Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51

www.elsevier.nl/locate/enggeo

Dynamics of the 1984 rock avalanche and associated distal debris

¯ow on Mount Cayley, British Columbia, Canada; implications for
landslide hazard assessment on dissected volcanoes
Stephen G. Evans a,*, Oldrich Hungr b, John J. Clague c
a
Geological Survey of Canada, 601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ont., Canada K1A 0E8
b
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4
c
Department of Earth Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6
Received 8 June 1999; accepted for publication 14 December 2000

Abstract
In 1984 a mass of Quaternary pyroclastic rock (est. vol. 0.74 £ 10 6m 3) slid from the western ¯ank of Mount Cayley volcano
in southwest British Columbia. The disintegrating rock mass entrained a further 0.20 £ 10 6 m 3 and formed a rock avalanche that
travelled a horizontal distance of 3.46 km from its source over a vertical elevation difference of 1.18 km, equivalent to a
fahrboÈschung of 198. From the superelevation of the debris trimline in the mid-path, it is estimated that velocities reached at
least 42 m/s; in the upper part of its path velocities may have approached 70 m/s. The rock avalanche was partially transformed
into a distal debris ¯ow that travelled a further 2.6 km down Turbid Creek in a narrow channelised path to the Squamish River,
temporarily blocking it. The motion of the rock avalanche, including the production of a distal debris ¯ow, was successfully
simulated using a dynamic analytical model. Both the results of this analysis and ®eld evidence indicate that the rock avalanche
did not come to a halt in the upper part of its path as suggested by Cruden and Lu (1992), but travelled to its distal limit in one
uninterrupted movement. This ®nding has important implications for landslide hazard assessment at Mount Cayley and similar
sites. The landslide is typical of those which occur on the steep slopes of dissected volcanoes and is one of seven high-velocity
rock avalanches that have occurred in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt of southwest British Columbia since 1855. q 2001 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Landslides; Rockslides; British Columbia; Quantitative analysis; Volcanic rocks; Debris ¯ow

1. Introduction volume of the moving mass changes during move-

Landslides on dissected volcano slopes are
frequently complex catastrophic failures in which an
initial rockslide or rock avalanche becomes, at least
partially, transformed into a ¯ow-type landslide
(Pierson, 1998) that travels far beyond that expected,
given the initial landslide type. Characteristically, the
* Corresponding author. Fax: 11-613-992-0190.
E-mail address: evans@gsc.nrcan.gc.ca (S.G. Evans).
0013-7952/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0013-795 2(00)00118-6
ment due to entrainment and/or deposition along a
channelised ¯ow path, and the sequence of movement
commonly shows stop-start behaviour as a result of
landslide dam formation and breaching, as well as
hydraulic ponding. Examples from the recent litera-
ture are, the events at Mount Ontake (Japan), triggered
by an earthquake in 1984 (Sassa, 1988; Voight and
Sousa, 1994), and at Casita Volcano (Nicaragua) trig-
gered by the heavy rains of Hurricane Mitch in 1998
(Sheridan et al., 1999), the latter event resulting in the
30 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 1. Location of Mount Cayley in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt of
southwestern British Columbia. Volcanic centres are as follows:
A ˆ Mount Meager, B ˆ Mount Cayley, and C ˆ Mount Garibaldi.
loss of about 2,000 lives. Accurate reconstruction of
the mode and sequence of movement is not only
essential in understanding the mechanism of indivi-
dual landslides, but also with respect to the selection
of the appropriate predictive model and input para-
meters for hazard assessment (e.g. Voight and
Sousa, 1994; Hungr and Evans, 1996).
In this paper we analyse a complex landslide which
took place in 1984 on the slopes of Mount Cayley (el.
2394 m) a dissected extinct Quaternary volcano located
in the central part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt (Green
et al., 1988) of southwestern British Columbia (Fig. 1).
The western slopes of the volcano have been subject to
repeated rock avalanches since the apparent collapse of
its western ¯ank in the mid-Holocene (Evans and
Brooks, 1991; Brooks and Hickin, 1995). As documen-
ted by Evans and Brooks (1991), a series of rock
avalanches swept down Turbid Creek in prehistoric
times leading to several dammings of the Squamish
River and the accumulation of debris in the Squamish
Valley known as the Turbid Creek Fan (Fig. 2). In 1963
a major rock avalanche (est. vol. 5 £ 10 6m 3) occurred in
Dusty Creek (Fig. 3), a tributary of Turbid Creek
(Clague and Souther, 1982).
The 1984 rock avalanche (Figs. 3 and 4) also origin-
ated in a tributary of Turbid Creek, but the initial failure
volume was an order of magnitude smaller than the
1963 landslide. No one directly observed the 1984
rock avalanche; it was not present in July 1983 and
was ®rst noted in August 1985 by the senior author
(Evans, 1986). It is assumed to have directly preceded
a debris ¯ow that swept away a logging road bridge at
the mouth of Turbid Creek and temporarily dammed the
Squamish River during the afternoon of June 28, 1984
(Fig. 2; Jordan, 1987; (Cruden and Lu, 1989, 1992). The
debris ¯ow was associated with the largest rainstorm of
the summer; in a 48 h period, which included the debris
¯ow event, approximately 50 mm of rain fell at a
nearby logging camp.
The 1984 rock avalanche is signi®cant in that it
travelled a greater distance and at higher velocities
than the nearby 1963 rock avalanche, the source volume
of which was almost ten times larger. In further contrast
to the 1963 landslide, the 1984 event was partially trans-
formed into a distal debris ¯ow.
The objectives of this paper are to present a detailed
description and dynamic analysis of the 1984 rock
avalanche, (including new data on the distal debris
¯ow), and to re-examine both the movement mechan-
ism and the movement sequence of the landslide. We
also explore the implications of the 1984 Mount
Cayley landslide for landslide hazard assessment on
dissected volcanoes.
The stimulus for the present paper was the previous
work on the 1984 rock avalanche by Lu (1988, 1993);
Cruden and Lu (1992), and Lu and Cruden (1996)
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51 31

Fig. 2. Location of 1963 and 1984 rock avalanches at Mount Cayley. The path and locations of surveyed cross-sections (F±J; see Fig. 12) of the
1984 distal debris ¯ow are also shown.

