Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

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Journal of Road Engineering

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Review Article

Advances and development trends in eco-friendly pavements

Aimin Sha a, b, *, Zhuangzhuang Liu a, b, Wei Jiang a, b, Lin Qi b, c, Liqun Hu a, b, Wenxiu Jiao a,
Diego Maria Barbieri d
a
School of Highway, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710064, China
b
Key Laboratory of Special Area Highway Engineering of Ministry of Education, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710064, China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710064, China
d
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim 7491, Norway

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

Status of pavement research associated

environmental impacts is presented.

Recent trends and advances regarding
eco-friendly pavements in the past de-
cades are summarized.

A new generation of eco-friendly pave-
ments is defined considering the inte-
gration of functions, structures, and
materials.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The major contemporary in road pavement engineering is related to the creation of green and sustainable in-
Road engineering frastructures, e.g., reduction of environmental impacts, increase in traffic safety, and transportation efficiency, etc.
Eco-friendly pavements This review presents the recent trends in research and the technical solutions developed so far to address these
Environmental impacts
challenges. After the analysis of research status in the past decades, a novel technology system of eco-friendly
Integration of function-structure-material
pavements is proposed considering two solutions, materials modification and structure improvement. The con-
Development trends
struction of an eco-friendly pavement can be achieved thanks to several different technologies ensuring perme-
able, noise-reducing, self-luminous, and exhaust-decomposing properties as well as apporting lower heat
absorbing and enhanced anti-/de-icing characteristics. A systematic review of these technologies is presented
pivoting on four main aspects: technical principle, material and structural composition, performance evaluation,
and engineering application. The current trend in road engineering is combining the pavement infrastructure with
various eco-friendly functions, e.g., water permeability, noise reduction, low heat absorption, exhaust gas
decomposition, and anti-/de-icing. Finally, the review lists the drawbacks of the existing technologies, including
high cost, single function, etc., and depicts the future developing direction and architecture of the next generation
of eco-friendly pavements in which the road infrastructure should have more environmentally friendly functions
than the existing technology.

* Corresponding author. School of Highway, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710064, China.

E-mail addresses: ams@chd.edu.cn (A. Sha), zzliu@chd.edu.cn (Z. Liu), jiangwei@chd.edu.cn (W. Jiang), ql0211@163.com (L. Qi), hlq123@126.com (L. Hu),
jiaowenxiu@chd.edu.cn (W. Jiao), diego.barbieri@ntnu.no (D.M. Barbieri).
Peer review under responsibility of Chang’an University.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jreng.2021.12.002
Received 8 October 2021; Received in revised form 3 December 2021; Accepted 10 December 2021
Available online 20 December 2021
2097-0498/© 2021 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Sha et al.
1. Introduction
As one of the most important transportation infrastructures, roads
perform an essential role in a wide range of anthropogenic activities.
They serve as a vital conduit for national and international economic
growth, goods transport, cultural interaction as well as technological
exchange. Notwithstanding their remarkable contribution to societal
development, the significant environmental impacts generated during a
road lifespan cannot be ignored (Sha, 2012). Pavement engineering be-
longs to a high energy-consuming industry. Considering the needed
amount of raw materials, earthworks and maintenance operations, road
infrastructures severely affect the environment (Barbieri et al., 2021;
Plati, 2019). The most common issues are mainly reflected in the
following aspects.
1.1. Traffic congestion and traffic safety problems aggravated by
precipitation
A traditional pavement infrastructure usually represents an obstacle
existing between the precipitation and the natural soil (Alvarez et al.,
2011; Jiang et al., 2015). In some occasions, groundwater may not be
replenished in time, thus severely affecting the balance of water and
ecological systems. As water is only discharged through the urban
drainage system, clogging issues can occur when precipitations are
copious and exceed the maximum volume flow (Alvarez et al., 2010;
Razzaghmanesh and Beecham, 2018).
Several details related to the pavement construction contribute to
determine the overall traffic safety. According to the statistics (Shao,
2019), most road accidents occur from November to February every year
(Ewing and Dumbaugh, 2009; Goniewicz et al., 2016). In general, tem-
peratures are lower during this period and snow and ice make the
pavement surface extremely slippery, thus considerably reducing the
drivers' safety. In this condition, the road friction coefficient remarkably
decreases while the vehicle braking distance augments, thus reducing the
overall stability (Yang et al., 2018). Furthermore, from a driver's
perspective, the light reflected by the snow can easily cause visual fatigue
and disorientation (Strong et al., 2010; Usman et al., 2010).
1.2. Environmental pollution caused by traffic noise and automobile
exhaust
The traffic noise is a source of disturbing for both human beings (e.g.,
harmful influence on physical and mental health) and the environment
(Khan et al., 2018; Miedema and Oudshoorn, 2001; Vaitkus et al., 2017).
The issue generates from the interaction between tyre and pavement,
with the texture and the roughness of road having considerable impact
on the amount of traffic noise (Nelson et al., 2008). Air pollution is a
global environmental issue that affects all countries (Li et al., 2019a); it
entails some serious consequences, such as greenhouse effect and acid
rain (Colvile et al., 2001). Automobile exhaust is among the main sources
of urban pollution as it contains several hazardous substances (Faiz et al.,
2009; Yu et al., 2005). Furthermore, vehicle emissions are the primary
precursor of PM2.5 as well as photochemical smog and haze in general
(Atkinson, 2000). With an increasing amount of private cars in urban
contexts, the detrimental effect may reach particularly severe levels
threatening the health of the citizenry (Hassan et al., 2012; Zhang and
Batterman, 2013).
1.3. Heat island effect caused by dense pavement
Notwithstanding the general advantages (e.g., good roughness fric-
tion and comfortable driving), asphalt pavements present a high ab-
sorption rate of solar radiation, which causes the surface temperature to
rise sharply in the summer, thus causing a variety of distresses such as
rutting (Du et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2009). The urban heat island effect,
namely the replacement of natural lands with road infrastructures in this
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
case, is promoted and it is closely related to the presence of dense road
pavements (Golden and Kaloush, 2006; Rizwan et al., 2008).
1.4. Safety problems caused by night driving
In night driving, the glares from traditional roadway lighting may
cause visual discomfort to drivers and pose a safety risk (Markvica et al.,
2019; Mehri et al., 2017). Furthermore, some roads lack lighting lamps
resulting in insufficient illumination, which reduces the drivers’ reaction
time and increase the likelihood of incidents (Longcore and Rich, 2004).
These issues commonly occur during the lifespan of any traditional
road. The development of environmentally friendly pavement solutions
displaying a reduced environmental impact is not only a requirement for
modernization, but also a necessity of the times (Sha and Jiang, 2018). In
this context, researchers have been investigating a series of eco-friendly
technologies. As illustrated in this review, several tests have been con-
ducted focusing on pavement improved drainage, noise reduction, heat
absorption, tail gas absorption, luminescence, snow melting, just to
mention a few. The overarching objective of these research efforts is to
reduce or prevent the problems related to traffic congestion, environ-
mental pollution, heat island effect, and driving accidents. The following
sections systematically summarize and discuss the research status and
current trends in the development of eco-friendly pavement
technologies.
2. Status of recent research on environmental impacts of road
pavements
To well summarize the research status of pavement impacts on en-
vironments in recent years, a well-known software (CiteSpace) was uti-
lized in this review, as such to present the research directions,
development trends, and distribution of hot topics. In further analysis,
clusters and bursts of keyword, institution, and authors based on WOS
core database were conducted during the period of past decades.
2.1. Waterlogging and drainage
Natural precipitation is an important factor affecting the normal
operation and service life of road or highway infrastructures. Water re-
duces the pavement friction and increases the related amount of traffic
accidents (Fwa, 2017). Meanwhile, the rainwater entering the subgrade
can change the moisture and seriously affect the service life of the road
(Dawson, 2008). The occurrence of urban waterlogging issues is docu-
mented for both flexible and rigid road infrastructures (Asaeda and Ca,
2000). In order to overcome the shortcomings of dense pavements and
reduce the associated environmental impacts, scholars have conducted
in-depth research on permeable structures.
The application and research of permeable pavements began more
than 50 years ago (Bateni et al., 2021). The literature analysis displayed
in Fig. 1 originates from the body of knowledge produced during the last
ten years and indexed by Web of Science (WOS) core library. Present
studies in pavement drainage are mainly concentrated in the countries
characterized by densely populated areas such as the United States,
China, the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan, and Australia. In the past
decades, the universities from US and China leads the in-depth research
in pavement drainage (Fig. 1(a)). In Fig. 1(a), the red line means the
period during which the institution had the strongest citation. Fig. 1(b)
displays the research efforts related to pavements drainage can be
roughly divided into 11 directions, with stormwater management, urban
flooding, water reuse, highway crossing probability and asphalt mixture
design being the most relevant topics. Scholars and engineers seek to
solve the problems of road area water and urban waterlogging consid-
ering the normal service performance of pavement. At present, re-
searches on pavement drainage mostly focuses on permeable asphalt
pavement.
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 1. Literature analysis in drainage of pavements. (a) Bursts analysis results of permeable pavement research institutions. (b) Cluster results of keywords in
permeable pavement research.
2.2. Noise and reduction
A large number of urban and highway infrastructures built in prox-
imity of densely populated areas have led to serious noise problems. The
acoustic mechanism of road noise generation is related to the aero-
dynamic pumping effect of air tire vibration (Kim et al., 2014). Traffic
noise has also become one of the crucial sources of acoustic pollution,
thus engendering detrimental effects for the health of human beings
(Ouis, 2001; Pirrera et al., 2010).
Starting from Europe and the United States, many scholars have
carried out extensive field research to reduce or prevent the issue. It is
believed that traffic noise is mainly composed of vehicle noise and wheel-
road system noise (Liu et al., 2018) which is mainly produced by the
pumping effect of air-tire vibration and aerodynamic vibration (Kim
et al., 2014). Traffic noise is primarily influenced by vehicle types, road
types, and vehicle speed, as well as associated wheel-road system and
traffic conditions (Jiang et al., 2018). To effectively resolve this problem,
Open Graded Friction Course (OGFC) pavements display significative
noise reduction potential compared with traditional dense graded
asphalt pavement (Kim et al., 2014) as they enhance the absorption of
acoustic waves (Jiang et al., 2018).
The literature analysis depicted in Fig. 2 was carried out for the
literature published during the last 10 years as available in WOS core
library. As recommended in Fig. 2(a), universities and scholars from
Europe and China performing research on this topic more than other
countries in the past decade. Presently, both asphalt concrete and cement
concrete pavements have been developed to exhibit reduction in gener-
ation of acoustic waves (Cackler et al., 2006; Tian et al., 2014). Generally,
these kinds of road surfaces can be classified according to large gap
sound-absorbing and high damping families. Fig. 2(b) depicts the
keyword clustering based on the literature written during last 10 years by
CiteSpace. The primary research contents in the field of noise-reducing
can be basically divided into 10 directions, including green space, elec-
tric trackers, crumb rubber, and anthropologic noise among the others.
The early research on road noise prevention and control mainly focused
on passive noise reduction, such as sound insulation walls, green belts,
and other physical means. In the new millennium, researchers began to
focus on modify the pavement structure according to feasible procedures
implementable by the industry.
2.3. Lighting in the dark
Road lighting facilities in the dark are necessary to ensure safe travels
when the intensity of sunlight is insufficient. However, they consume not
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
only considerable energy amounts of, but may also lead to light pollution,
which in some cases, can lead to visual fatigue of divers. Statistics indi-
cate that the power consumption of road lighting accounts for approxi-
mately 20%–30% of the total power consumption of national lighting,
and approximately 40% of the electric energy is wasted due to the
intermittent nature of vehicle traffic (Kostic and Djokic, 2009). Tradi-
tional road lighting facilities also have the disadvantages of uneven
illumination and glare, called visual fatigue of drivers. Roads with a
self-luminous function in the dark can improve the comfort of night
driving, and save substantial amounts of power resources, thus effec-
tively overcome the deficiencies of traditional illumination system in the
dark (Jiang et al., 2019a).
Self-luminous pavements can be provided with built-in light-emitting
devices or directly installed with light-emitting materials on the pave-
ment which makes the pavement luminous thanks to their long afterglow
and leads to the partial or total dismantlement of the original illumina-
tion facilities (Sha et al., 2020). Self-luminous pavement can be classified
according to the technology employed to produce luminescence. They
mainly correspond to photoluminescence, thermoluminescence, elec-
troluminescence, and radiation luminescence, etc. (Li et al., 2014).
Among them, the long afterglow of photoluminescence materials is
widely used because of their excellent properties.
The research on luminous pavements is particularly concentrated in
the countries of the northern hemisphere with large demand for highway
lighting, such as China, the United States, France, Poland, and Finland
and so on. In terms of research institutions as highlighted in Fig. 3(a),
Alto University in Finland, Warsaw University of Science and Technology
in Poland, Chang’ an University and Donghua University in China are
representative institutions. The research on and the application of lu-
minous pavement is still in its early stage, and the work of many scholars
focuses on fundamental fields, such as nanoparticles, saving electrical
energy and light-emitting diode (LED) lighting (Fig. 3(b)).
2.4. Exhaust gas and treatment
With the continuous development in economy and society, the
number of cars in the world has already exceeded 1 billion, thus intro-
ducing a considerable quantity of environmental pollution (Colvile et al.,
2001). Automobile exhaust contains substantial amounts of harmful
substances, such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides,
and suspended solid particles (Folli et al., 2015). These harmful sub-
stances seriously threaten human health, the incidence of respiratory
diseases, such as pneumonia and lung cancer. Moreover, they aggravate
the greenhouse effect, deteriorating the earth's climate and environment
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 2. Literature analysis in the noise reduction on pavements. (a) Institution analysis. (b) Keyword clustering.
Fig. 3. Literature analysis in lighting in the dark. (a) Institution analysis. (b) Keyword analysis results.
(Han and Naeher, 2006). Given the very short distance between a vehi-
cle's exhaust pipe and the road (approximately 30 cm), the exhaust gases
can decompose on the pavement surface (Jiang et al., 2018).
Specific photocatalytic treatments can be accomplished by means of
purification materials added on the top of the road or blended in the
asphalt mixture. These technologies enable the decomposition of auto-
mobile exhaust into substances that are less harmful to humans, i.e.,
water, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Compared with other methods, the
creation of photocatalytic road surfaces is relatively simple and can
ensure high purification efficiency (Chen and Poon, 2009; Zieli
nska and
Morawski, 2005).
As illustrated in Fig. 4, the research on exhaust gas treatment of
pavements is mainly concentrated in the United States, China, Spain,
Italy, Germany, and other countries with large car ownership. In insti-
tution analysis Fig. 4(a), University of Illinois and MIT from USA, Chinese
Academy of Sciences and Chang'an University from China are leading
institutions in the field of exhaust gas treatment. Currently, the research
on exhaust gas treatment, as shown in Fig. 4(c), mainly pivots on the life
cycle assessment, anaerobic oxidation, rheological properties, supple-
mentary materials, and density functional theory, etc. Considering the
keyword citation analysis in last decade, a distinct change in research
focus is observed: initially, investigation dealt with air pollution and
degradation, while in recent years, the design of pavement materials and
structures and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the treatment have
become the primary objective.
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Although the development and application of photocatalytic pave-
ments have achieved promising results, many issues still remain un-
solved. For example, the price of metal catalysts is high, seriously
hindering the wide application of the technology (Albrecht et al., 2014).
Furthermore, the contact between the automobile exhaust and the pu-
rification catalysts has a very short temporal duration, resulting in un-
satisfactory decomposition effects (Nevshupa et al., 2020; Wang et al.,
2016a, b).
2.5. Heat island effect and thermal cooling
Asphalt materials are widely used in both urban roads and highways
all over the world because of good strength and stability, structural
continuity (no joints), high driving comfort and relatively fast con-
struction process. Statistics show that the extension of asphalt pavements
accounts for approximately 80% of the total global mileage. The pro-
portion of asphalt roads in developed countries, such the United States
and the ones in Europe, is higher than 90% (Plati, 2019; Tarefder and
Bateman, 2012). Nevertheless, the solar radiation absorption efficiency is
more than 90% for traditional asphalt mixtures because of its dark black
color (Zheng et al., 2015); consequently, a high surface temperature
severely affects the service performance, leading to rutting, wrapping,
aging and peeling. Concurrently, the rise in asphalt pavement tempera-
ture also contributes to the urban heat island and increases the energy
consumption for city cooling (Carnielo and Zinzi, 2013; Qin, 2015a).
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 4. Literature analysis in exhaust gas treatment on pavements. (a) Institution analysis. (b) Bursts of institution. (c) Keyword clustering. (d) Keyword bursts.
To effectively address the above problems, the thermal cooling of
pavements gained considerable interest and has been widely studied as
highlighted in Fig. 5. The United States, China, Europe with particularly
extended road networks implemented extensive researches and appli-
cations in the field of pavement cooling (Fig. 5(a)). Based on the clus-
tering of keywords in Fig. 5 (b) and (c), the current research of pavement
cooling mainly focus on tackling the urban heat island by investigating
phase change materials, active layer and vesicle-rich progression struc-
tures, etc. Pavement cooling technologies reduce the absorption of solar
radiation energy and increase reflectivity using phase change materials
and applying reflective coatings to the pavement. Another technique to
control the pavement temperature is to build a porous pavement struc-
ture to reduce the heat storage and increase the heat dissipation.
2.6. Snow/ice and removal
As the main artery involved in advancement of the national economy,
the efficient operation of a transportation network is a critical factor for
the societal and economic developments. Snow and ice on roads during
winter negatively affect the normal service condition, thus increasing the
incidence of traffic accidents and undermines drivers’ safety (Binger,
2012; Carnielo and Zinzi, 2013).
The research on pavement's snow and ice removal is mainly con-
ducted in northern hemisphere countries where transportation networks
are most exposed to cold weather. These nations include China, the
United States, Canada, Norway, and Germany. In general, the researches
on snow and ice removal from pavement snow-melting and ice-melting in
China, Europe, and the US are advanced compared with other countries.
As detailed in Fig. 6, institutions in China in the forefront of the snow
and ice removal research are Chang'an University, Harbin Institute of
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Technology, Jilin University. Meanwhile, Iowa State University, Uni-
versity of Waterloo, and Purdue University from the North America, and
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, RWTH Aachen Uni-
versity located in Europe published more papers indexed in WOS in the
past decade.
At present, the most used technologies for road snow removal can be
broadly divided into two categories: active and passive, the latter one
corresponds to the traditional technique of employing snowplows and
brine salts (Burtwell, 2001; Nassiri et al., 2015; Sparacino et al., 2021).
However, their inadequacies in terms of efficiency, safety, implementa-
tion cost, and impact on public transportation remain evident. Moreover,
the salt caused irreversible damages to pavement structures compro-
mising its function and its service life (Chen et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2018)
and water quality are also be highly investigated (Fig. 6(b) and (c)).
Many scholars have conducted considerable research in the field of active
snow melting. However, active snow-melting technology also has certain
deficiencies, such as low rate efficiency and it is not suitable for multiple
application. The bibliometric analysis shows that the research initially
focused on salt-induced snow melting. However, the extensive use of
such brine salts not only pollutes soil and groundwater but also affects
the growth environment of animals and plants (Li et al., 2013a; Sanzo
and Hecnar, 2006). Subsequently, the focus of the research shifted to-
wards other environmental friendly technologies.
3. Advances of eco-friendly pavement technology
3.1. Technology system of eco-friendly pavements
The design of a traditional road pavement mainly considers the as-
pects of comfort, safety, and durability. Together with the general
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 5. Literature analysis in pavement thermal cooling. (a) Institution analysis. (b) Keyword clustering. (c) Keyword bursts.
societal developments, modern road engineering should also address
relevant environmental challenges such as improve water permeability,
noise reduction, low heat absorption as well as curtailing automobile
exhaust pollution (Sha and Jiang, 2018). Road infrastructures addressing
sustainability and integrating environmentally-friendly concepts (Fig. 7)
are known as eco-friendly pavements technologies. Compared with the
traditional pavement, the eco-friendly pavement that provides environ-
mental protection mainly achieves this through special treatment based
on the road material modification and structural improvement.
Dense graded asphalt concrete is generally used for traditional
pavement surfaces, causing problems such as poor pavement drainage
and noise pollution due to its structural characteristics (Afonso et al.,
2017). Hence, modifying the materials and structure of asphalt concrete
by increasing its porosity can significantly improve the water perme-
ability and noise reduction capacity (Jiang et al., 2015), as well as
enhance the road driving safety (Elvik and Greibe, 2005; Pratt et al.,
1995). To curtail the amount of exhaust gas generated by traffic, reduce
the detrimental effects of urban heat island as well as improve the
drivers’ safety by night, the latest technological developments have made
possible the construction of road infrastructures characterized by
different key characteristics: permeable, self-luminescent, exhaust
decomposing, low heat absorbing, and anti-icing/de-icing.
3.2. Permeable asphalt pavement
Different from ordinary dense asphalt pavement, permeable
asphalt pavement has a special skeleton-void structure formed by
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
highly connected internal pores and a large quantity of coarse aggre-
gates due to a special open-graded mixture design. These features
introduce many practical benefits in terms of safety, comfort, and
environment.
3.2.1. Technical principle
The main control considerations in the drainage design of ordinary
urban pavement are “rapid drainage” and “end concentration”. Rain-
water usually flows over a long distance to merge in the urban under-
ground drainage system through the road cross-slope or open ditches.
However, in areas with heavy rainfall or adverse weather conditions, the
rainwater on the ordinary pavement formed a large volume of surface
runoff before entering the underground drainage system. It is easy to
cause problems such as urban waterlogging, water spray, water splash,
hydroplaning and visibility reduction during driving, which can seriously
affect driving safety.
Note that the highly connected voids in the permeable pavement
provide an effective way for the surface rainwater infiltration, which can
effectively avoid the formation of continuous water films on the pave-
ment surface. Accordingly, many potential safety hazards, including but
not limited to reducing water spray and splashing, controlling surface
runoff, improving skid resistance and reducing accident rates under
adverse weather conditions.
3.2.2. Materials and structures
Highly connected voids and open-graded skeleton structures provide
many special functions to permeable asphalt pavement. As a result, there
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 6. Literature analysis in snow and ice removal on pavements. (a) Institution analysis. (b) Keyword bursts. (c) Keyword clustering.

