Applied Radiation and Isotopes 176 (2021) 109867

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Applied Radiation and Isotopes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apradiso

Estimation of radon excess lung cancer near some dumpsites in,

Lagos, Nigeria
M.A. Olaoye a, A.K. Ademola b, O.A. Jegede c, Hyam N.B. Khalaf d, *, Mostafa Y.A. Mostafa d, e, **
a
Department of Physics. Lagos State University, Nigeria
b
Physical Sciences Department, Bells University of Technology, Ota, Nigeria
c
Department of Physics, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
d
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt
e
Department of Experimental Physics, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, 620002, Russia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Generally, in Nigeria dumpsites are open and elevate the pollution by increasing the total environment
Radon activity concentration contamination level. This affects not only the site of dumpsites but also the surrounding buildings and area. In
CR-39 detector the present work, indoor radon activity concentration is tested inside some buildings in the vicinity of dumpsites
Annual effective dose
in Lagos, Nigeria. A passive technique with CR-39 detectors is used. Different buildings around different eight
Cancer risk
dumpsites were chosen. Radon concentration had ranged from 16.00 ± 3 to 931.00 ± 186 Bqm− 3 in the
dumpsites. With Mean concentrations range from 120 ± 24 at OKE-ODO to 334 ± 67, at Solus-4 respectively. The
present results explain that 63% of the radon activity concentration in indoor air around the selected dumpsites
at Lagos city in Nigeria is below the allowed limit from ICRP 200 Bq m-3 while 37% is more than this limit. Based
on the measured radon concentration, the annual effective dose and cancer risk are evaluated. The range of ELC
is from 242 to 14086 with mean value 3114 ± 1111.

1. Introduction
Radon (Rn-222) is considered the most dangerous radioactive gas in
the environment (Mostafa et al, 2016, 2017; Sakr et al., 2019; Yuness et
al, 2015a, 2015b, 2016). As a noble gas, radon is widely spread through
the ambient atmosphere indoor, outdoor and mines or caves. Inhalation
of radon and its decay products in indoor and work places is responsible
about 55% of natural exposure of natural radiation (UNSCEAR, 2010).
Radon and its decay products exposure is recognized as the second
reason of cancer in lung and have factor of relative risk, RR~ 2–10,
following the smoking with RR~40 (Samet, 1989). Radon as a gas can
diffuse or be transported to some spaces through cavities in the rock
frame and find its path into the soil or content matter and surrounding
material. Therefore, the measurement of radon is important in different
environment.
Besides its self-risk factor; radon and its decay products increase the
lung cancer risk of smokers. Many cohorts, case-control, and experi­
mental studies explain and discus the carcinogenic potential of radon. In
addition, the effects of radon on other types of cancers have been
explored and in study progress. Whereas, alpha particles from radon and
its decay products interaction with the production of reactive oxygen
species are the main causal mechanisms DNA damage and carcinogen­
esis. therefore, constitute the common mechanisms underlying the
synergistic effect of radon and tobacco smoke. World Health Organiza­
tion (WHO) considers cancer deaths worldwide are related mainly to
lung cancer and stats that more than 1.1 million die with lung cancer in
each year (Hajo and Ferid, 2009; WHO, 2008). Every year, these deaths
number in increasing. Lung cancer promotes when the exposed cells that
line the lungs suffer genetic spoilage. Several chemicals and environ­
mental factors that are able to give rise to the kind of genetic spoilage
that can cause lung cancer have identified by several scientists (Hajo and
Ferid, 2009; WHO, 2008).
Many factors effect on the radon concentration indoor such as the
geological and geophysical orientation of the area, building materials
for construction, ventilation, meteorological parameters, and radon
concentration outdoor (Dai et al., 2019; Hanfi et al., 2021a, 2021b;
Kumar et al., 2017; Yuness et al., 2015c). The dumpsite is a widespread
territory for waste materials. generally, dumpsites are opened and