who report a description, analysis, and reconstruction
of the landslide that differ markedly from those
presented here.
2. Data sources
Data and observations presented in this paper were
collected during ®eld work at Mount Cayley in 1985,
1986, 1989, and 1993. During this work both ground
and helicopter traverses were made of the western
slopes of Mount Cayley and the 1984 landslide debris.
In addition, large scale topographic maps were
prepared by photogrammetry at a scale of 1:5000
from Provincial photography ¯own in 1980
(1:40,000 scale; Province of British Columbia
32 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 3. Oblique aerial photograph of the 1984 Mount Cayley rock
avalanche taken in August 1985. Note path of the rock avalanche
de®ned by destruction of vegetation along Turbid Creek. Source
areas of the 1963 (A) and 1984 (B) rock avalanches are evident in
steep gullied slopes consisting mainly of Quaternary pyroclastic
rocks at the heads of Dusty Creek and Avalanche Creek, respec-
tively. View is upstream to the east.
BC80136; 108 ± 110) and 1986 (1:15000 scale;
Province of British Columbia BC86061; 96 ± 99).
From these maps, digital elevation models (DEMs)
were constructed, from which a detailed comparison
of topography before and after the 1984 landslide was
made with an estimated relative vertical precision of
^1.5 m.
3. Initial rock slope failure
The rock avalanche originated on a steep slope in
the headwaters of Avalanche Creek, a small tributary
of Turbid Creek, immediately north of Dusty Creek,
on the southwest ridge of Mount Cayley (Figs. 2 and
3). The landslide occurred in Quaternary tuffs and
pyroclastic breccias of the Mount Cayley eruptive
stage (Souther, 1980; Cruden and Lu, 1992), outcrops
of which are marked by deep gullying in the upper
reaches of the Turbid Creek basin (Figs. 3 and 5).
Comparison of DEMs constructed from 1:5000 scale
topographic maps showing topography in 1980 and
1986, allows a precise de®nition of the source area
(Figs. 6 and 7). Cross-sections indicate that the eleva-
tion of the top of the detached mass was approxi-
mately 1650 m and the pre-failure slope was 408
(Fig. 7). The movement appears to have been a
wedge failure with a maximum width of about
100 m and a maximum thickness perpendicular to
the ground surface of 44 m. Displaced remnants of
the failed mass are still present at the northern margin
of the scar. On 1973 aerial photographs (Fig. 8), the
lateral margins of the detached mass are marked by
two gullies; scarps and cracks visible on these photo-
graphs indicate that the slope had undergone substan-
tial deformation for at least 10 years before failure.
Using Vertical Mapper software, pre- and post-
slide DEMs were compared and the volume of miss-
ing material from the head of Avalanche Creek was
calculated as being 0.74 £ 10 6 m 3 (Fig. 6). This
volume estimate is an order of magnitude smaller
than those of Cruden and Lu (1992) Cruden and Lu
(1992 Ð 3.2 £ 10 6m 3), and Evans and Gardner
(1989) Evans and Gardner (1989 Ð 5 £ 10 6m 3),
which were based on less precise methods of
volume estimation. Assuming a 20% bulking due to
disaggregation of the failed mass, the volume of the
moving debris in the upper part of Avalanche Creek
was therefore 0..88 £ 10 6 m 3, about 1/4 of the estimate
by Cruden and Lu (1992) of 3.8 £ 10 6 m 3.
4. Path
4.1. Methods of analysis
The rock avalanche destroyed vegetation in its
path, forming a trimline which is not well de®ned
in the steep rocky reaches of Avalanche Creek but
is sharply de®ned along Turbid Creek. The trimline
was transferred to the 1986 1:5000 scale map
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51 33

Fig. 4. Ground view up Turbid Creek towards its con¯uence with Avalanche Creek (entering from right), showing the general nature of the
upper part of the path and characteristics of the debris. Source area of the 1984 rock avalanche is arrowed in top right corner. Note destruction of
vegetation in Turbid Creek, marked trimline, felled trees, and branches stripped from trees up to 20 m above ground level. Photograph taken in
August 1985. View is to the northeast.

(Fig. 9) by photogrammetry and is taken to be the limit In analysing the path, we derive indirect esti-
of the moving debris along its path. The pro®le of the mates of velocity from the trimline in bends where
path is shown in Fig. 10; cross-sections, located in Fig. the superelevation of the debris surface allows an
10, were drawn at intervals along the path (Fig. 11). approximate estimate of the minimum velocity (v)
34 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 5. Oblique aerial photograph, taken in August 1985, of the
source area of the 1984 rock avalanche (S) in the steep headwaters
of Avalanche Creek. Note displaced rock masses at the northwest
margin (photograph left) of scar and steep gullied slopes developed
in Quaternary tuff and pyroclastic breccia of Souther (1980) South-
er's (1980) Mount Cayley eruptive stage (compare with Figs. 6±8).
View is to the east.
in the bend in question (e.g., Pierson, 1985; Evans et
al., 1989), Eq. (1) (Chow, 1959);
v ˆ ‰ gdr†=bŠ0:5 1†
where g ˆ gravitational acceleration, d ˆ super-
elevation, r ˆ centreline radius of curvature, and b ˆ
channel width.
The validity of Eq. (1) has not been rigorously
tested for rock or debris avalanches. The velocity esti-
mate may be too low, due to neglecting friction, or too
high due to the effects of internal rigidity of the ¯ow-
ing mass and the possibility of shock waves. Despite
these problems, Pierson (1985) suggests that Eq. (1)
underestimates the velocity of actual volcanic debris
¯ows (lahars) by only about 15%. Iverson et al. (1994)
reported reasonable accuracy when applying this
equation to bends in a rectangular channel of an
experimental debris ¯ow. Hungr (unpublished experi-
mental data) found that the equation performs well in
experimental channels of circular cross section,
provided that the radius r, is the radius of the central
Fig. 6. Perspective shaded relief representation of Avalanche Creek showing source area of 1984 Mount Cayley landslide. Isopleth pattern
shows amount of negative elevation change from initial rock slope failure and subsequent entrainment of material in Avalanche Creek. The
®gure was derived from digital elevation models of topography in 1980 and 1986. Contours are labelled and the general direction of view is
ENE. Note that the skyline is an artifact of DEM boundaries.
stream-line of the ¯ow, rather than the radius of the
channel invert. In this case, our calculations were
based on the radius of the centre of the curving ¯ow
path as it appears in plain view on the post-landslide
topographic maps.
When debris strikes a slope or other obstacle that
is aligned perpendicular to the ¯ow direction, the
velocity (v) may be estimated (e.g Pierson, 1985;
Evans et al., 1989) from the vertical run-up using
simple velocity head considerations (Eq. (2); Chow,
1959).
v ˆ 2gh†0:5 2†
where h is the height of the run-up.
4.2. Avalanche Creek
From the base of the detachment zone at approxi-
mately el. 1350 m, the debris travelled 1200 m down
the narrow steep-sided valley of Avalanche Creek on
a gradient of 258, reaching Turbid Creek at about el.
920 m (Figs. 9 and 10), a vertical distance of 455 m.
A comparison of pre-and post-slide DEMs show
signi®cant volume loss of materials in Avalanche
Creek between elevations 1175 m.a.s.l. and
1000 m.a.s.l. (Fig. 6). The materials, visible in Fig.
8, may have been colluvial material, snow, ice, or
some combination of these, that had accumulated in
Avalanche Creek prior to the landslide (cf. Cruden
and Lu, 1992). By comparing 1980 and 1984 DEMs
we measured a volume loss in the order of 0.20 £ 10 6
m 3, a quantity similar to that estimated by Cruden and
Lu (1992). It is thought that this material was
entrained in the 1984 event, thus increasing the
volume of the moving mass to 1.08 £ 10 6 m 3 at the
mouth of Avalanche Creek. This estimate is 28% of
that of Cruden and Lu (1992). The entrainment corre-
sponds to a yield of 526m 3/m (cf. Hungr and Evans,
1997) for that part of the landslide path between
elevations 1175 and 1000 m.a.s.l.
S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51 35
36 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51