Fig. 7. The technology system of eco-friendly pavements.

is a higher requirement to binder material and structure in permeable
pavements.
(1) Asphalt binder properties
The properties of asphalt binder (including asphalt, modifier and
additive) are the key factors affecting the performance of asphalt
mixture. Firstly, the binder must have distinct temperature dependence
because temperature has an important influence on its viscoelasticity. A
study found that the penetration of asphalt binder in permeable pave-
ment decreases by approximately 20% annually. When the penetration
grade is less than 15–20, brittle fracture can occur. Once an aggregate
peels off, adjacent aggregates will certainly peel off due to the loss of
support, similar to the “domino effect”. Besides, over the long-term

7
A. Sha et al.
exposure to sunlight, air and humidity, permeable asphalt mixture is
prone to aging and cohesion degradation due to its open-graded structure
under the repeated load of heavy traffic and hydrodynamic pressure
(Harun, 1996; Hernandez-Saenz et al., 2016; Rand, 2004; Sha, 2012;
Usepa, 1999). Moreover, the asphalt film wrapped on the aggregate
surface is easy to peel and fall off, resulting in adhesion failure (Ji et al.,
2020).
In recent years, many countries have studied asphalt binders to
resolve the problems encountered in the use of permeable asphalt
mixture. In Denmark, Switzerland, France and Belgium, low temperature
rarely occurs due to the relatively mild local climate. Asphalt with a
penetration grade of 50–70 is typically used to attain better high-
temperature stability. However, in winter, particularly in cold areas,
brittle cracking and durability problems caused by low temperature are
often very serious. Accordingly, asphalt with a high penetration grade of
80–100 is usually recommended to achieve better flexibility and tough-
ness under low temperature conditions. In addition, most states in the US
use Performance Grade (PG) performance classification to classify
asphalt grades, which is usually recommended to be two grades higher
level than the hardness used under local climatic conditions (Xiao, 2013).
In most countries, polymer modifiers are widely used in permeable
asphalt mixtures (Hassan et al., 2005; King et al., 2013; Padmos, 2002;
Patrick and Cook, 2003), in order to increase the binder content and
asphalt film thickness, improving the cohesion and adhesion of perme-
able asphalt mixtures (Hassan et al., 2005; Lesueur, 2010; Mansour and
Putman, 2013; Sha and Jiang, 2018). Moreover, the modifier helps to
reduce the temperature sensitivity of the PA (porous asphalt) mixture,
providing the permeable asphalt mixture higher viscosity at high tem-
perature and better flexibility at low temperature (Hassan et al., 2005).
Note that the different types of modifiers provide varied asphalt binder
performance improvement levels due to their different physical and
chemical properties. Three types of modifiers are mainly used in the
permeable asphalt mixture.
1) SBS modifier replaces ethylene vinyl acetate with better compre-
hensive properties and has been widely used in most European
countries (Singh et al., 2020). To a certain extent, SBS modifier can
improve the high-temperature and low-temperature performances of
matrix asphalt at the same time as well as improve the comprehensive
performance of permeable asphalt mixture. It is suitable for areas that
experience both high-and low-temperature levels in a year (Yang
et al., 2022).
2) Rubber modifiers are often used in relatively cold areas such as the
United States, Europe and South Africa (Ansari et al., 2021; Lyu,
1997). Studies found that when an appropriate amount of rubber
powder is mixed into hot asphalt, the volume of the hot asphalt can
expand to 3–5 times after absorbing the molten components (Bennert
et al., 2005; Wang and Wang, 2011). The swelling process has many
positive effects on the viscosity (Khalid and Walsh, 1996), softening
point (Huber et al., 1998), loss modulus and storage modulus of the
asphalt binder (Hassan et al., 2005; Lime, 2010). Experience shows
that rubber-modified asphalt can improve the rutting resistance,
resilient modulus and fatigue-cracking resistance of permeable
asphalt mixture (Pasetto, 2000; Singh and Girimath, 2018).
3) A new high-viscosity modifier TPS developed in Japan is mainly
composed of thermoplastic elastomer, tackifying resin and plasticiser.
It contains more rubber or thermoplastic polymer than ordinary
modifiers and has better performance than the SBS modified asphalt.
Moreover, Japan has set a series of high requirements for the per-
formance of high-viscosity modified asphalt prepared with the TPS
modifier. These requisites are mainly related to the penetration,
softening point, ductility, viscosity toughness, toughness and dy-
namic viscosity of asphalt. Among them, the most significant
requirement is that the dynamic viscosity at 60  C mustn't be less than
20,000 Pa⋅s, and the viscosity for heavy traffic sections with large
traffic volume recommended must not less than 200,000 Pa⋅s.
8
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Currently, TPS is the mainstream modifier used in permeable asphalt
mixture in Japan, which has also attracted extensive attention in
China (Nakanishi et al., 2018; Qin, 2004).
Effects of three mainstream modifiers on porous asphalt pavement
properties are shown in Fig. 8. Compared with these three types of
modifiers, other modifiers such as styrene butadiene rubber, EVA and
epoxy resin have a certain deficiency in improving the performance and
applicability of matrix asphalt (Chegenizadeh et al., 2021; He et al.,
2021; Shi et al., 2022). Moreover, and the utilization rate of these
modifiers has significantly decreased in recent years.
(2) Aggregate gradation
A remarkable feature of the main skeleton is formed by multi-point
contact among coarse aggregates (Jiang et al., 2018), as shown in
Fig. 9. The proportion of coarse aggregates in permeable asphalt mixture
is 85% or more (Nakanishi et al., 2018). The contact area among ag-
gregates is reduced by approximately 25% (Moore et al., 2001) indi-
cating that the contact points of coarse aggregates are subjected to higher
stress. Studies have shown that the properties, shape, particle size and
gradation of aggregates have an important impact on the properties of PA
mixtures (Ibrahim et al., 2014). In general, coarse aggregates must have
sufficient wear resistance, and the flat-elongated proportion must be
strictly limited. Both the US and UK adopt double standards (slenderness
ratios of 5:1 less than 15% and 3:1 less than 5%) to better control the
coarse aggregates shape (Nah and Kim, 1997; Peralta et al., 2010; Vonk
and Bull, 1989). Japan and Germany require that the flat-elongated
particles content must not to exceed 10%, the controlling slenderness
ratios are 5:1 and 3:1, respectively (Bonnet, 1997; McQuillen et al., 1988;
Nah and Kim, 1997; Peralta et al., 2010; Vonk and Bull, 1989). At pre-
sent, the control standard adopted in China refers to the ordinary asphalt
pavement. The main coarse aggregates commonly used in permeable
asphalt mixture are basalt, granite, diabase and limestone. Basalt is one of
the best choices for permeable asphalt mixture under the condition of
material source and economic permission.
In addition, the permeable asphalt mixture adopts open gradation
design, and its gradation composition is different from that of ordinary
asphalt mixture (Cooley et al., 2009; Ren et al., 2021). Based on the
investigation of the gradation composition of permeable asphalt mixture
in different countries and institutions, the following are observed. 1) The
design of air void ranges from 18% to 24%, and most countries tend to set
the initial air void at approximately 20%. 2) The maximum particle size
of aggregate is approximately 19 mm, it is slightly exceeded in some
countries. For the coarse aggregate composition, the mainstream expe-
rience is to adopt continuous gradation design. Some countries or regions
implement intermittent treatment at 4.75 or 9.5 mm sieve size. 3) For the
fine aggregate composition, virtually all countries adopt discontinuous
gradation design. The gradation generally excluded fine aggregate
components that are 0.15–0.60 or 0.15–1.18 mm in size. Although
continuous gradation is adopted in Japan, there are strict corresponding
requirements for pass rates through sieves of 0.075, 0.15, 0.3, and 0.6
mm. 4) Significant differences are observed in filler contents in different
design gradation. For example, Italy may not even use fillers (where the
pass rate through the 0.075 mm sieve is 0), whereas South Africa allows
up to 8% of fillers to pass through the 0.075 mm sieve.
(3) Pavement structure
According to different functional requirements, permeable pavement
has been assigned different names and structures in different countries
and institutions. However, they all have similar permeable surface layers,
sometimes include a permeable base and even a permeable subgrade.
According to the permeable characteristics and applicable conditions
(Jiang, 2011), the permeable pavement can be classified into three types,
as shown in Fig. 10.
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 8. Effects of three mainstream modifiers on porous asphalt pavement properties and economics (Zhang et al., 2020b).

