresters coordinated per accepted
industry practices (such as per IEEE C62.22 – see reference
11). In addition, underground cables should be protected
with riser-pole arresters and open point arresters. Lightning
arresters need to be selected so they can withstand the
maximum continuous steady state voltage on the line and
temporary over voltages. The arrester maximum continuous
operating voltage (MCOV) rating and temporary
overvoltage (TOV) capability must meet these
requirements. Sloping capacitors may be used on rotating
machines in conjunction with lightning arresters to reduce
winding stress imposed by steep rising surges.
 Voltage Swells
Another type of overvoltage event common on distribution
systems is the voltage swell. This is the same phenomenon
discussed earlier with regards to ground faults. However,
the focus here is how power system voltage swells impact
the DR (not how the DR causes swells). Since the four-wire
power distribution system is normally intended to be
effectively-grounded, this means that faults on the system
will lead to voltage swells up to about 125% of nominal.
These may occur many times per year due to the various
faults that can be expected. Any DR connected phase to
neutral on a four-wire multigrounded neutral system will be
exposed to these swells. To insure survival without damage,
the DR should be designed to survive up to the expected
maximum swell level plus some margin (135% for 5
seconds is a good rule of thumb). DR installers should also
recognize that lightning arresters are meant for short
duration impulsive surges and are not suitable for voltage
swell protection. The only means of protection is to connect
the generator in a fashion (phase-to-phase) where it won’t
see the voltage swell or to design the equipment to
withstand the condition without damage.
VI. RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper has covered a range of overvoltage issues
associated with DR. It is clear that improperly interfaced
DR can cause overvoltages that can damage utility
equipment and customer loads. Conversely, DR may be
susceptible to damage due to incoming overvoltages
originating from the power system or lightning. Proper
design, operation and specification of connected DR
equipment can mitigate most of the problems associated
with these issues. Key factors to consider in the design of
DR equipment and installations are:
1. Always use a proper grounding and transformer
interface that is acceptable to the utility company
and limits potential for dangerous ground fault
overvoltages. In most cases, utilities will want an
effectively grounded generator interface for four-
wire multigrounded neutral type power systems.
2. Ferroresonance and self-excitation are potential
sources of overvoltage from DR. Reliable, fast
acting anti-island protection is crucial not only to
avoid these problems but also to coordinate with
upstream utility protection devices and limit the
duration of ground fault overvoltages.
3. Regulation related overvoltages up to 110% may
occur if DR feeds high power into the system
relative to the capacity of the connection point.
Applications can be screened to identify the
likelihood of a problem. Standard anti-island
protection “voltage windows” afford no protection
for this type of overvoltage – unless the industry
changes the windows to coincide with ANSI C84.1
upper limits.
4. DR equipment connected on the power system
secondary can be exposed to lightning and
switching surges. Surge protection is critical to the
reliability of both rotating and inverter based DR.
Proper surge protection includes the use of surge
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arresters on all ports and protection against all
modes of surge entry. Ground potential differences
between surge protection devices may be
particularly threatening to some equipment (such
as PV inverters) and should be avoided.
5. Power system neutral shift during faults can
subject DR to voltage swells up to about 125% of
nominal. DR should be designed survive these
swells without damage. Surge arresters do not
offer protection for voltage swells. Protection is
afforded only through connecting the generator
equipment in a line-to-line mode or by using
equipment designed to survive the line-to-neutral
voltage swells.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] ANSI/IEEE C62.92-1989, Guide for the Application of Neutral
Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part 1-Introduction
[2] R.C. Dugan, D.T. Ritzy, “Electric Distribution System Protection
Problems Associated with the Interconnection of Small, Dispersed
Generation Devices, IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-103, No. 6, pp. 1121-1127., June 1984
[3] W.E. Feero, W.B. Gish, “Overvoltages Caused by DSG Operation:
Synchronous and Induction Generators,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, Vol. PWRD-1, pp. 258-264, Jan. 1986
[4] W. B. Gish, W.E. Feero, and S Greuel, “Ferroresonance and Loading
Relashionships for DSG Installations,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Delivery, vol. PWRD-2, no. 3, pp. 953-959, July 1987.
[5] T.A. Short, J.J. Burke, R.T. Mancao, “ Application of MOV’s in the
Distribution Environment,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol.
9, no. 1, pp. 293-305, Jan. 1994.
[6] IEEE Std. 929-2000, “Recommended Practice for Utility Inteface of
Photovoltaic Systems
[7] UL Std. 1741, “Inverters, Converters and Controllers for Use in
Independent Power Systems,” January 17, 2001
[8] IEEE Std. P1547 Draft Version 8.0, “Standard for Distributed
Resources Interconnected with Electric Power Systems,” August 28,
2001.
[9] ANSI Std. C84.1-1989, “Electric Power Systems and Equipment –
Voltage Ratings (60Hz)
[10] IEEE C62.41-1991, “IEEE Recommended Practice on Surge Voltages
in Low-Voltage AC Power Circuits
[11] IEEE C62.22-1995, “Application of Metal Oxide Surge Arresters on
AC Power Systems
VIII. BIOGRAPHY
Philip Barker (M’1986, SM’1999) was born in
Schenectady, NY, USA on March 8, 1963. He
received his BSEE and MSEE from Clarkson
University, Potsdam, NY in 1985 and 1986
respectively.
His employment experience includes Power
Technologies Incorporated (from 1987-2000) where
he worked as a Consulting Engineer in distribution
systems, lightning protection, distributed generation
and power quality monitoring/analysis.
Since June 2000 Mr. Barker has worked as the Engineering Manager for
the Schenectady, NY branch office of EPRI PEAC Corporation. This office is
focused on T&D studies and distributed resource applications and
technologies.
Mr. Barker has published over 25 papers and is active in various IEEE
working groups related to distributed generation and power distribution
systems.