Fig. 7. Topography of the source area of the 1984 rock avalanche at the head of Avalanche Creek. Isopleths show area and amount of elevation
change resulting from the initial rock slope failure. Contours are those in 1986. X-Y is the line of pro®le in the inset which shows a cross-section
of failed mass, based on topography in 1980 and 1986. Inset scale is half map scale with no vertical exaggeration.

4.3. Turbid Creek
Leaving Avalanche Creek, the debris ran up and
banked off the steep northern valley side of Turbid
Creek, turning 608 to the west in the process, and
then travelled down Turbid Creek. The moving debris
ran up a vertical distance of 120 m above Turbid
Creek (Fig. 11) and then travelled down Turbid Creek.
The superelevation of the debris surface (Fig. 11A)
allows an approximate estimate of the minimum
velocity (v) in the bend in the debris path at the con¯u-
ence of Avalanche and Turbid creeks to be made from
Eq. (1); with d ˆ 77.5 m, r ˆ 483 m, and b ˆ 210 m;
v ˆ 42 m. The debris then travelled down Turbid
Creek on an average gradient of 158 to el. 800 m.
Track width was 200 m. Travel in this part of the
path partly took place over the surface of a prehistoric
rock avalanche deposit noted by Clague and Souther
(1982). After being de¯ected by the northwest side of
Turbid Creek, the debris superelevated onto the south-
east side of the valley (Fig. 9 and 11B). The super-
elevation was about 32 m and the maximum ¯ow
depth was approximately 50 m.
Passing the distal margin of the prehistoric rock
avalanche deposit at el. 800 m, the moving debris
became constrained down to about el. 725 m. Track
width and ¯ow depth decreased to 120 m and 25 m,
respectively (Fig. 11C). The average gradient of this
segment of the path is 88. The cross-sectional area of
the ¯ow is reduced in this part of the path and some
deposition has occurred.
At about el. 725 m, the debris entered a second
major bend in its path, located where the 1963
landslide debris ®lled the valley of Turbid Creek
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 8. Aerial photograph (BC 7520: 259) of the source area of the
1984 landslide, taken in 1973. Mass that failed in 1984 is outlined
and arrowed in the upper parts of Avalanche Creek. Note displaced
rock masses to the north of the 1984 source area, indicating that
there was substantial pre-failure deformation of the slope. Note
colluvial ®ll in Avalanche Creek. A is source area of 1963 rock
avalanche in Dusty Creek. Trimline and debris of 1963 landslide
is also visible (compare Fig. 9).
(Fig. 11D). For this bend, Eq. (1) yields a velocity
estimate of v ˆ 27.8 m/s for d ˆ 30, r ˆ 422 m, and
b ˆ 160 m. At point R (Figs. 9 and 10), 200 m down-
stream from the bend, the debris encountered a 30 m
high ridge in the 1963 landslide debris, oriented
traverse to its movement direction. From Eq. (2), the
minimum velocity required to overtop the obstacle is
24 m/s.
The ridge appears to have split the debris into
three masses (Fig. 9) and caused some of the
debris to become airborne. An east mass travelled
over the 1963 debris into Dusty Creek, probably
blocking it. A central mass came to a halt on the
37
surface of the 1963 debris. A west mass continued
down Turbid Creek to at least el. 440 m on a track
about 100 m wide and, in doing so, rounded another
bend while rising up on the valley side to 45 m
above the creek bed (Fig. 11E). Eq. (1) gives an esti-
mate of velocity of 19 m/s (for b ˆ 120 m, r ˆ 146,
and d ˆ 30) at this bend, suggesting that the debris
maintained its velocity between el. 625 and 500 m,
over a segment of the path which steepens to 198.
The distal margin of the rock avalanche is marked
by the limit of extensive vegetation damage at el.
440 m.
The angle between the top of the detachment and
the distal margin of the debris yields a fahrboÈschung
of 198. The vertical and horizontal travel distances are
1190 m of 3460 m, respectively.
4.4. Distal debris ¯ow in lower Turbid Creek
The major debris ¯ow which occurred in the lower
reaches of turbid Creek on June 28, 1984 is considered
to be directly linked to the occurrence of the rock
avalanche in the basin above. The rock avalanche
may have been transformed directly into a debris
¯ow in a manner similar to that reported, for example,
by Gallino and Pierson (1985) for a similar multi-
phase landslide on Mount Hood volcano, i.e., without
the debris coming to a halt. A less likely alternative is
that the debris ¯ow may have resulted from the
breaching of debris dams on Dusty and Turbid Creeks
formed after the debris had come to a halt in the distal
region of its path.
The distal debris ¯ow travelled 2.6 km to the
Squamish River, from el. 440 m to ca. el. 130 m
over an average channel gradient of about 78. The
debris ¯ow thus extended the reach of the rock
avalanche to just over 6 km where at the mouth of
Turbid Creek, the debris ¯ow destroyed a logging
road bridge over Turbid Creek and dammed the
Squamish River. According to witnesses on the
severed logging road the ¯ow took place in a series
of surges over a 2 ± 5 h period (Cruden and Lu, 1992;
Jordan, 1994). The debris ¯ow contained chunks of
ice (Cruden and Lu, 1992) which suggests that the
distal ¯ow occurred very shortly after the initial
rock avalanche in Avalanche Creek.
In 1986, ®eld measurements of the debris ¯ow
trimline were made in the lower reaches of Turbid
38 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51