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author. Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt.
E-mail addresses: Hayamnazme@mu.edu.eg, hyamnazmy@mail.ru (H.N.B. Khalaf), Mostafa_85@mail.ru, Mostafa.Youness@mu.edu.eg (M.Y.A. Mostafa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2021.109867
Received 20 June 2021; Received in revised form 13 July 2021; Accepted 15 July 2021
Available online 16 July 2021
0969-8043/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A. Olaoye et al.
directly exposed to the air atmosphere. They can significantly exceed the
contamination pollution in the environment and need to be managed
(Zhang et al., 2019). In Lagos city (Nigeria), The risk of municipal
behavior of solid waste MSW in landfills is a critical problem and needs
convenient awareness. The information of radon emanation in dump­
sites is imperative to estimate, monitor, evaluate, and mitigate through a
radiation emergency echo plan.
The aim of the present work is measuring of radon concentrations in
residential buildings in the vicinity of the dumpsites to estimate the
health hazard of the residents and/or scavengers in such case, Radon
Excess Lung Cancer (ELC) and annual dose (DA) will assess for the area of
interest at Lagos city in Nigeria. ELC and DA will estimate based on
radon, 222Rn, concentrations measurements with CR-39 track detector in
forty-one samples were collected from eight dumpsites at Lagos city in
Nigeria.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Selection of dumpsites for radon measurements
There are many refuse dumpsites scattered all over Lagos and only
seventeen (17) of them are managed by LAWMA, out of which twelve
(12) are no longer active since 2008, (Olaoye et al., 2021). Among the
dumpsites managed by LAWMA, eight (8) were selected for this
research, four (4) of which were active while the other four (4) were
dormant as at the time of this study. The eight (8) selected dumpsites are
presented in Lagos map and shown in Fig. 1:
Fig. 1. Geological map showing the study areas (Adapted and modified after NGSA, 2010) (Olaoye et al., 2021).
2
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 176 (2021) 109867
1. Olusosun dumpsite which is at the Northern part of Lagos within
Ajeromi Local Government. It receives approximately 40% of the
total waste deposits from Lagos. The size of the site is about 42.7 ha
and has a residual of 20 years.
2. Solus-I dumpsite situated along Lagos State University-Isheri Road. It
occupies about 6 ha of land and has been dormant as at the time of
this research. in Igando-Ikotun Local Council Development Area.
3. Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) is a privately owned recovery
plant in conjunction with LAWMA. It receives tonnes of wastes which
are dumped and sorted before recovery. It is carved out of Solous-I
dumpsite. It is situated in Igando-Ikotun Local Council Develop­
ment Area.
4. Solus-II dumpsite which is along Igando-Isheri road, some distance
away from the Igando General Hospital, within Igando-Ikotun Local
Council Development Area. It occupies about 7.8 ha of land with an
average life span of more than 10 years.
5. Solus-III dumpsite a relatively new dumpsite with an average life
span of more than 5 years, which is along the Isheri-Igando road. It
covers approximately 5 ha of land.
6. Solus-IV dumpsite, a formerly medical waste dump before it became
closed down. As the time of this research, it had been dormant for a
period of over 10 years. It is located along Oko-Oloyun hotel road.
7. Oke-Afa dumpsite located in Isolo Local Government area of Lagos. It
had also be closed down for over 15 years before this research was
carried out. It is close to Oke-Afa Memorial, adjacent Isolo General
Hospital.
8. Oke-Odo dumpsite which is in Alimosho Local Government Area. It
occupies about 10.2 ha in Abule-Egba which is within Western part
of Lagos. It receives wastes from the densely populated area and has
M.A. Olaoye et al. Applied Radiation and Isotopes 176 (2021) 109867