around the road area, and provide a satisfactory living environment.

To prevent the decline of permeability after severe rainstorm and air
voids clogging, longitudinal drainage pipes can be laid on the upper
surface of the pavement or on the side edge of the base layer to reduce
the risk of rainwater overflowing onto the sidewalk (Jiang, 2011).

3.2.3. Rating of merit

Permeable asphalt pavement is directly exposed to the atmosphere
and undergoes the long-term effect of traffic load and external environ-
ment at the same time. The lack of stability and durability is a complex
and common problem, which has a significant impact on pavement
performance and function.

Fig. 9. Point contact between aggregates in permeable asphalt concrete (Jiang
et al., 2018).
1) Type I: the surface water is discharged from the permeable surface
layer and drained to the adjacent drainage facilities. The main func-
tions of this type of pavement are to eliminate stagnant water, reduce
noise, improve skid resistance and improve driving safety. There are
two main ways to the design drainage system: laying fillers and lon-
gitudinal drainage pipes on both sides of the pavement or setting
permeable filler catchment ditches along the edge of the pavement on
both sides of the middle and lower surface layers and base.
2) Type II: the surface water is discharged from the base (or cushion) and
drained to the adjacent drainage facilities. In addition to the functions
of type I, it also has the functions of storing water, reducing surface
runoff and alleviating the burden of urban drainage system during
rainstorm. Rainfall flows into the water pipe network through the
longitudinal and horizontal drainage pipes laid on the edge of the
pavement. The horizontal drainage pipe is mainly connected to the
urban water pipe network, which can be arranged according to the
actual needs. Permeable fillers can also be reserved on both sides of
the catchment ditch when laying the permeable base and surface
layer. The longitudinal slope of the drainage pipe should be the same
as the route.
3) Type III: the surface water directly enters the subgrade from the
pavement surface. In addition to the functions of Type I and Type II,
the other important features are to supplement urban groundwater
resources, improve the water balance and ecological conditions
(1) High-temperature stability reflects the ability of permeable
asphalt mixture to resist permanent deformation under traffic load
at high temperature, which affects the strength and plastic
deformation of the mixture. The high-temperature stability of
permeable asphalt mixture is mainly affected by porosity, high-
viscosity modifier contents and gradation, as shown in Fig. 11.
With the increase of high-viscosity modifier contents, the soft-
ening point of asphalt and the rutting dynamic stability of mixture
increase. By increasing modifier contents can obvious improve the
high-temperature stability of mixture, but the cost is high. Under
the same modifier contents, reducing the air voids of the mixture
can also significantly improve the dynamic stability. The grada-
tion also has a significant effect on the high-temperature perfor-
mance. As the coarseness of coarse aggregate decreases, the
dynamic stability of mixture also decreases (Jiang, 2011; Zhang,
2021).
(2) Low-temperature cracking is one of the main diseases of perme-
able asphalt pavement, although the initial stage of cracks does
not usually affect the integrity and continuity of pavement struc-
ture. The decrease in temperature can cause the volume shrinkage
of the permeable asphalt mixture. However, because the end and
bottom are restrained and cannot freely deform, temperature
stress is generated inside the mixture. Generally, the temperature
stress is extremely small when the ambient temperature exceeds 5

C. From 5  C to 20  C, the temperature stress continues to
accumulate as the temperature decreases, but it gradually relaxes
over time. This can be attributed to the viscoelasticity of asphalt

9
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 10. Structure and drainage system design of permeable asphalt pavement. (a) Structure of Type I permeable asphalt pavements. (b) Structure of Type II permeable
asphalt pavements. (c) Structure of Type III permeable asphalt pavements. (d) Drainage system of type I permeable asphalt pavements. (e) Drainage system of type II
permeable asphalt pavements. (f) Drainage system of type III permeable asphalt pavements (Jiang, 2011).

binders and mixtures. When the temperature is lower than 20

C, the thermal stress ceases to relax and the asphalt mixture
further hardens until cracks occur and then break (Zhang, 2021).
(3) Aging is one of the important factors affecting the cohesion,
adhesion and many properties of permeable asphalt binder. It is
closely related to the type of thermoplastic elastomer and the
number of unsaturated segments, the type and solubility of tack-
ifier, the compatibility of plasticiser and the properties of other
admixtures in high-viscosity modified asphalt. Among them, the
influence of thermoplastic elastomer is more significant. When
more unsaturated segments are present in the elastomer, the
asphalt binder is more prone to short-term and long-term aging.
(4) For permeable asphalt mixtures, water existing in the internal
voids of the mixture in the liquid, gas or solid phase can weaken
the adhesion between asphalt and aggregate. Aging and freeze-
thaw cycles can significant affect the water stability of perme-
able asphalt mixture. The reason is that, at the micro scale level,
aging transforms the light components with low polarity to
asphaltenes and resin with high polarity. Changes in microscopic
properties can lead to variations in macroscopic properties. With
water immersion, the permeable asphalt mixture has distinct
aging and hardening phenomena with the intensification of aging
and the superposition of the freeze and thaw cycles. The stability
of the mixture skeleton is gradually weakened until it becomes

10
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 11. Influencing factors of high-temperature stability. (a) Air voids. (b) Modifier content. (c) Coarse (Jiang, 2011).
unstable due to the decrease in the adhesion performance of the
asphalt binder (Zhang, 2021).
(5) Fatigue failure refers to the permeable asphalt pavement is
repeatedly subjected to traffic load that lower than its ultimate
strength until it is damaged. With the aggravation of aging, the
toughness of the permeable asphalt mixture decreases, the ability
to resist load decreases, the ductility is weakened and the fatigue
life is reduced. The use of satisfactory high-viscosity modified
asphalt and engineering fibre is beneficial to improve the low-
temperature stability of permeable asphalt mixture. Noted that
different fibres have different effects on bridging, toughening,
crack resistance and increases the amount of binder (Zhang, 2021;
Zhang et al., 2020b). Generally, polyacrylonitrile and basalt fibre
have better comprehensive performance, as shown in Fig. 12.
3.3. Noise reducing pavement
Urban public transportation has become increasingly busy with the
burgeoning scale of cities, the rapid increase of urban population, and the
continuous developments in urban construction. Consequently, the urban
road traffic noise problem has become increasingly severe. Further, the
increase in the number of cars has aggravated road traffic noise pollution.
Traffic noise severely disturbs the living environment, reduces the
quality of life, endangers human health, and even triggers mental ill-
nesses (Li et al., 2016a). Therefore, a “quiet road” is exigent for building
world-class cities and improving the satisfaction (Oishi and Schacht,
2011).
3.3.1. Technical principle
Traffic noise control is mainly divided into passive and active noise
reduction methods. Passive noise reduction method mainly uses sound
barriers and green belts to limit noise transmission; however, it is
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
expensive and occupies considerable space, fundamentally limiting its
effectiveness to solve the traffic noise problem (Choi et al., 2004). Active
noise reduction method mainly uses low-noise road surfaces to attenuate
noise at the sound source. The main noise source of road traffic coming
from the tire noise (Fig. 13), and the tire noise generation mechanisms
are extremely complicated (Fig. 14). Noise-reducing roads can decrease
the noise of tires and roads by weakening the noise source of tires and
modifying the mode of noise transmission.
In the first process of the air pumping effect between the tire and road
(Fig. 15), the compressed air in the tire cavity is not released into the
atmosphere; it is compressed against the road through the open pores and
is quickly diffused. In terms of energy, these compressed high-speed
airflows lose part of their kinetic energy. A part of this energy is lost
due to friction between the air and pore wall as the air passes through the
pore. Due to viscosity and heat conduction effects, sound energy is con-
verted into heat energy and consumed. The other part is consumed when
the air passes through the capillary pores in the pavement material after
adiabatic compression and is released at the end of the pores, thus
reducing the intensity of the sound source.
Sound waves are emitted by the sound source and enter the noise-
reducing road surface (Fig. 16). Because numerous pores exist in the
noise-reducing road surface, the phase difference between sound waves
incident on the road surface and reflected sound wave is considerable.
The large pore structures reduce the flow resistance of the noise-reducing
pavement smaller than that of ordinary pavement. As a result, the sound
waves incident on the road surface are more likely to be transmitted to
the pavement structure, forming a second reflection. This second wave is
reflected and transmitted again when it reaches the road surface. The
phases between the direct sound from the sound source to the receiving
point and the reflected sound arriving at the receiving point after mul-
tiple reflections are opposite. The actual sound wave may be the sound
wave formed by the superposition of the incident and reflected waves.
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 12. Effects of different fibers. (a) Matrix asphalt. (b) SBS modified asphalt mixture (Zhang et al., 2020b).

The two sound waves have a strong interference, thus reducing the in- noise-reducing pavement extends the propagation path of sound waves
tensity of the sound source reaching the sound receiving point. In this inside the pavement through the internal pores, thereby absorbing sound
propagation process, the sound waves are continuously reflected and energy. The schematic of the sound propagation path of the noise-
transmitted, and sound energy is continuously consumed. Therefore, the reducing road surface and ordinary road surface is shown in Fig. 16.

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A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

3.3.2.1. Asphalt pavements. As a surface layer, porous asphalt pavement

is exposed to the natural environment and traffic (Jiang et al., 2020). It is
affected by sunshine, water, temperature change, driving load, and other
factors throughout the year. Moreover, because its porosity exceeds 20%
(Fig. 17) (Gao et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2021a, b), the contact area be-
tween the pavement structure and the natural environment is consider-
ably increased. Water forms a flow network in the gap, and the effect of
ultraviolet radiation is more intense. The previous exacerbates the aging
phenomenon. Based on the requirements of low noise asphalt mixture
durability, such as wrapping force, high adhesion force, and a certain
asphalt film thickness to resist aging and water damage, asphalt binder
can be used in the three following asphalt types.

Fig. 13. Tire noise become the main noise sources of traffic noise (Ling
et al., 2021).
3.3.2. Materials and structures
According to different materials and structures, the noise-reducing
pavement is divided into porous asphalt pavement and porous cement
concrete pavement.
(1) Asphalt with high adhesion has high toughness and high tensile
strength, and the asphalt mixture has strong stability (in terms of
wrapping and adhesion) to resist the dispersion of the aggregates.
(2) High-viscosity asphalt has strong aging resistance and a suffi-
ciently thick asphalt film to enhance the mixture durability.
(3) The use of asphalt with a high softening point and high 60  C
viscosity index is suggested. The asphalt has flow resistance;
hence, the asphalt mixture must have high plastic deformation
resistance to heavy traffic roads.
The difference between low-noise porous asphalt mixture and ordi-
nary asphalt mixture design is based on considering the special function

Fig. 14. Modeling of tire noise generation mechanisms (Mohammadi and Ohadi, 2021).

Fig. 15. Schematic of the pumping effect of tires and roads.