Fig. 9. Map of the path of the 1984 rock avalanche showing locations of cross-sections in Fig. 10. K, S, and R are sites mentioned in the text.
Source and path of the 1963 landslide (after Clague and Souther (1982, Fig. 4)) are also shown.
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 10. Pro®le of the path of the 1984 rock avalanche showing locations of cross-sections in Fig. 10.
Creek between el. 140 and 170 m (Fig. 12). In this
reach of Turbid Creek, the debris ¯ow ¯owed in a
narrow trapezoidal channel that is incised 10±20 m
into the surface of the Turbid Creek Fan, which is
itself composed of landslide debris mainly from the
mid-Holocene ¯ank collapse of Mount Cayley (Evans
and Brooks (1991)). Field measurements show that
the peak ¯ow depth varied between 8.8 m and
12.2 m and that the ¯ow width varied between 12.5
and 48.2 m. Typical debris ¯ow deposits are shown in
Fig. 13.
At a bend in the channel 1.8 km upstream of the
mouth of turbid Creek, the superelevation of the trim-
line indicates a minimum velocity for the distal debris
¯ow of between 8 and 12 m/s (Jordan, 1994). If we
take 10 m/s as the average velocity for the straight
channel below, peak discharges of between 1650
and 3530 m 3/s are obtained for the surveyed cross-
sections of the debris ¯ow in Fig. 12. The correlation
between peak discharge and total ¯ow volume for wet
granular volcanic mass ¯ows suggested by Pierson
(1998, Fig. 5) indicates a volume of about 1 £ 10 6 m
for the 1984 distal ¯ow, an estimate similar to that of
Jordan (1994). Since this estimate is roughly equal to
the volume estimate of the rock avalanche, it is
suggested that most of the rock avalanche debris
was ¯ushed out of Turbid Creek by transformation
39
into a distal debris ¯ow. This conclusion is supported
by ®eld observations and a comparison of pre- and
post-event maps which indicate that very little of the
rock avalanche debris remains in Turbid Creek above
el. 440 m.
A second debris ¯ow occurred in Turbid Creek on
October 8, 1984 (Jordan, 1987) during a major rain-
storm which caused a near record ¯ood on the
Squamish River. The October ¯ow was not witnessed
but probably resulted from the mobilisation of some
of the debris deposited by the June event.
Summary data for measured cross-sections, calcu-
lations of ¯ow velocity and discharge for the rock
avalanche and distal debris ¯ow are given in Table 1.
5. Deposits and effects along the rock avalanche
path
Comparison of the 1980 and 1986 maps shows only
minor patches of landslide debris more than 5 m thick
along Turbid Creek. Field observations also indicate
that the deposits are very thin, irregularly distributed,
and generally less than 5 m thick.
The deposits consist of large fragments of volcanic
and granitic rocks up to 3 m in diameter set in a ®ner
matrix of pulverised tuff. The wide range of particle
40 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 11. Cross-sections of the rock avalanche path showing super-
elevation of the debris trim line (prepared from 1:5000 scale topo-
graphic map based on 1986 aerial photographs). See Figs. 9 and 10
for locations. Geometry of cross-sections is summarised in Table 1.
sizes re¯ects the texture of the pyroclastic rocks
involved in the slope failure rather than breakage of
intact rock during transport. Grain size analysis of the
matrix of the deposit (Fig. 14) shows that about 25%
the material is silt size or ®ner.
Surface features of the deposits, include ¯ow lines
and sharp irregular depressions (Fig. 15). Locally, at
the trimline, particles of pulverised tuff are found on
the upvalley sides of trees, and branches are stripped
off up to 15 to 20 m above ground level. This indicates
that the passage of the debris was accompanied by
a turbulent cloud of airborne tuff. In addition, the
upvalley sides of some tree trunks are splintered and
contain embedded rock fragments up to 4 cm in
diameter. Other effects along the margins of the
path, including remarkable wind damage to trees,
are documented by Cruden and Lu (1992).
During low-level helicopter inspection of the rock
avalanche path in 1985 and detailed ground examina-
tion in 1985 and 1993, no evidence was found to
support the contention by Cruden and Lu (1992); Lu
and Cruden (1996) that the debris stopped at the
con¯uence of Avalanche and Turbid creeks and
formed a landslide dam 70 m high, 500 m wide, and
in the range 100 to 120 m long. On the contrary, all
®eld evidence indicates that the debris did not stop at
this point but travelled through the bend in one move-
ment (Figs. 16 and 17). Some debris, however, was
deposited in the lee of a ridge between Avalanche and
Turbid creeks and formed a small debris dam about
5 m in height across Turbid Creek (Fig. 17). A
terraced aggradational ®ll was noted behind the
eroded remnants of this obstruction during ®eld
work in 1993.
6. Mechanism
Fig. 18 compares the longitudinal pro®les of the
1963 and 1984 rock avalanches at Mt. Cayley. The
greater mobility of the 1984 event, indicated by a
smaller fahrboÈschung (a ), is noteworthy in view of
its much smaller volume. The greater mobility of the
1984 landslide is also associated with a higher veloc-
ity: at least 42 m/s compared to a maximum velocity
of 15 ±20 m/s calculated for the 1963 event by Clague
and Souther (1982)
Two mechanisms, possibly acting in combination
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
are proposed for the contrasting behaviour of the 1984
rock avalanche and its partial transformation into a
distal debris ¯ow;
Saturation at source. The behaviour of the 1984
landslide may have resulted from the porous nature
of the mechanically weak pyroclastic deposits in
which the rock avalanche originated. Lu (1988)
reports porosities of 30 to 43% and values for
uniaxial compressive strength (qu) of 4.8 to
5.8 MPa for pyroclastic materials in the source
area of the rock avalanche. Post-failure disaggrega-
tion of the displaced mass was probably very rapid
due to its low intact strength; pore pressures may
have been generated during the collapse of the pore
structure of the intact pyroclastic material.
Saturation during travel. As noted above, after
detachment the rapidly moving, disaggregating
debris entrained a considerable volume of sedi-
ment, snow, and ice along Avalanche Creek.
Cruden and Lu (1992) Cruden and Lu (1992, p.
620) reported the observations of logging company
employees that many ice blocks were deposited
near the mouth of Turbid Creek when the logging
road bridge was destroyed. The melting snow and
ice could have produced a suf®cient quantity of
water to saturate the small volume of debris. In
this way the debris became ¯uid, as suggested by
the widespread evidence of mud spatter along the
margins of the landslide track.
In both mechanisms, the 1984 rock avalanche is
thought to have acquired enhanced travel characteris-
tics through the effects of pore-pressure generation in
the moving debris.
7. Dynamic analysis of the 1984 rock avalanche
A dynamic analysis of the 1984 rock avalanche was
carried out using the numerical model DAN, devel-
oped by Hungr (1995). The model is based on a
Langrangian solution of the St. Venant equations
and to use the solution, it is necessary to provide the
pre-failure pro®le of the source area, the ¯ow pro®le,
and the variations in width of the ¯ow path (Hungr,
1995). In simulating the Mount Cayley case, the
41
increase in initial landslide volume due to entrainment
is also considered (cf. Hungr and Evans, 1997).
The solution contains a general rheological kernel
that allows various ¯ow rheologies to be tried, in order
to best simulate the behaviour of the debris avalanche
such as velocity pro®le along its path, ¯ow depths, and
the ®nal distribution of the deposits. In the present
case, three different rheological models were tested.
Each model is characterised by a function relating the
resisting force, T, acting at the base of an elementary
column of the ¯ow, to various parameters of the ¯ow,
such as the thickness, H, mean ¯ow velocity, V, and
assumed rheological properties. In the following
equations, A is the reference column base area.
7.1. Frictional model
The frictional model is based on the assumption
that T is a function only of the effective normal stress
on the base of the ¯ow. This stress depends on ¯ow
depth, unit weight (g ), and pore pressure (Hungr,
1995):
T ˆ AgH cosu 1 ac =g† 1 2 ru †tanf 3†
Here, u is the path slope angle; ac ˆ n2 =Rv is
the centrifugal acceleration which is dependent on
the vertical curvature radius (Rv) of the path; ru is
the pore pressure coef®cient as de®ned by Sassa
(1988) Sassa (1988, p. 41); and f is the dynamic
friction angle.
7.2. Bingham model
In Bingham ¯ow, the resisting force is a function of
¯ow thickness, velocity, constant yield strength (t )
and Bingham viscosity (m) (Hungr, 1995):
!
H 2t t 3 A2
Vˆ 2 3t 1 2 4†
6m A T
The determination of the resisting force, T, requires
the solution of a cubic equation.
7.3. Voellmy model
The model introduced by Voellmy (1955) for snow
avalanches contains a friction term and a turbulent
42 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51