a life span of about 10 years and very close to a popular major food
market.
About forty dwellings (all bungalows and ground floors) at distances
from 0 to 100 m away from the selected dumpsites were selected based
on the occupant’s consent and the following steps were taken to expose
the CR-39 track detectors, according to the prescription of IRP-ENEA
radon services (Sabbarese et al., 2020).
i. The codes, time and date of starting exposure were noted
ii. The two protective films on the CR-39 were removed
iii. The clear lid at the bottom of the dosimeters were opened
iv. The detectors were fitted into the proper seat, so that the surface
with the codes faced outside
v. The dosimeters were closed by pressing the lid against the base
until the o’ring was completely inserted
vi. The identifying codes were checked to be correctly readable
through the clear lid
vii. The dosimeters were operated by raising and turning the caps
clock wisely, while the bases were kept fixed
viii. Then the dosimeters were placed at the measurement points for a
period of 90 days.
and Ayyed, 2018; UNSCEAR, 2010, 2008, 2000b).
ELC = 15.13CRn (4)
where CRn is the concentration of radon (Bq m− 3).
3. Results and dissections
Table 1 gives the details track information of the CR-39 detectors and
the indoor radon activity concentrations obtained in the dwellings
around the selected dumpsites. As presented, for each dumpsite build­
ings there is at least one recorded indoor radon activity concentration
value greater than 200 Bq m− 3 (limit recommended by UNSCEAR). The
maximum indoor radon activity concentration is founded at the SOLUS-
4 dumpsite with value 931 ± 186 Bq m− 3. Also, value of 656 ± 131 Bq
m− 3 is recorded for buildings around MRF dumpsite.
Around SOLUS-1 dumpsite, the maximum indoor radon activity
concentration value is 559 ± 112 Bq m− 3 and 486 ± 97 Bq m− 3 is found
around OLUSOSUN dumpsite. For the other dumpsites that tested in the
present study the maximum indoor radon activity concentrations of 454
± 91 Bq m− 3, 421 ± 84 Bq m− 3, 266 ± 35 Bq m− 3, and 251 ± 50 Bq m− 3
were measured at OKE-AFA, SOLUS-2, OKE-ODO and SOLUS-3

At the end of ninety (90) days exposure, the caps of the dosimeters Table 1
were turned anti-clockwise in order to close the dosimeters, the CR-39 Track information of the CR-39 detectors and mean Indoor radon concentrations
detectors were removed and inserted in the individual radon tight obtained in the dwellings around the selected dumpsites at Lagos city in Nigeria.
plastic pouches before etching. Code Location Average Track Radon Standard
The detectors were retrieved and etched in a 6 m NaOH solution in a (dumpsites) track density concentration deviation
water bath at a temperature of 90 ◦ C for 3 h. Tracks were counted using a (Bq m− 3)
semi-automatic system with a DCE camera mounted on a microscope 1 OKE-AFA 1.90 21.00 454 91
and connected to a PC (Farhan et al., 2021; Sabbarese et al., 2020). 2 OKE-AFA 1.50 17.00 364 73
3 OKE-AFA 0.23 2.60 57 11
4 OKE-AFA 0.10 1.00 23 5
2.2. Annual inhalation dose 5 OKE-AFA 0.07 0.70 16 3
6 OKE-AFA 1.00 11.00 251 50
A working level is a measure of radon progeny concentration, which 7 OKE-ODO 0.40 4.40 97 19
is any combination of radon daughters in a litre of air. It is calculated 8 OKE-ODO 1.00 11.00 266 53
9 OKE-ODO 0.20 2.20 53 11
from the mean radon concentration (CRn), using the following equations
10 OKE-ODO 0.50 5.00 124 25
(UNSCEAR, 2000a): 11 OKE-ODO 0.53 5.90 142 28
12 OKE-ODO 0.20 2.00 40 8
F x CRn EECRn
WL = = (1) 13 MRF 2.70 30.00 656 131
3700 3700
14 MRF 1.30 14.40 316 63
Bqm − 3 15 MRF 0.13 1.50 32 7
Do (tracksmm− 2 ) ​ x ​ K[(tracksmm− 2 ) ​ day]
16 MRF 0.10 1.00 24 5
CRn ​ (Bq ​ m− 3 ) ​ = (2)
Time ​ (No ​ of ​ days ​ of ​ exposure)
17 OLUSOSUN 0.23 2.60 57 11
18 OLUSOSUN 0.30 4.00 81 16
where Do is the track density and K is the detector sensitivity or cali­ 19 OLUSOSUN 0.77 8.50 186 37
bration factor. F is the equilibrium factor (0.4) because this is an average 20 OLUSOSUN 1.20 13.00 292 58
indoor value from extensive worldwide (UNSCEAR, 2000a). The annual 21 OLUSOSUN 0.67 7.40 162 32
inhalation dose due to radon and its progeny is estimated according to 22 OLUSOSUN 2.00 22.00 486 97
23 OLUSOSUN 0.93 104.00 227 22
the following formula (Singh et al., 2008; UNSCEAR, 2000a; Yuness 24 OLUSOSUN 0.20 2.00 40 8
et al., 2015c): 25 OLUSOSUN 0.50 5.60 121 24
26 OLUSOSUN 0.60 6.70 146 29
DA (msV) = T [0.17 CRn + 9 EEC] (3)
27 SOLUS-1 0.60 6.00 138 28
where T is the time in hours which a person spends at a particular 28 SOLUS-1 2.30 25.60 559 112
29 SOLUS-1 0.30 3.00 65 13
location and CRn is the concentration of radon gas in units of Bq m− 3. The
factors of 0.17 and 9 are the effective dose coefficients (nsv/Bq h m− 3) 30 SOLUS-2 1.50 17.00 373 74
for radon and EEC, respectively. An average person spends time indoors 31 SOLUS-2 1.73 19.30 421 84
32 SOLUS-2 0.50 3.00 49 10
with an occupancy factor of 0.8 averaged over 1 year (UNSCEAR, 33 SOLUS-2 0.55 3.10 50 10
2000a), this gives T = 7008 h. F is the equilibrium factor. The value F =
34 SOLUS-3 0.30 3.00 73 15
0.4 is adopted in this study.
35 SOLUS-3 0.13 1.50 32 6
36 SOLUS-3 0.70 8.00 170 6
2.3. Excess lung cancer per million persons per year 37 SOLUS-3 1.03 11.50 251 50