13
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 16. Sound transmission paths between noise reduction roads and ordinary roads. (a) Open graded friction course. (b) Traditional dense pavement (Zhang
et al., 2019).
Fig. 17. CT slices of the sound absorption porous asphalt mixture. (a) CT
scanned image of the specimen. (b) The image obtained by threshold segmen-
tation (Gao et al., 2020).
of noise reduction on the premise that durability is ensured. A reasonable
void ratio must be selected. The sound absorption coefficient does not
always increase with the air void (Fig. 18). At the same time, the
maximum nominal particle size and the best asphalt dosage must be
selected by considering the requirements of mixture durability. In the
design process, balancing the requirements of durability and noise
reduction function is necessary. Finally, a low-noise porous asphalt
mixture with excellent durability and a distinct noise reduction effect can
be designed.
3.3.2.2. Cement concrete pavements. Low-noise porous cement concrete
can be regarded as a type of porous material with a rigid skeleton with
many connected pores (Faisal et al., 2020; Park et al., 2021). It must have
a specific mechanical strength to satisfy road performance. Moreover, it
must have a certain noise reduction capacity, water permeability, and air
Fig. 18. Sound absorption coefficient of the asphalt mixture with different air void (Zhang et al., 2019).
14
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
permeability, reducing the adverse impact of the traditional dense road
on the environment.
The main constituent materials of porous concrete are virtually the same
as those of ordinary cement concrete. During the design and preparation of
ordinary cement concrete, the objective is to reduce porosity and densify the
material to the extent possible to achieve high strength and durability;
porous cement concrete must satisfy the fundamental road performance
while ensuring that pores are connected to a certain degree. International
studies show that the reasonable range of aggregate gradation is as follows.
The reasonable aggregate content of particles whose size exceeds 10 mm is
0–10%. The reasonable aggregate content when the particle size is 5–10
mm is 40%–95%. When the particle size is 2.5–5 mm, the aggregate content
is 3%–10%. By considering the uniformity and mechanical properties of
internal pores of porous cement concrete, the best comprehensive perfor-
mance is attained when the gradation is 5–10 mm. The water-cement ratio
is 0.25–0.35. The water-reducing agent can prolong the service life of the
mixture and adjust the appropriate displacement. An air-entraining agent
can improve the freeze-thaw resistance. In addition, polymers are also used
to enhance the strength of porous concrete. Tests shows that when the ratio
of solid matter in polymer to concrete cementitious material reaches 10%,
the tensile strength and water reduction effect of porous concrete attain the
best combination.
The structure of porous cement concrete extremely differs from that
of ordinary concrete, and the traditional cement concrete mix design
method cannot be applied (Fig. 19) (Zhang et al., 2020a). There are
relatively many studies on the design of porous cement concrete mix in
Europe, America, and Japan. The basic idea of the design method of the
cement concrete mix ratio is described as follows. For closely packed
cement concrete, the aggregates are evenly wrapped and bonded by the
cement paste; some of the internal voids are occupied by the paste. A
porous accumulated structure is formed, and the remaining voids form
the pores in the concrete after hardening.
A. Sha et al.
3.3.3. Rating of merit
3.3.3.1. Asphalt pavements. Due to the difference in composition and
structure between porous asphalt mixture and dense-graded asphalt
mixture, they differ in high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack
resistance, water stability, other pavement performance, and noise
reduction and drainage functions.
(1) High-temperature stability
The grading type of porous asphalt mixture is open gradation. The
strength and stability of the asphalt mixture depend on the interlocking
effect of the stone-to-stone contact among particles. The contact area is
considerably smaller than that of common asphalt mixtures. Therefore,
higher requirements for the high-temperature stability of porous asphalt
mixtures are necessary. The high-temperature stability of the asphalt
mixture emanates from the high-temperature adhesion of the asphalt
binder and the impact of aggregate gradation. At high temperatures, even
with the use of modified high-viscosity asphalt binder, the asphalt cannot
withstand the horizontal load exerted by a vehicle; accordingly, the
aggregate gradation composed of coarse and fine aggregates and mineral
powders performs an important function. The general presumption is
that dense-graded asphalt mixture enables the aggregate particles to have
more contact points; this is more stable than the open-graded asphalt
mixture. The high-temperature stability of different types of porous
asphalt mixtures was evaluated through the Marshall test, creep test, and
rutting test. The use of high-viscosity modified asphalt with satisfactory
performance and excellent gradation design with a superior skeleton is
beneficial for improving the high-temperature stability of porous asphalt
mixture.
(2) Low-temperature crack resistance
The low-temperature anti-cracking performance of asphalt pavement
mainly depends on the low-temperature tensile deformation perfor-
mance of the asphalt binder. The general presumption is that the
contribution rate of the asphalt binder to the low-temperature tensile
deformation of the mixture accounts for approximately 90%, and the
maximum contribution rate of mineral grading is only 10%. The porous
asphalt mixture has a large void ratio, more asphalt content and asphalt
mortar, and satisfactory low-temperature crack resistance. The creep rate
of the low-temperature creep test is used to evaluate the low-temperature
anti-cracking performance of the porous asphalt mixture. It shows that as
the void fraction of porous asphalt mixture increases, the content of
asphalt decreases, and the creep rate increases.
(3) Water stability
Porous asphalt mixture has a large void fraction and a large contact
surface between water and asphalt mixture, which is more prone to water
Fig. 19. Sound absorption porous cement concrete. (a) Cylindrical specimens for sound absorption test. (b) Cuboid specimen for water permeability test (Faisal et al.,
2020; Zhang et al., 2020a).
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
damage than ordinary dense-graded asphalt mixture. Generally, alkaline
mineral aggregates with satisfactory adhesion to asphalt are used.
Alkaline activators, such as hydrated lime or anti-stripping agents, are
added to improve the adhesion between asphalt and mineral materials.
The water stability of the low-noise porous asphalt mixture was evalu-
ated by the Marshall immersion test and freeze-thaw splitting test. The
test results show that with the increase in porosity, the splitting strength
and freeze-thaw splitting strength decrease; the freeze-thaw splitting
residual strength is lower than the TSR. This is because as the void
fraction increases, the amount of asphalt and fine aggregates simulta-
neously decrease. The amount of asphalt mortar decreases correspond-
ingly, and water entering the void increases, which can inevitably
damage the adhesion among the internal particles of the mixture during
the freeze-thaw process and reduce the tensile strength. Nevertheless, the
absolute value of the TSR of porous asphalt mixture is relatively large and
has specific water stability.
(4) Noise reduction and drainage function
Compared with ordinary asphalt pavement and stone matrix asphalt
pavement with certain noise reduction effects, the absolute noise value of
low-noise porous asphalt pavement at different driving speeds is gener-
ally the lowest even when considerable background noise is present
(Fig. 20) (Ling et al., 2021). Researchers have developed some tire noise
collecting systems to evaluate the noise attenuation coefficient (Fig. 21).
The noise reduction effect, which can reduce road traffic noise by 5–8 dB,
is evident.
The porous structure also enables the noise-reducing asphalt pave-
ment to have excellent drainage. During rainy days, the pavement first
absorbs rainwater and then horizontally transports it to roadside
drainage facilities to keep the pavement dry. Statistics indicate that on
rainy days, the noise-reducing asphalt pavement can increase the driving
recognition distance by two times, reduce the braking distance of 100 km
by 12 m, and reduce the accident rate by 48%.
3.3.3.2. Cement concrete pavements. Due to the well-developed pore
structure of porous cement concrete, its frost resistance, wear resistance,
noise reduction, and even water permeability will be significantly
different from ordinary cement concrete when used in pavement
engineering.
(1) Frost resistance
Under the action of freeze-thaw cycles, ordinary cement concrete can
be damaged as manifested by loosening, peeling, and exposure of ag-
gregates (Fig. 22) (Zhang et al., 2021a, b). As the number of freeze-thaw
cycles increases, internal cracks in the concrete gradually extend to the
surface and interconnect. This condition can affect the driving quality on
the pavement and severely reduce the strength of the pavement structure.
The interconnected pores in the porous cement concrete are extremely
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 20. Pore structure of porous asphalt pavements and sound absorption process (Ling et al., 2021).

Fig. 21. Noise collecting system (Dong et al., 2021).

larger than the capillary pores in the cement stone. The water in some
capillary pores is squeeze into these large pores during the freeze-thaw
expansion process; however, some of the water moving in the adjacent
capillary produce swelling pressure and osmotic pressure. After multiple
freeze-thaw cycles, the internal pressure exceeds the tensile strength of
the cement paste and cracks occur, affecting the overall strength of the
porous cement concrete. To evaluate the frost resistance of porous
cement concrete, the indoor quick-freezing method was employed. The
results show that when porosity changes from 15% to 20%, the porosity
has an insignificant effect on the frost resistance of porous cement con-
crete. The proper mixing of polypropylene fibre can significantly improve
the frost resistance of porous cement concrete.
(2) Wear resistance
Porous cement concrete has a rough surface structure, and its pro-
truding coarse aggregates initially bear the effect of abrasion. Because
porous cement concrete uses coarse aggregates with satisfactory wear

Fig. 22. Flexural strength test of porous cement concrete. (a) Specimen fixed before test. (b) Fracture specimen after test (Yi Zhang et al., 2021a, b).