Fig. 12. Cross-sections of distal debris ¯ow in Turbid Creek surveyed in 1986. See Fig. 2 for locations. Cross-section F is furthest upstream and
cross-section J is furthest downstream. An arbitrary local co-ordinate system was used in the surveying of the cross-sections. Geometry of
cross-sections is summarised in Table 1.
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51 43

Fig. 13. Typical deposits of distal debris ¯ow between cross-sections $ and & (see Fig. 2). Note inverse grading and hammer for scale.
Downstream is to the left.

Fig. 14. Grain-size curves for two samples of the matrix of the 1984 rock avalanche debris. Samples were collected at location S in Fig. 9.
44 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Peak discharge
term:
"
  #
ac V2
392,868 T ˆ A gH cos u 1 f 1g 5†

106,808
25,498
1,650
3,530
3,070
3,180
3,240
g j
(m 3/s)

±
±
In Eq. (5), the turbulence coef®cient, j has the
Cross-sectional

dimensions of acceleration, and the friction coef®-

cient, f, is dimensionless. KoÈrner (1976) found empiri-
area (m 2)

cally that this model provides satisfactory results for

165
353
307
318
324
9354
4945
2989
3842
1342

rock avalanches in the lumped-mass framework.

Further details concerning the use of the solution
and the three rheological models can be found in
Summary data for measured cross-sections, velocity, and discharge of the 1984 rock avalanche and distal debris ¯ow on Mount Cayley

Velocity

Hungr (1995). Fig. 19 shows one of the analyses,

(m/s)

27.8

Bold letters (A±E) are cross-sections of rock avalanche (see Fig. 11); F±J are cross-sections of distal debris ¯ow (see Fig. 12).
42

19
10
10
10
10
10

carried out using the Voellmy model, with a friction

±
±

coef®cient ( f ) of 0.1 and a turbulence coef®cient (j )

Radius of
bend (m)

of 500 m/s 2. These parameters were found by Hungr

and Evans (1996) to best simulate the behaviour of a
483

422
146
±
±

±
±
±
±
±

number of rock avalanches in a variety of environ-

ments from different parts of the world. Fig. 19A
Super-elevation

shows the path pro®le and the width of the ¯ow trim
line, which were derived from the 1:5000 scale maps
of the landslide.
77.5
32.5
(m)

The pro®le of the advancing rock avalanche is indi-

15
30
30
±
±
±
±
±

cated at 20 s intervals, with normal ¯ow depth exag-

at peak ¯ow (m)

gerated 10 times. Fig. 19B shows the velocity pro®les

Channel width

of the front and tail of the landslide, together with

pro®les of intermediate points within the ¯owing
12.5
45.2
48.2
46.6
44.8

mass, plotted at 20 s intervals. The simulated veloci-

210
205
120
160
120

ties can be compared with ¯ow velocities estimated

from an analysis of ®eld evidence at ®ve points in the
centerline (m)
Turbid Creek

path (Fig. 19B). An interesting dynamic phenomenon

Depth at

is observed at the constriction of the path, at distance

12.2
8.7

9.4
8.8
9.0

2200 m from source. The front of the slide passes

70
50
25
20
15

through this point at a steady velocity (dashed line).

The main body of the slide slows down somewhat
Elevation
(m.a.s.l.)

just upstream of the constriction, then accelerates as

920
800
740
680
465
225
200
170
155
140

material travelling further behind catches up with it.

The tail of the slide stops at the constriction, deposi-
Distance is from top of source area.
Distance from

tion thus taking place.

source (km) b

This analysis provides a reasonable simulation of

the behaviour of the rock avalanche as interpreted
1.30
1.76
2.24
2.54
3.30
5.06
5.14
5.46
5.66
5.86

from the geometry of the path. The length of the

deposit and the location of the greatest thickness of
the debris are simulated accurately. Comparison with
Cross-section in

®eld based estimates indicate that velocities are also

downstream

well simulated in that part of the path below the

direction a
Table 1

Avalanche Creek±Turbid Creek con¯uence (Fig.