38 SOLUS-4 0.30 3.30 73 15

ELC (Excess Lung cancer risk) is the excess in deaths per million 39 SOLUS-4 1.03 11.50 251 50
persons in one year owing to lung cancer per unit exposure to radon and 40 SOLUS-4 0.30 4.00 81 16
41 SOLUS-4 3.83 42.60 931 186
its short-lived daughters (Ahmed et al., 2021; Özen et al., 2018; Ridha

3
M.A. Olaoye et al. Applied Radiation and Isotopes 176 (2021) 109867

buildings respectively. From 41 measurements, only five measurements

with minimum detectable values (lower than 50 Bq m− 3) are found in
OKE-AFA, MRF, OLUSOSUN and SOLUS-3. This variation in results not
only from site to site but also in the same site of each selected dumpsite
due to the different activity and different exhalation rates from material
to material depending on the type of materials in addition to meteoro­
logical conditions.
Table 2 presents the summary of buildings number that tested
around each of dumpsites. In this table, the indoor radon activity con­
centrations as minimum, maximum and mean values with stander
devotion are presented for buildings number under test around each
dumpsite. The lowest mean indoor radon activity concentrations is
founded for buildings near OKE-ODO dumpsite 120 ± 24 Bq m− 3
(40–266 Bq m− 3) and the highest mean recorded for the Solus 4
dumpsite with 334 ± 67 Bq m− 3 (73–931 Bq m− 3). Fig. 2 shows the
mean values of radon concentration in each dumpsite with error.
Fig. 3 presents the frequency distribution of the measured indoor
radon activity concentration in the selected buildings around dumpsites
under test is. This frequency distribution gives a log-normal distribution
with maximum peak at 200 Bq m− 3. From this distribution, about 63%
(26 buildings) of the building have a radon activity concentration lower
than the recommendation limit of the indoor radon activity concentra­ Fig. 2. The mean radon activity concentration in indoor around each dumpsite
tion for intervention by UNSCEAR (200 Bq m− 3) (Mudd, 2008; with error.
UNSCEAR, 2000a,b; ICRP, 1997). On the other way, nearly 22% (9
buildings) have concentration between 200 and 400 Bq m− 3, and 15% (6
buildings) have concentration above 400 Bq m− 3. In these measure­
ments, two buildings have radon concentration above 600 Bqm− 3,
which is the upper limit of the EU reference level or the ICRP inter­
vention level (ICRP, 1997).
The radon working level is a measure of the concentration of the
short-lived radon decay products (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi/214Po). It is
calculated from the mean radon activity concentration using equation
(1). The radon working level results obtained for the mean values of
indoor radon activity concentrations around each dumpsite are pre­
sented in Table 3. Since working level (WL) is a function of radon con­
centration, a plot of radon concentration against radon progeny showed
a positive correlation with a 99% confidence limit (see Fig. 4). The
values obtained for WL ranged from 0.013 y− 1 around OKE-ODO
dumpsite to 0.036 y− 1 around Solus 4 dumpsite with a mean value of
0.022 ± 0.008 y− 1.
As can be seen in Table 3, the annual effective dose ranged from 3.2
mSv y− 1 (OKE-ODO) to 8.8 mSv y− 1 (Solus 4) mSv y− 1. As stated by
UNSCEAR, the global mean annual effective dose (E) due to radon
inhalation is about 1.3 mSv y− 1 (UNSCEAR, 2000b). The mean value of Fig. 3. The frequency distribution of indoor radon concentration in the
the annual effective dose in dumpsites sites is higher than the global buildings around selected dumpsites at Lagos city in Nigeria.
mean annual effective dose with more than two times. All dumpsites
annual effective doses are shown in Fig. 5. The relation between the
annual effective dose and the radon concentration with a is presented in Table 3
Fig. 6 with direct correlation. Working levels, ELC, EEC and DA calculated from the mean concentration for
The mean excess lung cancer risk per million persons per year (ELC) each dumpsite.
Dumpsite Working level (y− 1) ELC EEC (Bq m− 3) SD DA