16
A. Sha et al.
resistance, the wear rate is extremely low, and the coarse aggregates have
to withstand frequent impacts. Due to the small amount of cement and
the limited cementing ability of cement paste, the resistance of the sur-
face coarse aggregate against being washed out of the matrix determines
the overall wear resistance of the pavement. This indicates that the wear
resistance of porous cement concrete pavement is affected by the strength
of the embedded aggregate skeleton, the cementing force of the slurry,
and the wear resistance of the coarse aggregate itself. These are also the
main factors affecting the strength of the porous cement concrete. Hence,
in general, the greater the strength of porous cement concrete, the better
its wear resistance.
(3) Noise reduction and water permeability
The average sound absorption coefficient of porous cement concrete
pavement increases with the porosity. By considering the noise reduction
effect and road performance, the suitable porous cement concrete
porosity range is 18%–20%. The porous cement concrete with numerous
connected pores has satisfactory water permeability, which can fully
satisfy the water permeability requirements of drainage pavement.
3.4. Self-luminous pavement
Self-luminous pavement can greatly reduce the contrast of light be-
tween street lamps and pavement, extend the night sight distance of
pedestrians, improve the safety of night traffic, and reduce power con-
sumption pressure at night. It has the characteristics of energy conser-
vation and beautifying the environment. In addition to improving the
highway landscape at night, the luminous pavement can be used as a
warning sign in special sections, therefore, it has a good application
prospect.
3.4.1. Technical principle
Pavement self-illumination technology involves the use of a form of
light-emitting medium on the road surface to emit light under dark
conditions. Pavement self-illumination is mainly divided into two forms:
external energy supply lighting and road-independent lighting. The
external energy supply method lighting typically involves designing the
road pavement surface as a high-intensity lighting panel powered by an
external power or photovoltaic panel. This approach is similar to paving a
dense layer of high-intensity light source on the road that can be turned
on or off to provide road surface illumination adequate for driving.
However, the most common method for achieving a self-luminous road is
to apply a layer of luminous coating to the pavement or to use a road
Fig. 23. Luminous effect of the self-luminous pavement material (Wang et al., 2021a, b).
17
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
surface structure built with luminous material (Fig. 23) (Han et al.,
2017). As a result, energy can be conserved, and glare can be reduced.
Moreover, the other safety problems created by traditional roadway
lighting may be resolved by replacing a part or all of the external light
sources by built-in lighting systems or adding light-emitting materials
(Voravanicha et al., 2019; Wiese et al., 2015).
3.4.2. Materials and structures
The use of an energy supply to realise road lighting requires the
adoption of a new road structure and materials. A layer of high-strength
glass plate is laid on the road surface with a light source is installed inside
the glass plate. The light source is connected to an external power supply
or energy converter for powering internal road devices; accordingly, road
lighting is achieved.
The realisation of self-illumination mainly depends on the long
afterglow rare earth self-luminescence material, which is a type of pho-
toluminescent material for energy storage. Under the excitation of sun-
light or ultraviolet light, it can absorb energy and store it. When the
excitation stops, the collected energy is gradually transformed into
radiated light and released to produce luminescence. Luminous materials
can be classified into sulphide, chlorate, and silicate, and the self-
luminescence of rare earth materials is generally realized by electron
transition and transfer, the schematic diagram of electronic transition is
shown in Fig. 24. Because road materials are confronted with a complex
and variable environment, luminous characteristics, and temperature
and humidity resistance of different kinds of materials are integrated.
Typically, aluminate luminous materials are used as the luminous matrix
material of luminous pavement.
According to different construction processes, self-luminous pave-
ment can be divided into surface luminous layer coating type, luminous
pavement brick combined assembly type and luminous slurry pouring
type. According to the different luminous areas of pavement, self-
luminous pavement is mainly divided into local marking luminous
pavement and overall luminous pavement.
The luminous coating materials mainly classified as hot-melt coating,
normal temperature solvent coating, two-component coating, and water-
based marking coating. The traditional luminous coating and self-
luminous pavement cannot be fully integrated due to material differ-
ences; the coating has inadequate wear resistance and short-lasting lu-
minous performance. In this regard, a new luminous pavement brick has
gradually become the structural form of self-luminous pavement. This
brick includes two parts: luminous surface layer and cement matrix. The
luminous surface layer is made of cement, glass beads, phosphor, and
concrete admixture. The matrix material is fundamentally the same as
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 24. Luminescence mechanism of long afterglow rare earth materials.
that of an ordinary concrete pavement brick (Fig. 25). Because the matrix
and surface layer are cement-based materials, they can be firmly solidi-
fied into one. Moreover, the wear resistance and durability of the lumi-
nous layer can be improved.
With the application of luminous pavement, its function started to be
modified from a night-line-of-sight guidance function to that of a night
visual landscape. The luminous permeable concrete pavement is
composed of luminous protective layer, luminous permeable concrete
surface layer, strong and solid permeable concrete structural layer, and a
base layer. The structure directly uses aluminate long afterglow material
as aggregate. To increase luminous performance, exposed stone treat-
ment is introduced. During paving, luminescent stones of different col-
ours can be selected to create rich pavement landscape patterns (Fig. 26).
However, due to the weak bearing capacity, this type of pavement is
mainly used in sidewalks and landscape auxiliary roads. In addition to
the combination of traditional pavement materials and luminescent
materials to prepare a luminescent pavement, materials with strong
adhesion and high transparency are gradually applied to the synthesis of
luminescent pavement materials. For instance, resin materials are used as
binders to replace the traditional asphalt binder of pavement (Fig. 27).
The excitation and emission of light can be realised while also ensuring
strength. However, considering the required paving volume and engi-
neering cost of luminous pavement, researchers have reverted to the use
of matrix material for paving based on the availability of various
composites.
3.4.3. Rating of merit
Different from the inorganic resin coating used for luminescent signs
and lines, the overall luminescence of the pavement is due to the
considerable amount of work required. The matrix material usually
Fig. 25. Self-luminous concrete pavement brick. (a) At daytime. (b) At night (Han et al., 2017).
18
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
adopted is that of traditional building materials (for example, cement)
because of its low cost. This inevitably leads to the loss of luminous in-
tensity and afterglow. Generally, cement-based pavement luminescent
materials can maintain an afterglow duration of 4–8 h with the lowest
luminous intensity (Fig. 28); it can reach a visual brightness of 0.32 mcd/
m2. Studies have shown that the effective thickness of the luminous
surface layer is 3–5 mm, which can satisfy the luminous effect of the
pavement while it attains the mechanical strength.
Pan (2004) and other scholars combined luminous coating with
traditional cement-based materials or epoxy resin to prepare luminous
reflective concrete pavement bricks that can be prefabricated in the
factory and constructed on site. The luminous layer and main layer of the
pavement brick are made of the same cement-based material; hence, they
have a good bonding interface. Glass beads can also be added to provide
the luminous brick a reflective effect under the sun. Relevant research
linked with the invention of luminous pavement bricks has gradually
increased (Figs. 29 and 30). Moreover, relevant technologies have been
gradually applied to roads, sidewalks, and road signs.
In addition to the combination of traditional materials and lumines-
cent materials for pavements, materials with strong adhesion and high
transparency have been gradually applied to the synthesis of luminescent
pavement materials. Developed a luminous sealant composed of soybean
methyl ester (GITD), polystyrene, and strontium aluminate powder that
is applied to the concrete surface. The sealant can supplement street lamp
lighting, providing illumination for night driving. A test program is also
developed to measure brightness and duration (Fig. 31). Van der Merwe
Steyn (2008) reported the application of nano-fluorescent powder in
pavement engineering. The author was the first to propose that the
nano-fluorescent powder can be applied not only to road lighting but also
to road and warning signs as a more economical road lighting scheme
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 26. Urban self-luminous pavement landscape footpath. (a) Blue trail. (b) Green footpath (Katz, 2013).
Fig. 27. Resin based self-luminous pavement.
without the specific use of a light source. However, the use of this ma-
terial is costly, especially for large-scale applications.
Numerous tentative studies on pavement luminescent materials have
been conducted locally and abroad. However, researchers have given
more attention to the application research of pavement luminescent.
Nevertheless, there are few studies based on the mechanism of pavement
luminescent and the reaction mechanism among materials. Some
scholars have implemented this research in recent years.
Gao et al. (2018) and He et al. (2019) studied cement-based lumi-
nescent materials. They mixed different amounts of luminescent powder,
reflective powder, and hydrophobic materials with cement mortar to
study their luminescent and hydrophobic properties. The results show
that luminescent powder and reflective powder can promote the
Fig. 28. Measured brightness attenuation diagram of pavement luminous materials (Wang et al., 2021a, b).
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
secondary hydration of cement hydration products, and the smaller
particles can improve the micro-distribution and overall strength of
cement materials. Wang et al. (2021a) and other researchers conducted
in-depth research on cement-based luminescent materials and found that
hydrolysis equilibrium exists between aluminate luminescent materials
and cement materials (Fig. 32). Based on maintaining the internal reac-
tion, the ratio adjustment can ensure the effective luminous brightness
and mechanical strength of the pavement.
3.4.4. Engineering application
Although the research on luminous pavement has just started, many
successful engineering applications have been achieved. As early as
2012, Studio Roosegaarde of the Netherlands proposed the concept of
luminous highway in the smart highway project of the future concept
award of the Dutch Design Award, Studio Roosegaarde paved a test
section OSS N329 luminous highway based on this theory (Fig. 33) (Han
et al., 2017). It uses a paint that absorbs energy during the day and emits
light at night to show road paint markings. At night, the markings on both
sides of the road emit light green fluorescence to guide the driver and
improve driving safety. However, due to the considerable influence of air
humidity on light emission, the luminous intensity and durability of the
pavement cannot satisfy the requirements on its use, and the operation of
the pavement stopped.
In 2016, the Brusaw couple (Pratic o and Vaiana, 2015) invented a
photovoltaic panel laid by hexagonal tempered glass. The battery panel
uses solar energy to generate electricity, and its back is equipped with
LED lights, which can emit light and display various traffic information
on the road. At night, the luminous road surface indicates the road
condition information ahead of time for the driver. Moreover, it does not
cause the visual fatigue during night driving. However, because the cost
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 29. The decay curves of SLCCM specimens at different excitation times
with 45 wt.% LP (Wang et al., 2021a, b).
Fig. 30. Effect drawing of cement-based self-luminous pavement material (He
et al., 2019).
of a single photovoltaic panel is as high (US$7000), its application is
greatly limited (Fig. 34).
According current literatures and studies, it is found that many aca-
demic and practical challenges in the luminous pavement are still waited
to be solved. Especially, the satisfaction of the luminosity time of road
provided by self-luminous materials, the balance between pavement
structure and the self-luminous materials.
3.5. Photocatalytic pavement
Semiconductor photocatalytic materials have the function of photo-
catalysis. Under the exposion of ultraviolet or visible light, they can
produce free electron hole pairs, have strong photocatalytic oxidation-
reduction ability, and can oxidize and decompose various organic and
some inorganic substances. The main pollution components of automo-
bile exhaust, such as hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon oxides,
can be catalyzed by photocatalytic materials to produce inorganic salts,
carbon dioxide and water. In addition, the photocatalyst can be reused
and has photocatalytic stability and long-term effect. Therefore, photo-
catalysts can be used to prepare coatings for road exhaust decomposition
(Beeldens, 2006; Verbruggen, 2015).
The progress in urban road network and the automobile industry has
made the life of residents convenient. However, also brings a substantial
increase of automobile exhaust emissions. At present, automobile
exhaust pollution has become the main source of air pollution in China,
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
and automobile exhaust pollution has a great bad impact on residents' life
and health..
3.5.1. Technical principle
Photocatalysts catalyze and oxidize the main pollutants (carbon ox-
ides and nitrogen oxides) in vehicle exhausts into harmless substances by
converting light energy into chemical energy under the irradiation of
daylight or visible light. This process is known as photocatalysis (Yu
et al., 2005). Semiconductor photocatalytic materials have the function
of photocatalysis, which can produce free electro-hole pairs under the
irradiation of ultraviolet light or visible light. They have strong photo-
catalytic redox ability and have oxidation and decomposition effects on
various organic substances and some inorganic substances. The main
pollution components of automobile exhaust, such as hydrocarbons, ni-
trogen oxides and carbon oxides, can be catalyzed and degraded by
photocatalytic materials to produce inorganic salts, carbon dioxide and
water. In addition, the photocatalyst can be reused, with photocatalytic
stability and long-lasting effect. The flow chart of the photocatalytic
pavement catalysis is shown in Fig. 35.
3.5.2. Materials and structures
As far as photocatalytic materials are concerned, the common pho-
tocatalytic materials are mainly carbon oxides, sulphides, and metal
oxides. The narrower the band gap of the semiconductor photocatalytic
materials, the more the sunlight can be utilied. Although titanium di-
oxide has a large band gap, it is still widely used because of its low price,
excellent chemical stability and strong photocatalytic ability. Currently,
titanium dioxide has been modified to improve its photocatalytic activity
under visible light. The main modification methods of titanium dioxide
include semiconductor composite, doping modification, precious metal
deposition, and surface photosensitisation.
The main methods of adding photocatalyst for asphalt pavement are
as follows: (1) modification method: the photocatalyst is added to the
asphalt as a modifier; (2) coating method: photocatalytic coating of the
road surface; (3) mixing method: the photocatalyst is used as a filler. In
addition, some researchers have also attempted to apply photocatalysts
in road appurtenances, such as sound insulation panels, guardrails and
tunnel walls, which can degrade vehicle exhaust without affecting the
function of the road and construction process.
3.5.3. Rating of merit
To organically combine photocatalyst and pavement materials, Italy,
the United States, Japan and other countries have attempted to apply
photocatalytic technology to road surfaces to degrade automobile
exhaust through indoor and outdoor tests (Figs. 36 and 37). China has
also laid test sections in some cities. At present, nano TiO2 is the most
widely used photocatalytic material and a number of studies have been
conducted in various countries on the catalytic efficiency and road per-
formance of photocatalytic pavements.
Hassan et al. (2012, 2013) compared the catalytic performance of
TiO2-modified asphalt pavement and TiO2-coated asphalt pavement.
They found that the asphalt pavement using TiO2 as asphalt modifier
could not effectively remove NOx pollutants in the airflow, whereas the
decomposition efficiency of asphalt pavement using TiO2 as water-based
coating is 39%–52%. Louisiana State University (Osborn et al., 2014)
established the air purification asphalt and concrete photocatalytic
pavement in the university campus. This study verified the effect of
on-site photocatalytic degradation of NOx by measuring the accumula-
tion of oxidation by-products (nitrate, etc.). The results showed that the
photocatalytic activity of photocatalytic pavement was high in the first 4
d, and then gradually decreased. This may be related to the reduction of
NOx content in the air. By comparing the content of oxidation
by-products of the road surface after 6 months of service with that of the
road surface after construction, the change in external conditions in the
process of traffic and service was found to a negligible influence on the
photocatalytic effect on the road surface (Fig. 38). Zouzelka and
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 31. Procedure of the luminance test of the sealant concrete. (a) Over view of the experiment setup, 1) photometer 2) xenon light, 3) flexoptometer, 4) data
acquisition computer. (b) Xenon light exciting sample with GITD sealant. (c) Sample immediately emitting light after xenon light turned off. (d) Photometer capturing
luminance of GITD sealant (Wiese et al., 2015).
Rathousky (2017) conducted photocatalytic experiments on the photo-
catalytic coating on concrete and gypsum substrates by simulating the
real environment. The results showed that the photocatalytic effect was
significant; the NOx concentration was reduced by 75 μmol⋅m2⋅h1
under the simulated high pollution urban air concentration (the initial
concentration of NO and NO2 was 0.1 ppmv).
The asphalt pavement doped with photocatalyst has high catalytic
efficiency and does not affect the pavement performance. Therefore, it is
necessary to perform a series of studies on the pavement performance of
asphalt pavement. Brovelli and Crispino (2013) studied the wear resis-
tance of photocatalytic asphalt specimens under repeated loads, and
quantified the influence of pollutants such as dirt, salt and deicing agent
on the photocatalytic efficiency of specimens. The study showed that the
stain removal effect and skid resistance of photocatalytic asphalt speci-
mens decreased with the increase in load cycles; de-icing agent had the
greatest influence on specimens. The photocatalytic performance and
skid resistance of specimens considerably depended on the number of
cycles and the type of pollutants. Wang et al. (2016a, b) prepared pho-
tocatalytic asphalt specimens by surface coating and pore-filling methods
and conducted durability tests using a polishing machine. Both pave-
ments showed excellent skid resistance and surface texture characteris-
tics, proving that it was feasible to build durable photocatalytic
pavements (Fig. 39).
Domestic scholars have also implemented a series of studies and
applied them to some engineering examples with satisfactory results.
Zhao and Jiang (2012) obtained the optimal ratio of nano titanium di-
oxide photocatalytic coating through orthogonal test. They tested tits
performance in terms of slip resistance, water resistance, freeze-thaw
cycle, and adhesion, and concluded that nano titanium dioxide with
3% content had good dispersibility and performance. Northeast Forestry
University (Chen et al., 2017a) studied the nitrogen-doped titanium di-
oxide photocatalysis asphalt roadbed photocatalytic efficiency and
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
durability. The study found that in visible light, the nitrogen-doped ti-
tanium dioxide photocatalysis of asphalt pavement is higher than the
pure titanium dioxide photocatalytic activity of the pavement. The field
test results and prediction model show that the service life of
nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide photocatalytic asphalt pavement is
approximately 13 months. Liu et al. (2009) prepared titanium dioxide
photocatalytic SBS modified asphalt samples with different dosages.
They observed the asphalt morphology and tested asphalt performance,
and found that 4% titanium dioxide photocatalyst dosages could not only
maintain the service performance, but also enhance the anti-aging per-
formance of asphalt. Guo and Hao (2013) and Gao and Wang (2014)
evaluated the environmental benefits of titanium dioxide photocatalytic
warm mix asphalt concrete, and concluded that titanium dioxide coating
has the best degradation efficiency. The greater the air flow speed and
relative humidity, the lower the photocatalytic effect; the stronger the
ultraviolet radiation, the better the photocatalytic effect. Domestic
scholars have also proposed a series of new processes and evaluation
indexes. Zhang et al. (2014) studied the factors influencing the photo-
catalytic performance of titanium dioxide asphalt mixture, developed a
test system suitable for photocatalytic degradation of tail gas, and pro-
posed the evaluation index and calculation formula for the tail gas of
photocatalytic degradation. The study results show that the particle size,
crystal structure and modification factors of titanium dioxide are the
internal factors affecting the photocatalytic efficiency of asphalt pave-
ment, and the nitrogen-doped anatase nano titanium dioxide asphalt
mixture has a higher degradation efficiency of tail gas. The degradation
efficiency of tail gas can be evaluated in terms of effective degradation
efficiency. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Leng and Yu, 2016)
uniformly coated titanium dioxide particles on asphalt pavement by the
breath map method and Pickering emulsion method. The test results
show that compared with the traditional method, the new coating
method does not only improve the degradation efficiency of nitric oxide
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 32. Illustration of self-luminescent cement slurry material containing LP with different particle sizes. (a) Coarse particle size. (b) Mid-large particle size. (c) Fine
size (Wang et al., 2021a, b).
but also improve the durability. It further maintained satisfactory
degradation efficiency after tire wear. Tan et al. (2010) from Harbin
Institute of Technology proposed a set of test methods and evaluation
indexes for the degradation of tail gas. They studied this degrada-
tionusing self-made test equipment. The study found that the skid
resistance of coated photocatalytic pavement has to be strictly controlled,
and the integrated photocatalytic pavement can fundamentally satisfy
the requirements of asphalt mixture; re-designing the gradation and
adjusting the optimal amount of asphalt are unnecessary.
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Convenient vehicle introduces more possibilities to human life;
however environmental pollution limits human development. Photo-
catalytic materials as clean and sustainable materials, requires consid-
erable research. Its applicationto pavement materials to effectively
reduce tail gas pollution without affecting road performance has also
become a research focus. Although some achievements have been made
in photocatalytic asphalt pavement, the promotion effect of photo-
catalytic exhaust decomposition pavement is not particularly ideal due to
the economic benefits and other factors. To develop efficient, safe and
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 33. Self-luminous pavement marking. (a) Night panorama. (b) Local renderings (Howarth, 2014).