19B). The only exception to this is the apparent
a
b
A

C
D

G
H
B

E
F

J
I
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51 45

Fig. 15. Aerial view of the surface of the 1984 rock avalanche debris in the upper part of the path where Turbid Creek is incised into a
prehistoric landslide deposit (location K in Fig. 9). Note ¯ow lines and irregular depressions. Photograph taken in August 1985. Rock avalanche
moved from top to bottom of the photograph. View is upstream to the northeast.

underestimation at the point where dramatic wind 19B,C), the ¯ow front does not stop at el. 440 m,
damage to trees was suggested by Cruden and Lu but a roll wave, approximately 3 m thick, continues
(1992) to be the result of a velocity of ca. 30 m/s downvalley at a velocity of about 10 m/s. This is
(Fig. 19B). It is noted that in this simulation (Fig, consistent with the inference that a debris ¯ow issued
46 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 16. Oblique aerial photograph showing the path of the 1984
rock avalanche and debris ¯ow (cf. Fig. 2). View is southwest down
Avalanche Creek and Turbid Creek toward the Squamish River. Of
particular note is the nature of the path at the junction of Avalanche
and Turbid creeks (arrowed) which indicates that the debris moved
through this bend in superelevation without stopping. A is the
source area of the 1984 landslide. Photograph taken in August 1991.
from the distal end of the rock avalanche and also with
the indirect estimate of the velocity of the distal debris
¯ow (10 m/s; Jordan (1994)).
A comparison of ¯ow front velocity pro®les simu-
lated using other rheologies, is shown in Fig. 20. The
trials include another Voellmy model (with f ˆ 0.2
and j ˆ 1500 m/sec 2), as well as frictional and Bing-
ham models.
To reasonably simulate the run-out distance of the
rock avalanche, the frictional model required a pore
pressure coef®cient of 0.45, in combination with a
dynamic friction angle of 308. However, the simulated
velocities appear to be too high (Fig. 20).
Fig. 17. Low-level aerial view looking up the path of the 1984 rock
avalanche at the con¯uence of Avalanche and Turbid creeks.
Avalanche Creek enters from the right in the middle distance.
Note valley walls swept clean by the rock avalanche and trim
lines consistent with uninterrupted movement through the bend.
Evidence for a large debris dam is notably absent at this location,
although the remnants of a small debris dam, less than 5 m high, are
visible on Turbid Creek (arrowed). Photograph taken in August
1985. View is upstream to the northeast.
The Bingham model requires a yield strength of
18 KPa and a Bingham viscosity of 1 kPa.s to best
simulate the travel distance of the landslide. These
values are considerably lower than those used in a
number of back analyses by Sousa and Voight
(1991). The predicted velocities are very high
compared to ®eld estimates, which appears to be a
common result of using the Bingham model with
constant parameters along the landslide path (Hungr
and Evans, 1996).
Both the Voellmy and frictional models simulate
the run-out distance and distribution of deposits
quite well. With respect to velocity, however, the
Voellmy model appears to better simulate the beha-
viour of the rock avalanche as it enters Turbid Creek
as well as in the middle and lower segments of the
path. However, this assessment of the performance of
the models hinges on the accuracy of estimating
actual ¯ow velocities, and in particular the greatly
simpli®ed velocity estimate in the ®rst bend (i.e. at
the Turbid - Avalanche Creek con¯uence) which, it is
noted, involves considerable uncertainty because of
the complex geometry of the bend, the trajectory of
the debris, and energy losses due to the impact against
the valley wall.
In summary, the Voellmy model provides a
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 18. Pro®les of the 1963 and 1984 rock avalanches; a is the value of the fahrboÈschung.
reasonable simulation of the behaviour of the 1984
Mount Cayley rock avalanche, including the genera-
tion of a distal debris ¯ow. An exact match with the
velocities calculated from path characteristics,
however, was not obtained. This is as likely due to
inaccurate ®eld velocity estimates as it is to the perfor-
mance of the model. The high velocities and long
runout of the rock avalanche appear to be due to the
steepness and high degree of con®nement of its path
which allowed the generation of pore pressures in the
debris.
8. Implications for interpretation of movement
sequence and assessment of landslide hazard
8.1. Movement sequence of the 1984 landslide on
Mount Cayley
The interpretation presented in this paper differs in
signi®cant detail from that of Lu (1988); Cruden and
Lu (1992), and Lu and Cruden (1996). These authors
conclude that the initial failure mass was much larger
(ca. 3 £ 10 6 m 3) than we have estimated. More impor-
tantly, they postulate that the debris came to rest at,
and just below, the mouth of Avalanche Creek (el.
920 m), where it formed a large landslide dam.
According to Cruden and Lu (1992), failure of this
dam one or two days later produced a large debris
47
¯ow that caused the superelevations and tree damage
along Turbid Creek below Avalanche Creek, and
destroyed the logging road bridge in the Squamish
Valley.
We believe this scenario is unlikely for four
reasons. First, there is no evidence of a dam of the
size and extent postulated by Cruden and Lu (1992).
As noted above, debris was indeed deposited at the
mouth of Avalanche Creek, but formed a dam only
5 m high, far too small to produce the downstream
effects documented here and by Cruden and Lu
(1992). Second, at the point where the dam sup-
posedly formed at the con¯uence of Avalanche
Creek and Turbid Creek the debris would have had
to have stopped. Both a consideration of the super-
elevation of the debris trimline and the results of a
dynamic analysis (DAN) indicate the debris was
travelling in excess of 40 m/s at this location, the
maximum velocity it attained in its lower path.
Third, the form of the trimline in the bend at the
con¯uence (Fig. 16) is more consistent with con-
tinuous movement of debris through the bend than
with the stopping of the debris and its re-start as a
debris-¯ow several days later. Fourth, while our esti-
mated and simulated velocities downstream of the
Avalanche-Turbid Creek con¯uence are similar to
those estimated by Cruden and Lu (1992), we consider
it unlikely that these velocities could have been
reached from a standing start at el. 920 m, where the
48 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51