OKE-AFA 0.021 2935 77 15 5.1

Table 2 OKE-ODO 0.013 1816 48 10 3.2
Summary of number of buildings tested around each of the dumpsites and the MRF 0.028 3888 103 21 6.8
indoor radon concentrations around selected dumpsites at Lagos city in Nigeria. OLUSOSUN 0.019 2723 72 14 4.8
Solus 1 0.022 3132 83 20 5.5
Dumpsites Number of Minimum Maximum Mean radon SD Solus 2 0.024 3374 89 18 5.9
buildings activity Solus 3 0.014 1997 53 8 3.5
Considered concentration Solus 4 0.036 5053 134 27 8.8
(Bq m− 3)

OKE-AFA 6 16 454 194 39

OKE-ODO 6 40 266 120 24 in the dumpsites is varied from 1816 for buildings surrounding OKE-
MRF 4 24 656 257 51 ODO dumpsite to 5053 for buildings surrounding Solus 4 dumpsite
OLUSOSUN 10 40 486 180 34 which is a former medical waste facility. These values were above the
SOLUS-1 3 65 559 207 51
recommended limit.
SOLUS-2 4 49 421 223 45
SOLUS-3 4 32 251 132 19
SOLUS-4 4 73 931 334 67

4
M.A. Olaoye et al.
Fig. 4. Working level (WL) as a function of radon concentration.
Fig. 5. The annual inhalation dose due to radon and its progeny.
4. Conclusions
The Radon Excess Lung Cancer (ELC) for indoor air around selected
dumpsites at Lagos city in Nigeria. was estimated based on radon, 222Rn,
activity concentrations measurements with CR-39 track detector. The
radon-222 activity concentrations varied between 16 and 931 Bq m− 3
with mean value of 201 Bq m− 3 for all buildings. The range of ELC is
from 242 to 14086 with mean value 3114 ± 1111. The present results
explain that 63% of the radon activity concentration in indoor air
around the selected dumpsites at Lagos city in Nigeria is below the
allowed limit from ICRP 200 Bq m− 3 while 37% is more than this limit.
The annual effective dose ranged from 3.2 mSv y− 1 (OKE-ODO) to 8.8
mSv y− 1 (Solus 4) mSv y− 1. These values are greater than the global
mean annual effective dose due to radon inhalation of 1.3 mSv y− 1 as
stated by UNSCEAR.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
5
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 176 (2021) 109867
Fig. 6. Annual effective dose (mSv y− 1) and radon concentration (Bq m− 3)
correlation.
the work reported in this paper.
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