Fig. 34. Photovoltaic light emitting panel. (a) Before charging. (b) After charging (Pratic
o and Vaiana, 2015).

Fig. 35. Flow chart of photocatalytic pavement catalysis (Dylla, 2011).

economical photocatalytic pavement, further research and systematic
tests are necessary.
3.5.4. Engineering application
Photocatalytic exhaust decomposing pavement has been success-
fully applied to many roads in China. In Jinke Road of Pudong New Area
Middle Ring Road, Shanghai, OGFC asphalt mixture containing pho-
tocatalytic material is paved. In Maoyuan Road, Fengxian District,
Shanghai, titanium dioxide sol was spread on asphalt pavement.
Several provincial roads in Huzhou City, Zhejiang Province have also
applied related photocatalytic technology. The results show that the
photocatalytic decomposition of the tail gas can effectively reduce the
tail gas concentration and improve the urban road environment (Leng
and Yu, 2016).
On A14 expressway in Italy, asphalt emulsion and cement mortar
containing titanium dioxide were sprayed onto asphalt pavement
(Fig. 40); observation was conducted for 527 d. The study found that
cement mortar containing titanium dioxide had higher photocatalytic
durability and stability.
The application of photocatalyst on road fields has considerable po-
tential for improving urban road environment. The research on photo-
catalyst has been extremely thorough, however, the research on effective
combination of photocatalyst and asphalt pavement shows that high ef-
ficiency remains lacking. In practical applications, the high concentration

23
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 36. TiO2 photocatalytic coating laboratory application (Brovelli and Crispino, 2013). (a) Laboratory application. (b) Laboratory scene.
Fig. 37. TiO2 photocatalytic coating field application. (a) Cement pavement. (b) Asphalt pavement (Hassan and Okeil, 2011).
of pollutants, high ambient temperature, high relative humidity, high gas
flow rate, high flow rate and wind can reduce photocatalytic efficiency.
In addition, the cost of application also discourages the widespread use of
photocatalysts on road surfaces; however, with increasing commercial
demand and industrial production, the cost of application may be
significantly reduced in the future.
Although the development and application of photocatalytic pave-
ment have achieved certain results, many problems remain unsolved. For
example, the price of metal catalysts for automobile exhaust light treat-
ment is high, seriously hindering the popularization and application of
photocatalytic exhaust gas treatment; The contact between automobile
exhaust and exhaust purification catalyst is extremely short, resulting in
unsatisfactory exhaust decomposition effect. The centralized emission of
automobile exhaust can easily reach the purification line of catalysts, so
that some amount of automobile exhaust is discharged into the atmo-
sphere without treatment.
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
3.6. Low heat absorption of pavement
To effectively reduce the temperature of objects, the heat flux re-
flected from the road surface to the atmosphere must be limited (San-
tamouris, 2013). Through the addition of materials with high reflectivity
of visible light and near-infrared light as well as high far-infrared light
emissivity road materials, the reflectivity of the road surface can be
increased, and less solar radiation can be absorbed (Qin, 2015a; Tran
et al., 2009). The road surface temperature can also be alleviated by
storing water on the pavement surface or in the lower layer for evapo-
rative cooling (Haselbach et al., 2011; Kevern and Schaefer, 2008). The
rise in road surface temperature can also be inhibited by absorbing and
storing the road surface heat as renewable energy (Mallick et al., 2009,
2011; Wu and Yu, 2012).
Asphalt pavement has been widely used in the field of engineering
due to its advantages. It has high flatness, affords comfortable driving,
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 38. Nitrate concentrations. (a) Concrete pavement. (b) Asphalt pavement (Osborn et al., 2014).
Fig. 39. Anti-abrasion results of WCM, L-PCM, and H-PCM samples (Wang
et al., 2016a, b).
and has low noise. However, the asphalt mixture has a high sunlight
absorption rate, especially in summer, resulting in a sharp rise in the
temperature of asphalt pavement (Behnood and Gharehveran, 2019; Yu
et al., 2021). High temperature can accelerate rutting and other asphalt
pavement diseases (Chen et al., 2017b; Mejłun et al., 2016; Teltayev and
25
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Aitbayev, 2015). Further, it can exacerbate the urban heat island effect
(Santamouris, 2013; Xie et al., 2019). It is low heat-absorbing pavement
that can effectively alleviate the above problems in summer (Jiang et al.,
2019b; Qin, 2015a; Sha et al., 2017).
3.6.1. Technical principle
The cooling mechanism of low heat-absorbing pavement can cover
the heat-shielding coating on the surface. It relies on the coating pigment
particles to block the solar radiation absorbed by asphalt pavement,
reducing the surface and internal temperature of the pavement (Fig. 41).
To effectively reduce temperature, it is necessary to develop special
coatings with high reflectance to visible and near-infrared light, and with
high emission to far-infrared light. This can minimize the absorption of
solar energy on the target surface and then play a role in reducing the
surface temperature (Bao et al., 2016; Jiang et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2020;
Menon and Swart, 2020; Tian et al., 2020; Xiao et al., 2018a; Zhou et al.,
2020).
The reflectance of ordinary asphalt pavement is 0.05–0.15, indicating
that asphalt pavement can absorb 85%–95% of the radiation. If the
asphalt pavement was coated with heat-shielding coating, the reflectivity
could be increased to 0.3–0.5, greatly increasing the ability of solar ra-
diation reflection (Qin, 2015b). This can undoubtedly considerably
reduce the solar radiation energy absorbed by asphalt pavement and
effectively reduce pavement temperature (Abreu et al., 2018; Jiang et al.,
2018; Li et al., 2019b).
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 40. Application of photocatalytic materials on roads (Osborn et al., 2014).
Solar energy is mainly concentrated in the visible band of 0.4–0.76
μm and near-infrared band of 1–3 μm. In addition, studies show that the
infrared radiation of an object at room temperature (300 K) is mainly in
the far-infrared band of 2.5–15 μm. To effectively reduce the surface
temperature, the best method is to develop special coating with high
reflectance of visible light and near-infrared light. It must also have high
emission of far-infrared ray to maximize the reflection of the surface to
solar radiation and emit the absorbed solar energy. The working prin-
ciple of heat-shielding coating is to reflect the solar radiation and radiate
the absorbed heat to the outside world through pigment particles in the
coating. This reduce the surface and internal temperature of asphalt
pavement (Sha, 2012; Zhao et al., 2019).
3.6.2. Materials and structures
Heat-shielding coating includes main film-forming material, second-
ary film-forming material, and auxiliary film-forming material (Fig. 42)
(Jiang et al., 2019b; Sha et al., 2017). The main film-forming material is
the basic material of heat-shielding coating, which is key to the film
properties. It consists of resin and grease, which can independently form
a film or bond other components to form a film.
Secondary film-forming materials include pigments, filler, and tough-
eners. Pigments are the main component of coloured coating materials, and
Fig. 41. Work principle of low heat-absorbing pavement (Chen et al., 2019).
26
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
its role is to make the film colourful, provide the shielding function, increase
film hardness, and alleviate the damage of ultraviolet radiation to achieve
the decorative and protective effect of the coating material. Auxiliary film-
forming materials include various auxiliaries and solvents. The auxiliary
film-forming material cannot form the film alone; it can only improve the
process of forming the film or some properties of the film. Additive of
coating material improves the coating performance, such as storage per-
formance and construction performance. Solvent can be dissolved as a film-
forming material of various resins, which can remain at liquid state such
that coatings can be easily manufactured, stored, filled, and so on.
3.6.3. Rating of merit
The cooling effect of heat-shielding coating can be evaluated by
setting up a test system in the room to simulate the environment of solar
radiation; it can be performed outdoors (Iwama et al., 2012; You et al.,
2019; Zheng et al., 2019). The above indoor test method of evaluating
the cooling effect is relatively complicated, and it is necessary to select a
light source whose radiation spectrum is close to that of the sun and use
fixed radiation power to conduct simulation experiment (Fig. 43) (Cao
et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2019; Sha, 2012).
The radiation intensity of light in the indoor test is a fixed value,
whereas the outdoor solar radiation intensity changes regularly with time.
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 42. The composition of coatings.

To make the indoor test results achieve as satisfactory correlation with
actual outdoor results, the principle of equivalent radiant heat is used to
control the radiation time in the test. That is, when the cumulative heat,
generated by indoor projection under constant radiation intensity is equal
to the heat absorbed by asphalt pavement outdoors when it reaches the
thermal equilibrium under solar radiation, the temperature obtained by
the indoor test is the temperature of the outdoor thermal equilibrium.
Both indoor and outdoor tests can be used to compare the cooling
effect of different coatings well. For indoor testing, Fig. 44 illustrates the
visible and IR photos shot at the height of 1 m of these coatings. In the IR
photo, a millimeter contains the information of a frame. Four hundred
frames in each sample were chosen as the research range and the box plot
of coatings temperature distribution as shown in Fig. 45 (Xie et al.,
2019); For outdoor testing, Figs. 46 and 47 show the rise in surface

Fig. 43. The device for evaluating cooling effect (Chen et al., 2019).

27
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Fig. 44. Infrared (A) and visible (B) images of the ten coating samples (Xie et al., 2019).

Fig. 45. The box plot of temperature distribution of coating samples (Xie et al., 2019).

Fig. 46. Amount of rise in surface temperature in summer in Tokyo. (a) Dense graded pavement (average 4.0  C/h). (b) Solar heat-blocking pavement (average 2.1

C/h) (Iwama et al., 2012).
28
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 47. Amount of rise in surface temperature in winter in Hokkaido. (a) Dense graded pavement (average 2.6  C/h). (b) Solar heat-blocking pavement (average 1.7