Fig. 19. Results of dynamic analysis of the 1984 rock avalanche and distal debris ¯ow using the Voellmy model within DAN, with f ˆ 0.1 and
j ˆ 500 m/sec 2. Distal limit of rock avalanche is marked with solid square at 3460 m on abscissa. (a): Pro®le of the rock avalanche showing the
extent and thickness of the deposit, and the centres of gravity (1) of the initial failed mass and the deposit. Path width from 1:5000 scale
topographic map. (b): velocity-distance relationships for the front and tail of the rock avalanche, and velocity pro®les of the moving mass at
20 s intervals. Solid dots are velocities determined from ®eld evidence as follows: A ˆ superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at cross-
section Fig. 11A; B ˆ superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at cross-section Fig. 11D; C ˆ run-up over transverse ridge at R in Fig. 9;
D ˆ wood splinters driven into tree at Site 42 of Cruden and Lu (1992); E ˆ superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at cross-section
Fig. 11E; F: estimate for distal debris ¯ow based on superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at bend 800 m downstream of distal limit of
rock avalanche (Jordan, 1994). G:average velocity of distal debris ¯ow in Lower reaches of Turbid Creek (Jordan, 1994). (c): Plot of average
deposit thickness along path. Note simulation shows development of roll wave beyond distal limit of rock avalanche.
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
Fig. 20. Comparison of rheological models within DAN showing
velocity-distance relationships for the moving front of the 1984 rock
avalanche. The parameters for the rheological models are: Voellmy
A, f ˆ 0.1 and j ˆ 500 m/sec 2; Voellmy B, f ˆ 0.2 and j ˆ 1500 m/
sec 2; Frictional, f ˆ 308 and ru ˆ 0.45; Bingham, t ˆ 18 kPa and
viscosity ˆ 1 kPa.s. Distal limit of rock avalanche is marked with
solid square at 3460 m on abscissa. Solid dots are velocities deter-
mined from ®eld evidence as follows: A ˆ superelevation, bend
geometry, and path width at cross-section Fig. 11A; B ˆ
superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at cross-section
Fig. 11D; C ˆ run-up over transverse ridge at R in Fig. 9;
D ˆ wood splinters driven into tree at Site 42 of Cruden and Lu
(1992); E ˆ superelevation, bend geometry, and path width at cross-
section Fig. 11E; F: estimate for distal debris ¯ow based on super-
elevation, bend geometry, and path width at bend 800 m down-
stream of distal limit of rock avalanche (Jordan, 1994). G:
average velocity of distal debris ¯ow in Lower reaches of Turbid
Creek (Jordan, 1994).
debris is purported to have come to rest, especially
given the moderate slope angles in the lower part of
the path. The inviscid dam-break theory quoted by
Cruden and Lu (1992) Cruden and Lu (1992, p. 621)
predicts extremely high breach wave-tip velocity,
unrealistic for a breach of a large natural dam. Firstly,
the dam would not disappear instantly as assumed by
the theory, but would undergo gradual erosion (c.f.
Fread, 1988). Secondly, the dam-breach surge front
would be slowed down by turbulent and frictional
resistance of the sediment-laden ¯ow, which is
again neglected by the inviscid solution.
We therefore conclude that the location and
height of superelevation and tree damage along
Turbid Creek are more consistent with a one-phase
landslide (i.e., the rock avalanche continued to
49
rapidly move downvalley after it left Avalanche
Creek) than with a two-phase one (a secondary debris
¯ow started from a standstill below Avalanche
Creek), and that the debris ¯ow which destroyed the
Turbid Creek logging road bridge was generated
directly by the distal transformation of the rock
avalanche.
8.2. Landslide hazard assessment on dissected
volcanoes
These different interpretations carry important
implications for landslide hazard assessment in the
Garibaldi Volcanic Belt (Fig. 1). If we are correct,
the possibility of mobile landslides of the 1984
Mount Cayley type must be considered when develop-
ing areas near highly dissected Quaternary volcanoes.
A case in point is the Cheekye Fan which borders the
steep southwest ¯ank of Mount Garibaldi (Fig. 1;
Friele et al., 1999). Rapid growth of the municipality
of Squamish in recent years has led to increased pres-
sure to develop the upper part of the fan for housing.
The western ¯ank of Mount Garibaldi, like that of
Mount Cayley, has been subject to large prehistoric
slope failures that have developed into mobile rock
avalanches (Hungr and Rawlings, 1995). The runout
of these landslides and possible debris ¯ows has
been calibrated against events at Mount Cayley and
elsewhere (Hungr and Rawlings, 1995), leading to
important land-use decisions that will affect the
development of the Cheekye Fan.
More generally, a number of comparable landslides
have been documented on volcano slopes elsewhere
in the world (e.g., Moriwaki et al., 1985; Jones et al.,
1984; Gallino and Pierson, 1985; Sheridan et al.,
1999). Signi®cant elements of their behaviour are
entrainment of substantial volumes of material along
their paths following initial failure, high velocities in
excess of 15 m/s, and a reach extended by distal ¯ows.
It is also noted that the question of stop-start beha-
viour has been a matter of dicussion in the analysis of
these landslides (e.g. Sheridan et al., 1999).
9. Conclusion
The 1984 landslide at Mount Cayley is the sixth of
seven high-velocity rock avalanches known to have
occurred in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt since 1855
50 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
(Evans, 1990) and contributes to a landslide frequency
that makes the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt one of the
most landslide-prone geological environments in the
Canadian Cordillera. It occurred when 0.74 £ 10 6 m 3
of pyroclastic materials slid from a steep slope on the
western ¯ank of the volcano and were transformed
into a rapidly moving rock avalanche. Moving down
the steep upper parts of its path, the rapidly moving
rock avalanche entrained a further 0.20 £ 10 6 m 3. The
combined mass entered Turbid Creek travelled along
the path marked by obvious trimlines as a very rapid
rock avalanche to about el. 440 m. Field and analyti-
cal evidence suggests that the debris ¯ow that
travelled down Turbid Creek to block the Squamish
River probably originated by direct transformation of
the moving rock avalanche at its distal margin and not
by the breaching of a landslide dam at the con¯uence
of Avalanche and Turbid creeks. This interpretation of
the movement sequence of the landslide differs
considerably from that of Lu (1988); Cruden and Lu
(1992), and Lu and Cruden (1996).
The 1984 event illustrates movement mechanisms
typical of rapid landslides on dissected volcanoes, viz.
signi®cant entrainment of debris following initial fail-
ure, high velocity, and a reach extended by a distal
debris ¯ow. These types of landslides can be quite
destructive despite small initial failure volumes.
This results from the transformation of an initial fail-
ure mass into a larger rapid landslide. Important
processes in this transformation are thought to be
the generation of pore pressures in the debris, either
created by the impact collapse of the weak porous
pyroclastic materials that made up the initial displaced
mass, or by the saturation of the disaggregated