C/h) (Iwama et al., 2012).
temperature in summer and winter, showing the cooling effect of the
coating (Iwama et al., 2012).
3.6.4. Engineering applications
The applications of heat-shielding coatings in engineering are mainly
focused on the construction of housing (Hern
andez-P
erez et al., 2014;
Santamouris, 2019; Zeyghami et al., 2018). At present, the application of
heat-shielding coating in pavements is mainly in indoor laboratories and
outdoor pavement tests; reports on its use in large-scale projects are few
(Iwama et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2018). In fact, heat-shielding coating on
asphalt pavement can change the contact state between vehicle tires and
pavement surface, which can affect the skid resistance of the surface
(Peng et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2015). At the same time, the
heat-shielding coating on the asphalt pavement is subject to wear from
wheel load, rain erosion, and acid-base action in the natural environment
(Li et al., 2016b). Therefore, the durability of heat-shielding coating is
the main problem in practical engineering application.
3.7. Anti-icing and de-icing pavement
In winter, ice and snow on the road surface can significantly decrease
the friction coefficient resulting in a significant decrease in the adhesion
coefficient between the wheel and road surface as well as a decrease in
the skid resistance of the road surface. This makes it difficult to brake
(Fwa and Ong, 2008; Xiao et al., 2018b), posing a significant threat to
road efficiency and traffic safety (Walker et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2019a,
b). The removal of snow and ice on pavement surface efficiently and
environmentally friendly is an important part of improving winter road
traffic safety.
3.7.1. Technical principle
The traditional road ice and snow removal techniques are mainly
based on the combination of artificial, mechanical, and chemical snow-
melting agents (Yu et al., 2011). However, the result of removing ice
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
and snow is not ideal with such procedures. Such methods require the
closure of part or even all of traffic, affecting the normal operation of the
road and it is difficult to completely remove all the attached ice and snow
when the ambient temperature is low. Moreover, this type of passive
snow removal can affect the road and its ancillary facilities (Arabzadeh
et al., 2016; Lai et al., 2014; Sassani et al., 2017); even the surrounding
soil and groundwater environment can sustainserious damage (Shen
et al., 2016).
Due to the many drawbacks of traditional road de-icing methods,
environmentally friendly and efficient de-icing technologies must be
proposed. At present, the environmental de-icing pavement can be
broadly divided into three categories according to the concept of de-icing
technology: physical de-icing, chemical anti-icing/de-icing, and thermal
heating.
Elastic ice-breaking technology refers to the preparation of rubber
modified asphalt mixture (Bai et al., 2016) by adding certain elastic
materials to the road surface material. The high deformation character-
istics of the elastic material render the ice and snow layer of the road
surface uneven and broken under the action of vehicle load, thus effec-
tively inhibiting the snow and ice on the road surface (Liu, 2011; Sun,
2014). Studies have shown that as the content of rubber particles in-
creases, the de-icing effect becomes more prominent (Zhong et al., 2018),
and the anti-friction performance of the road surface improves.
The basic principle of ice and snow anti-freeze technology is to use
low freezing point salt additives to replace mineral powder in the asphalt
mixture. Under the action of automobile tire friction, vehicle wear,
driving load pumping, osmotic pressure, and capillary pressure, snow-
melting components are released, and the freezing point of road water
is reduced to achieve snow-melting and ice anti-freeze (Liu, 2013). The
effect of salt release on the de-icing technology is determined by the
effect of salt release. The results reveal that the salt release characteristics
are affected by the salt content, continuous immersion time, wetting and
drying cycle, solution temperature and loading conditions (Liu et al.,
2019a, 2021; Pei et al., 2021).
A. Sha et al.
Furthermore, some de-icing technologies are based on energy con-
version, such as microwave de-icing technology, thermal snow-melting
technology and phase change de-icing technology.
Microwave is a high-frequency electromagnetic wave (300 MHz–300
GHz) with the wavelength ranging from 1 m to 1 mm. When exposed to
an alternating electromagnetic field, the high-frequency reciprocating
motion of internal dipole molecules generates internal friction heat (Lou
et al., 2020), melts the ice and snow layers. In traditional heating
methods, the generated heat is transferred from the surface of materials
to the inside through conduction, convection and radiation. As for mi-
crowave heating, a direct conversion exists between electromagnetic
energy and thermal energy. As the microwave penetrates the material,
heat is simultaneously generated inside and outside the material.
Therefore, it can improve the heating uniformity compared with tradi-
tional heating methods.
The energy conversion snow and ice-removing pavement utilises the
commonly available energy (e.g., hydrothermal, electric power, gas,
solar energy, and geothermal energy) to melt the snow and ice on the
road. This is achieved through the energy conversion device embedded in
the pavement to convert the energy into heat that can increase pavement
temperature (Lai et al., 2014; Li et al., 2013b; Xu and Tan, 2015).
Depending on the energy used, the road structure can be classified as
electric-heating and fluid-heating pavements (Adl-Zarrabi et al., 2016;
Wang et al., 2010); the pavement structure varies according to the energy
utilized. The fluid-heating pavement mainly uses a heat pump unit to
increase the level of heat obtained from an external heat source. A
circulating pump is also employed to circulate hot fluid in the pavement.
Heat is transferred to the road surface through the convective heat
transfer of pipes buried in the pavement; then, the heat is conducted in
the pavement for ice and snow-melting (Liu and Spitler, 2004; Xu and
Tan, 2012).
Phase change material (PCM) is a type of functional material that can
absorb or release latent heat during phase transformation. Specifically,
when the temperature rises to the phase change temperature (melting
point), the phase change material absorbs heat from the surrounding
environment and stores it in the form of latent heat through the phase
transition process, which can keep the phase change material at a con-
stant temperature and delay the rise rate of ambient temperature. Simi-
larly, when the temperature is reduced to the phase transition
temperature (crystallisation point), the PCM maintains its own constant
temperature state by releasing latent heat and delaying the reduction rate
in ambient temperature (Fernandes et al., 2014). Therefore, PCM has the
potential to actively control pavement temperature. The schematic dia-
gram of this anti-freeze and de-icing technology is shown in Fig. 48.
3.7.2. Materials and structures
Snow-melting pavement is developed based on functional materials
and modified structures (Huang et al., 2007; Liu, 2013; Tan et al., 2019a,
b). The key to determine the snow-melting efficiency of snow anti-freeze
technology is the salt composition in the material. Based on this form, salt
can be divided into aggregate type, filler type, and coating type. The first
two transform salt compounds into coarser particles or finer powder to
replace part of the fine aggregate or mineral powder in the asphalt
mixture. The third one is prepared into an emulsion for spraying on the
road surface, usually for short-term salt storage (Liu et al., 2019a).
Currently, three types of filler salts are widely used: replacing coarse
aggregate with granular compounds solidified by cement binder;
replacing fine aggregate with vegetable oil-modified product; and
replacing mineral powder with resin-modified chemical powder (Liu
et al., 2014). Accordingly, some researchers have particularly emphas-
ised the importance of the particle size of anti-freeze fillers and devel-
opment products (Fig. 49). The physical properties, mechanical
properties, and structure of asphalt mixture are affected by the aggregate
particles and filler size (Coenen et al., 2012).
30
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
The microwave de-icing technology is based on the energy conver-
sion. The response of materials when exposed to microwaves can be
divided into four types: penetration, reflection, absorption and partial
absorption. Dielectric materials can absorb microwave energy to
different extents and convert microwave energy into heat via power
dissipation. To improve the microwave heating/de-icing efficiency,
different absorbing materials such as carbon fiber (Wang et al., 2014),
carbon-based iron powder (Wang et al., 2011), steel fiber (Gallego et al.,
2013), steel slag (Gao et al., 2017), are added to the asphalt pavement. In
this regard, the state of the absorbing material has a great influence on
the microwave heating efficiency (Wen et al., 2016; Xie et al., 2013).
When exposed to microwaves, the absorbing material is first heated and
then the heat is transferred to the surrounding aggregates through the
asphalt mortar until the road surface is evenly heated. The ice/snow layer
on the road begins to melt when the temperature exceeds 0  C; however,
the adhesion force between the ice layer and road surface is relatively
large at this stage, and the microwave heating time can be appropriately
extended to prevent the melted snow from freezing again with the aid of
a de-icing truck. To improve the uniformity and efficiency of microwave
de-icing, the use more than one microwave frequencies alternately was
suggested because more areas can be heated at the same time (Lou et al.,
2021).
In terms of composition design, the electrical-heating pavement
mainly increases the pavement temperature in winter in the form of
external electric energy inputted into the pavement through embedded
heating cables (Liu et al., 2017), carbon fibre cables (Zhao et al., 2010),
or carbon fibre grid (Lai et al., 2014), and other materials. The heating
wire is mainly arranged between the upper and lower layers during the
design of electrical thermal snow-melting pavement, and the wire is
heated by external voltage to improve the temperature of the road sur-
face and melt the snow (Jiao et al., 2020). The thermal conductive
asphalt mixture can be prepared by adding an appropriate amount of
graphite, steel fiber, carbon fiber and steel slag into the upper layer of the
pavement, to improve the thermal conductivity of the upper layer of the
pavement and reduce the melting time of the pavement. The research on
the layout parameters of electrical thermal pavement mainly includes the
following: layout spacing of heating wire, embedment depth, pavement
power, climate conditions, and preheating time. In studying the hydronic
thermal pavement and considering the lower external ambient temper-
ature in winter, the circulating liquid inside the fluid heated pavement is
mainly an organic alcohol solution, such as glycerol aqueous solution and
ethylene glycol aqueous solution. Its concentration is selected according
to the external temperature and actual situation (Mirzanamadi et al.,
2018). The pipes embedded inside the pavement are usually
high-strength and high-toughness stainless steel pipes or high-density
polyethylene pipe to facilitate construction and installation and resist
vehicle load. External heat sources are usually geothermal energy,
groundwater, industrial waste heat, and solar energy. In addition, the
influence of pipeline embedding distance, embedment depth, and other
factors must be considered in the fluid heating pavement snow-melting
system using geothermal energy.
When applying phase change snow removal technology, PCM can be
divided into solid-solid PCM, solid-liquid PCM and liquid-gas PCM ac-
cording to the phase change (Fallahi et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2017). Among
them, the volume change rate of liquid-gas PCM in the phase transition
process is large, greatly limiting the practical application of such PCM.
Solid-liquid PCM has the advantages of high latent heat capacity and low
undercooling (Mu and Li, 2019; Umair et al., 2019; Xia et al., 2019).
Therefore, among many PCM, organic solid-liquid PCM has the most
extensive application in pavement anti-coagulation ice. In the optimi-
zation of PCM suitable for pavement anti-freezing, appropriate phase
change temperature is crucial for its function. Relevant studies have
shown that the appropriate phase change temperature of PCM suitable
for most freezing regions in China is usually 0  C–5  C (excluding 0  C)
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 48. Schematic diagram of anti-freeze and de-icing technology. (a) Elastic. (b) Salt-stored (Zhang and Shi, 2021). (c) Thermal-heating (Yang et al., 2018). (d)
Microwave. (e) PCM (Farnam et al., 2016; Fleischer, 2015; Jin et al., 2018).
(Gou, 2019). To prevent the adverse effects of PCM on asphalt pavement,
physical or chemical methods are often used for packaging. Its physical
packaging technology mainly includes adsorption method, melt-blending
method, microcapsule method and sol-gel method (Anupam et al., 2020;
Bueno et al., 2019; Guo et al., 2020). PCM that has been prepared based
on the above physical packaging technology mainly include three types:
microencapsulated PCM, polymer-based shape-stabilized PCM and
porous material-based shape-stabilized PCM (Bueno et al., 2019; Guo
et al., 2020; Ma et al., 2016). Chemical methods mainly transform
solid-liquid PCM into solid-solid PCM with the transformation from
31
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
crystalline solid to amorphous solid in the form of polymerisation (Wei
et al., 2019).
3.7.3. Rating of merit
Compared with traditional asphalt pavement, asphalt pavement with
elastic ice-breaking technology has changed its pavement performance
due to the incorporation of elastic materials. The results (Xu, 2011)
showed that introducing rubber particles can considerably enhance the
dynamic stability of asphalt mixtures, and with the increase in rubber
particle content, the dynamic stability of asphalt mixtures first increases
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 49. Anti-freeze asphalt mixtures (Liu et al., 2021).
and then decreases. When the rubber particle content is approximately
3%, dynamic stability is the largest. This mainly because the elastic
deformation of rubber particles has a certain energy absorption effect.
When the quantity of rubber particles is extremely large, the quantity of
aggregates inside the mixture decreases and the overall strength of the
structure degrades. At the same time, after adding rubber particles, the
water stability of asphalt mixture rapidly diminishes. When the content
exceeds 4%, the water stability of asphalt mixture does not satisfy the
standard criteria. As for the problem of inadequate water stability of
rubber particle asphalt mixture, studies have demonstrated that its per-
formance can be improved by adding the appropriate quantity of clinker
and cement (Zhang, 2009).
Currently, there is no unified standard index and method for the test
of the salt properties of snowmelt pavement with snow anti-freeze. The
commonly used evaluation methods of snow-melting and ice anti-freeze
are classified into direct evaluation method and indirect evaluation
method (Liu et al., 2019a). The direct evaluation method is a method that
can directly test the snow-melting composition or directly observe the
snow-melting process through experiments (silver nitrate method, salt
release method, snow-melting method, ice melting method and freezing
method). The indirect evaluation method is a technique that can indi-
rectly reflect the effect of snowmelt and ice anti-freeze through test
(conductivity method, freezing point method, freezing force method,
pendulum method, ice breaking method, friction method).
Fig. 50. Fog-freezing friction test results at 9.4  C (note: the friction coefficient >1 was caused by experimental errors, within acceptable limits) (Zhang and
Shi, 2021).
32
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
Due to the salt added in the early stages of road pavement construc-
tion, the addition of salt throughout the usage process is difficult.
Accordingly, the durability of snow-melt has attract the attention of re-
searchers. The main reasons affecting the durability of snowmelt are high
temperature and immersion and dynamic load under the action of
snowmelt pavement salt generated by superfluous salt loss (Fu et al.,
2015; Giuliani et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015),. The compactness of asphalt
pavement leads to the lower layer of pavement structure salt that is
difficult to precipitate (Lohrey, 1992). Zhang and Shi (2021) employed a
novel type of sustainable additives to study the feasibility of additives in
pavement de-icing, and the fog-freezing friction test results are shown in
Fig. 50.
Microwave heating can be applied to recycle road materials, repair
longitudinal and transverse cracks, patch potholes, and process metal
(Benedetto and Calvi, 2013; Pickles, 2009), microwave heating de-icing
process is shown in Fig. 51. Gao et al. (2017) employed steel slags as
alternative aggregates in asphalt mixtures to study the feasibility of
applying microwave energy in pavement de-icing. The obtained results
are promising and can be attributed to chemical compounds Fe3O4,
Fe2O3 and FeS, which can absorb microwave and electromagnetic energy
with less reflection and scattering. The surface temperature of Marshall
samples after microwave heating is shown in Fig. 52. The performance of
microwave-absorbing materials is related to dielectric loss and mag-
netic loss, and lossy materials can be heated volumetrically during the
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 51. Microwave heating de-icing process (Liu et al., 2019b).
microwave heating process. Moreover, they selected five types of
absorbing materials (hydroxy iron powder, hydroxy iron powder, ferrite,
alumina and expanded graphite) and analyzed their microwave heat
generation and de-icing properties. The results showed that ferrite, hy-
droxy iron powder and expanded graphite had better performance (Wang
et al., 2018; Xiao et al., 2018b). Wang et al. (2016b) studied the effect of
magnetic metal fillers in the asphalt pavement on the microwave de-icing
efficiency. The results indicated that the replacement of traditional ag-
gregates with magnetic materials could help achieve promising de-icing
outcomes.
Fig. 52. Surface temperature of Marshall samples after microwave heating. (a) Under common cold condition (5  C). (b) Under extremely cold condition (20  C)
(Gao et al., 2017).
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Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
As for the electrical-thermal snow-melting pavement, Wang (2014)
influenced by the indoor floor heating pavement process, studied the
snow-melting technology of electrical thermal pavement through two
different forms of heating wire in the pavement structure. Through
tests, compared with the single loop arrangement, the electrical
heating pavement control mode of the parallel double-line arrange-
ment is more flexible, the pavement heating area can be adjusted ac-
cording to the changes in the environment, and the efficiency of
pavement snow melting has been significantly improved. Fei (2014)
conducted a simulation experiment on the actual situation in the in-
door laboratory after the snow on the road area was frozen in winter
and studied the key problems, such as energy utilisation in the system,
to reduce the energy loss, the pavement can be preheated approxi-
mately 3 h before snowfall. Jiao et al. (2020) studied the snow-melting
effect of electric-heating snow removal pavement, and compared and
analyzed the influence of steel slag thermal conductive asphalt
mixture upper layer and ordinary asphalt mixture upper layer on
electric-heating snow-melting effect. The snow-melting efficiency of
thermal conductive asphalt mixture is significantly higher than that of
ordinary asphalt mixture, and the snow-melting efficiency can be
improved by approximately about 15%–20% (Fig. 53). Besides,
Mohammed et al. (2019) studied the electrical resistance heating for
de-icing and snow-melting applications, the surface temperature of
samples as shown in Fig. 54.
In studying the hydronic thermal pavement, Xu et al. (2013) con-
ducted a large-scale indoor test to study the impact of whether the system
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

had preheating on the road snow-melting effect. Through a variety of test

Fig. 53. Surface temperature of electrical-thermal snow-melting sample under
different heating times (Jiao et al., 2020).
parameter combinations, they concluded that preheating the system in
advance had a considerable influence on the road snow-melting effect.
Based on the system snow-melting model under the influence of multiple
factors and combined with the snow-melting efficiency, optimal pipeline
design parameters are recommended. Huang (2010) studied the two
forms of pipeline u-layout and central scattering, and the influence of the
distance between the two pipes on the effect of snow-melting on the road
surface. By pouring the fluid test section outdoors, it is concluded that for
the pipeline laid in the second form, the heat is mainly concentrated in
the center of the pipeline. Compared with the first form, the heat trans-
mission is easier to be transmitted around the road. However, the layout
method of this type is cumbersome, and the construction difficulty is
increased; moreover, it is difficult to promote the construction in a large
area. Tan et al. (2020) analyzed the critical heating strategy for hydronic
heated snow-melting airfield-runway with experimental and numerical.
The Schematic diagram of the hydronic snow-melting airfield-runway
system as shown in Fig. 55, and the hydronic airfield-runway tempera-
ture and horizontal temperature gradient distribution as shown in Fig. 56
(Tan et al., 2020).