moving mass by the melting of snow and ice incorpor-
ated into the debris during its travel along the upper
part of the path. In addition to these processes,
entrainment of debris occurred in the upper part of
the path probably enhanced by strength loss resulting
from undrained loading. The Mount Cayley case also
illustrates the problem of de®ning the role of the
formation and failure of landslide dams at some
point in a landslide path in the transformation of the
initial moving mass.
Despite its complexity, the behaviour of the land-
slide was successfully simulated by dynamic analysis
(DAN). As previously found with other rapid land-
slides, the Voellmy model gave good results, including
the high velocities in the lower part of the path. It also
successfully predicted the occurrence of a large distal
debris ¯ow. Together with careful ®eld observations,
the application of a dynamic model can help produce
an accurate reconstruction of a complex multi-phase
movement and thus assist in landslide hazard assess-
ment in the vicinity of dissected volcanoes.
Acknowledgements
Dwayne Tannant, Karen Bertrand, and Shane
Dennison assited in ®eld work on Mount Cayley.
The paper has been vastly improved by careful
reviews by David Varnes, Greg Brooks, and an anony-
mous reviewer.
References
Brooks, G.R., Hickin, E.J., 1995. The origin of a tephra-like bed
near Mount Cayley volcano, southwestern British Columbia,
Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci. 32, 2040±2045.
Chow, V.T., 1959. Open-channel hydraulics. McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, p. 680.
Clague, J.J., Souther, J.G., 1982. The Dusty Creek landslide on
Mount CayleyBritish Columbia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 19, 524±539.
Cruden, D.M., Lu, Z.Y., 1989. The geomorphic impact of the cata-
strophic October 1984 ¯ood on the planform of the Squamish
River, southwestern British Columbia: discussion. Can. J. Earth
Sci. 26, 336.
Cruden, D.M., Lu, Z.Y., 1992. The rockslide and debris ¯ow from
Mount Cayley BC in June 1984. Can. Geotech. J. 29, 614±626.
Evans, S.G., 1986. Landslide damming in the Cordillera of Western
Canada. Landslide Dams: Processes, Risk, and Mitigation,
Schuster, R.L. (Ed.). American Society of Civil Engineers,
Geotechnical Special Publication vol. 3, 111±130.
Evans, S.G., 1990. Massive debris avalanches from volcanoes in the
Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, British Columbia . Geol. Assoc. Can./
Mineral. Assoc. Can., Prog. Abst. 15, A38.
Evans, S.G., Brooks, G.R., 1991. Prehistoric debris avalanches from
Mount Cayley volcano, British Columbia. Can. J. Earth Sci. 28,
1365±1374.
Evans, S.G., Gardner, J., 1989. Geological hazards in the Canadian
Cordillera. Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland,
Fulton, R.J. (Ed.). Geol. Surv. Can., Ottawa, Ontario, 702±713.
Evans, S.G., Clague, J.J., Woodsworth, G.J., Hungr, O., 1989. The
Pandemonium Creek rock avalanche, British Columbia. Can.
Geotech. J. 26, 427±446.
Fread, D.L. (1988). The NWS DAMBRK model: theoretical back-
ground and user documentation. Hydraulic Research Labora-
tory, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, MD.
Friele, P.A., Ekes, C., Hickin, E.J., 1999. Evolution of Cheekye fan,
 S.G. Evans et al. / Engineering Geology 61 (2001) 29±51
British Columbia: Holocene sedimentation and implications for
hazard assessment. Can. J. Earth Sci. 36, 2023±2031.
Gallino, G.L., Pierson, T.C., 1985. Pollalie Creek debris ¯ow and
subsequent dam-break ¯ood of 1980, East Fork Hood Basin,
Oregon. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Pap. 2273, 22.
Green, N.L., Armstrong, R.L., Harakal, J.E., Souther, J.G., Read,
P.B., 1988. Eruptive history and K-Ar geochronology of the late
Cenozoic Garibaldi volcanic belt, southwestern British Colum-
bia. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 100, 563±579.
Hungr, O., 1995. A model for the runout analysis of rapid ¯ow
slides, debris ¯ows, and avalanches. Can. Geotech. J. 32,
610±623.
Hungr, O., Evans, S.G., (1996). Rock avalanche runout prediction
using a dynamic model. Proc. 7th Int. Symp. Landslides, Trond-
heim, Norway. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1: pp. 233±238.
Hungr, O., Evans, S.G., 1997. A dynamic model for landslides with
changing mass. Proceedings of International Association of
Engineering Geology Symposium on Engineering Geology
and the Environment, Athens, Greece, v. 1, p. 719, 724.
Hungr, O., Rawlings, G., (1995). Assessment of terrain hazards for
planning purposes:Cheekye Fan, British Columbia. 48th Can.
Geotech. Conf., Vancouver, B.C., Preprint Volume 1, pp. 509±517.
Iverson, R.M., La Husen, R.G., Major, J.J., Zimmerman, C.L.,
(1994). Debris ¯ow against obstacles and bends: dynamics
and deposits. Procs., 1994 Fall Meeting, American Geophysical
Union, p. 274 (abstract only).
Jones, B.L., Chinn, S.S.W., Brice, J.C., 1984. Olokele rock
avalanche, island of Kaua Hawaii. Geology 12, 209±211.
Jordan, P., (1987). Impacts of mass movement events on rivers in
the southern Coast Mountains, British Columbia: summary
report. Water Resources Branch, Inland Waters Directorate,
Environment Canada, Report IWD-HQ-WRB-SS-87-3, 62 p.
Jordan, P., (1994). Debris ¯ows in the southern Coast Mountains,
British Columbia: dynamic behaviour and physical properties;
Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geography, University of British
Columbia, 260 p.
51
KoÈrner, H.J., 1976. Reichweite und Geschwindigkeit von BergstuÈr-
zen und Flieb chneelawinen. Rock Mech. 8, 225±256.
Lu, Z.Y. (1988). Rock avalanches on Mount Cayley, British Colum-
bia. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta,
158 pp.
Lu, Z.Y. (1993). Landslides and geotechnical properties of volcanic
tuff on Mount Cayley, British Columbia. PhD thesis, Univ.
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, 263 pp.
Lu, Z.Y., Cruden, D.M., 1996. Two debris ¯ow modes on Mount
Cayley, British Columbia. Can. Geotech. J. 33, 123±139.
Moriwaki, H., Yazaki, S., Oyagi, N., (1985). A gigantic debris
avalanche and its dynamics at Mount Ontake caused by the
Naganoken-Seibu Earthquake, 1984. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Field
Workshop Landslides, Tokyo, pp. 359±364.
Pierson, T.C., 1985. Initiation and ¯ow behaviour of the 1980 Pine
Creek and Muddy River lahars, Mount St. Helens, Washington.
Geol. Soc. Am., Bulletin 96, 1056±1069.
Pierson, T.C., 1998. An empirical model for estimating travel times
for wet volcanic ¯ows. Bull. Volcanol. 60, 98±109.
Sassa, K., (1988). Geotechnical model for the motion of landslides.
Proc. 5th Int. Symp. Landslides, Lausanne. Balkema, Rotter-
dam, 1, pp. 37±55.
Sheridan, M.F., Bonnard, C., Carreno, R., Siebe, C., Strauch, W.,
Navarro, M., Calero, J.C., Trujillo, N.B., (1999). Report on the
30 October 1998 Rock Fall/Avalanche and breakout ¯ow of
Casita Volcano, Nicaragua, triggered by Hurricane Mitch.
Landslide News, 12, 2±4.
Sousa, J., Voight, B., 1991. Continuum simulation of ¯ow failures.
Geotechnique 41, 515±538.
Souther, J.G., 1980. Geothermal reconnaissance in the central Gari-
baldi Bel , British Columbia. Geol. Surv. Can. Pap. 80-1A, 1±11.
Voellmy, A., 1955. Uber die Zerstorungskraft von Lawinen.
Schweizerische Bauzeitung 73, 212±285.
Voight, B., Sousa, J., 1994. Lessons from Ontake-san: a compari-
tive analysis of debris avalanche dynamics. Eng. Geol. 38,
261±297.