Fig. 54. Surface temperature of samples. (a) Optical image of carbon fabric. (b) Thermal image of carbon fabric under current flow (36.2  C). (c) Thermal image of
carbon fabric under current flow (24.9  C). (d) Thermal image of carbon fabric under current flow (59.9  C). (e) Thermal image of carbon filament heat panel
(Mohammed et al., 2019).

Fig. 55. Schematic diagram of the hydronic snow-melting airfield-runway system (Tan et al., 2020).

34
A. Sha et al.
Fig. 56. Hydronic airfield-runway temperature and horizontal temperature gradient distribution. (a) Pavement temperature adjacent to the pipe. (b) Pavement
temperature at the midpoint between two pipes. (c) Pavement temperature uniformity in the horizontal direction (Tan et al., 2020).
At present, the research on phase change snow removal technology
mainly focuses on the packaging process of solid-liquid PCM and its
impact on pavement performance evaluation and optimization. Micro-
encapsulated PCM is mostly used in the form of asphalt modifier (Anu-
pam et al., 2020; Bueno et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2020; Kakar et al., 2019),
polymer based shaped PCM is mostly used in the form of substitute
aggregate or directly as additives (Ma et al., 2016; Tian et al., 2019),
porous material based shaped PCM and solid PCM prepared by chemical
method are mostly used in the form of asphalt modifier or substitute filler
(Chen et al., 2020). Literature review shows that the encapsulated PCM
can still effectively delay the generation time of ice and snow on the road
surface, so as to achieve the purpose of snow-melting and de-icing
(Anupam et al., 2020).
3.7.4. Engineering applications
Research on elastic ice-breaking snow-melting pavement technology
was initiated by the Swedish Road Research Institute in the 1960s. Waste
tires were made into rubber particles with a particle size of less than 6
mm, which were incorporated into the open-graded asphalt mixture to
substitute part of the fine aggregate (Tan et al., 2019a, b). On this basis,
since 1979, Japanese scholars have paved several snowmelt pavement
test sections with rubber particles in Hokkaido and Honshu. The test
finding indicated that under snow conditions, the anti-skid performance
of the pavement is improved due to rubber particles protruding the
pavement surface, and the road traffic accidents are effectively mini-
mized. However, the use process found that some rubber particles fall off
from the pavement surface, resulting in loose pavement, pits and other
diseases. Snow removal test and mechanical strength test implemented
on asphalt mixture with 3%–12% rubber particles. The results demon-
strated that the asphalt mixture prepared by this method had satisfactory
snow removal ability. However, in the compaction process, the
35
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
compaction effect of the mixture was inadequate due to the presence of
elastic rubber particles; hence, the strength and durability of the asphalt
mixture were reduced.
As early as the 1960s, European researchers studied snowmelt-
inhibiting pavement salts. The first ice-snow anti-freeze snowmelt sec-
tion in the world is laid on the European bridge of Brenner, Austria.
According to existing data, this section still had satisfactory road per-
formance from 1975 to 1994 (a total of 20 years) (Liu, 2013). Japan
introduced a snow anti-freeze technology in the 1970s and combined it
with permeable pavement on the basis of the original technology to
develop a snow-melt permeable cement pavement (Sato and Hori, 2002).
China has been introducing ice-and-snow anti-freeze snow-melting
pavement technology since 2008, and pavements using this technology
have been tested in northwest and northeast China (Wang et al., 2010).
At present, the road sections in use include bridge decks, sections near
toll stations, tunnel entrances and exits, long longitudinal slopes, and
curved steep slopes (Liu, 2013).
The early practical applications of microwave energy in pavement
engineering date back to 1969, when this technology was employed to
quickly repair Portland cement concrete-modified pavement with poly-
mers (Boyko et al., 1976). The microwave equipment included eight
microwave radiation panels. Each unit had a power of 2.5 kW, an oper-
ating frequency of 2.45 GHz, and the heating area was equal to 0.73 
1.1 m2. Subsequently, a 100 kW, 915 MHz large microwave asphalt
pavement heater was built in California to repair potholes and longitu-
dinal cracks. In Texas, a microwave heating system was used to heat
recycled asphalt pavements; in this case, the 200 kW power of the mi-
crowave tunnel could ensure a maximum mixing rate of 200 t/h. In
recent years, Wang et al. (2018) and Xiao et al. (2018b) developed a
microwave de-icing vehicle by setting the following microwave param-
eters: launch frequency, power, waveguide distance and magnetron
A. Sha et al.
array. In this regard, the unit generating microwaves promotes the
melting of snow and ice, which are then removed at the rear of the
vehicle. In summary, improving the properties of microwave generator
can heat the asphalt pavement effectively and uniformly.
In 2019, a test section (electrical thermal snow-melting pavement)
was paved at the exit of Jiangjunling Tunnel of provincial roadway S107
(Lantian County) in Shaanxi Province, and embedded the heating wires
between the upper and lower layers according to the appropriate spacing
to realize snow and ice-melting one roads in winter (Jiao et al., 2022). To
reduce the snow-melting time, the upper layer adopts steel slag thermal
conductive asphalt concrete. Part of steel slag is added into the asphalt
mixture to replace the coarse aggregate and improve the heat transfer
efficiency of the upper layer. The engineering application results show
that the electrothermal snow removal pavement can be heated within 1
h, and the road surface temperature can reach more than 0  C, which can
effectively prevent snow icing in the road area in winter. The specific
location pavement working effect is shown in Fig. 57.
The application of hydronic heating pavement was first started in
1948 in Oregon (Lienau et al., 1995) the road length of the system is 135
m; the hot well water is used as the heat source of the system, and the
system water temperature is maintained at 35  C–55  C. The layout pa-
rameters of cast iron pipes in the system are as follows: the pipe diameter
is 2 cm, the interval between two pipes is 45 cm, and the distance be-
tween the pipe and the road surface is 7.6 cm. Under extreme cold
temperature and moderate snow to heavy snow weather, the system can
Fig. 57. The test section of anti-icing pavement in Shaanxi Province. (a) Specific location. (b) Surface temperature under heating.
Fig. 58. Integration of pavement function–structure-material for the next generation of eco-friendly pavements.
36
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
still meet the requirements of road snow melting and ice melting. The
feasibility of this technology is demonstrated for the first time. In China, a
test section with an area of 234 m2 in Daqing City, Heilongjiang Province
was paved (Xu and Tan, 2015). The system takes solar energy and
geothermal energy as the main heat source to realize snow-melting and
ice-melting of pavement in winter. Even in Heilongjiang Province, where
the winter is colder, the road surface temperature can still reach above
the freezing point, and the effect proved to be remarkable.
4. Architecture of eco-friendly pavements for the future
The broad research on the development of eco-friendly pavements
encompasses a wide range of environmental problems encountered
during road service, such as water accumulation, noise, heat island effect,
lighting, and exhaust. Most technologies have been developed to address
only one aspect at a time. Therefore, the development of pavements that
can simultaneously comply with multiple functions is critical for
changing the status quo, triggering sustainable changes, and propelling
the modernization of road pavement engineering.
The environmental issues outlined in this review are mainly attrib-
uted to the use of traditional dense paving materials, which introduce a
series of drawbacks while achieving the creation of smooth, durable, and
safe roads. Generally, these issues include but not limit to poor drainage
associated with increased risk of flooding, road traffic noise, urban heat
island effect, and ineffective surface purification from automotive
A. Sha et al.
exhaust. Porous pavement seems to be a perfect solution with great po-
tential to integrate the mentioned functions because of its inclusive
structures in concretes, as shown in Fig. 58.
For the next generation of eco-friendly pavements, the adoption of
open-graded construction materials (porosity 18%–25%) with porous
structure can improve the water permeability and reduce the likeliness of
urban flooding. At the same time, porous pavements significantly reduce
the pumping action due to vehicle tires rolling on wet surfaces as well as
decrease the level of generated traffic noise. Compared with a traditional
dense-graded asphalt pavement, the construction of an open-graded road is
also beneficial when it comes to alleviating the urban heat island effect, as
thermal balance is reached faster inside a coarse-graded aggregate matrix,
and improving the exhaust gas degradation efficiency, as the contact area
between the gases and the bituminous binder is increased. Porous pave-
ments also result in faster de-icing of snow or ice on pavements charac-
terized by particularly high anti-skid performance. Additionally, porous
structure carries more long afterglow materials and photocatalytic mortars
producing light in the dark or decomposing the exhaust gas. As well, two or
more eco-friendly functions can also be combined in one.
All the six types of eco-friendly pavements presented in this review
are implemented referring to porous asphalt mixtures as they promote
the integration of different functions such as noise reduction, water
permeability, low urban heat island effect, exhaust gas decomposition,
self-luminous as well as snow-melting. However, due to the remarkable
discrepancies compared with traditional dense pavements, the mechan-
ical models, functional durability, maintenance operations and devel-
opment of guidelines and standards for porous pavements integrated
with other eco-friendly functions require further investigation.
5. Conclusions
In this review, the latest research findings related to eco-friendly road
pavements were summarized and discussed according to six different key
characteristics: permeable, noise reduction, self-luminescence, exhaust
decomposition, low heat absorption as well as anti-icing/de-icing. The
corresponding technical principles, research advances, materials and
structures, performance evaluation and applications were analyzed and
the associated future trends were prospected.
The review has shown that these technologies can solve some of the
major challenges associated with road construction and traffic (e.g.,
noise, heat island effect, and pollution generation). Most of the solutions
currently available only display a single eco-friendly function at a time.
Nevertheless, thanks to the continuous research developments, new
technologies will be applied on the road surface (e.g., self-luminous, and
anti-icing/de-icing) and the diversity of functions that can be addressed
contemporarily is likely to increase.
For the next generation of eco-friendly pavements, multi-functions
including permeable, noise-reducing, self-luminous, photocatalytic, low
heat absorption, and anti-icing/de-icing is believed to be achieved based
on porous pavements. The trends in eco-friendly road pavements are of
great significance to improve the status quo trigger permanent techno-
logical changes and drive the progress of modern road engineering.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors do not have any conflict of interest with other entities or
researchers.
Acknowledgments
This paper was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (52038001, 52122809, 51908058). Dr. Zhengwei
Zhang and graduate students Yujing Chen, Wentong Wang, Jinhuan
Shan, Baowen Lou, Meng Jia, Youwei Zhang, Rong Lu, Yupeng Li, and
Pengyu Ji from Chang'an University are highly acknowledged for their
contributions during the initial manuscript preparation.
37
Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42
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Dr. Aimin Sha is a professor of highway engineering at
the School of Highway, Chang'an University. He is the vice
chairman of China Highway & Transportation Society (CHTS).
Prof. Sha focuses on road materials, pavement design theory,
construction quality control, eco-friendly pavements, sustain-
able transportation and smart pavements. His researches were
supported by NSFC, “973” program, National Key R&D Program
of China, etc. He was awarded by the second prize of the Na-
tional Scientific and Technological Progress Award in 2009 and
2013, respectively.
Dr. Zhuangzhuang Liu is a professor at the School of Highway,
Chang'an University. Dr. Liu's research focuses on the scientific
issues and engineering problems of smart and resilient road
infrastructures. Recently, his research includes: behaviors and
technical resilience of road materials, roadway environment
sensing and applications, and self-powered and smart
pavements.
Dr. Wei Jiang is a professor of pavement engineering in
Chang'an University. His research has focused on the theories
and methods of green pavement materials and structures, green
energy transformation of pavements. Dr. Jiang led over 13 na-
tional and provincial projects, including the National Science
Fund for Excellent Young Scientists, National Key R&D Program
of China, the National Natural Science Foundation, the Fok
Ying-Tong Education Foundation for Young Teachers in the
Higher Education Institutions of China, etc.
A. Sha et al. Journal of Road Engineering 1 (2021) 1–42

Dr. Lin Qi received her PhD in road and railway engineering
from Chang'an University in 2011. Currently she is a lecturer at
the School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang'an
University. Her research interests include environmentally
friendly road materials and structures.
Dr. Wenxiu Jiao is a lecturer of road engineering at the School
of Highway, Chang'an University. Her research interests include
eco-friendly pavements, functional road materials and technol-
ogy, asphalt mixture performance and design.

Dr. Liqun Hu is a professor at the School of Highway, Chang ‘an Dr. Diego Maria Barbieri is a postdoctoral researcher in Nor-
University. He is a special allowance expert under the State wegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). His
Council. His research fields include pavement structure and research interests revolve around smart infrastructure engi-
material properties, testing technology, multi-functional pave- neering and sustainable built environment.
ment materials and structures, subgrade and pavement con-
struction technology and quality control. His current research
topics include intelligent road pavement structure, intelligent
sensing theory and method, and the application of solid waste in
road engineering.

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