Unit Ii Introduction To Electronics Engineering

231GE211 BASIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE UNIT 2
UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Passive Components-Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance - Signal Sources-Voltage and

Current Sources, Non Ideal Sources; Representation under assumption of Linearity- current
controlled current source, voltage controlled current source, current controlled voltage source,
and voltage controlled voltage source-Electronic System-RPS, DMM, Oscilloscope.
2.1 PASSIVE COMPONENTS

In electronic components, Passive components are electronic devices that don’t need an
external power source to operate actively. They do not generate power rather they store and
release it. They mainly resist, store, or control the flow of electric current or voltage in a
circuit without actively amplifying or generating signals. Passive components include
resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and coils – that don’t require power to do their job.
A circuit is an interconnection of elements. Based on their capability to generate energy these
elements are classified into active or passive elements. Electric circuits are made up of three
circuit components. These are resistance, inductance, and capacitance. These are called
passive circuit elements and they do not transfer electrical energy. Passive elements stores
energy in the form of voltage or current.
What are Passive Components?
Passive components are electronic devices that don’t need an external power source
to operate actively. They mainly resist, store, or control the flow of electric current or voltage
in a circuit without actively amplifying or generating signals.
Passive components can be used to connect together within the circuit in a series combination
or parallel combination to control the current flow in complex circuits. Passive components
do not require any external power supply to operate in the electrical circuit. Passive
components receives the electrical energy and either convert it or store in the form of
magnetic field or electric field. Passive components do not require any electrical power to
function in a circuit. Passive components cannot increase the power of a signal nor are they
able to amplify in the circuit. So basically, they do not generate power , they dissipate power
only.
Properties of Passive Components
• Passive electronic components do not generate electrical power. They only
dissipate power (in resistive components) or store unused power (in reactive
components).
• All passive electronic components function without a power source. They only
influence the flow of power and the electrical output cannot be modified by
some external power source.
• Passive components act as load in the circuit.
• Passive components cannot provide power gain.
• Passive components receive electrical energy and either convert it into other
forms such as heat, light, rotation, etc., or store it in the magnetic field or
electric field.
• Passive components cannot control the current flow in the circuit.
• A passive element can only absorb electrical power. It is not capable of
delivering power.
Working of Passive Components
The circuit element that can only absorb electrical energy and dissipate it in the form of heat
or stored in either magnetic field or electric field is known as passive circuit component or
passive component.
VELTECH MULTITECH DR.RANGARAJAN DR.SAKUNTHALA ENGINEERING COLLEGE 1

Working of Passive components includes, passive components receiving electrical energy

and either converting it in other forms such as heat, light, rotation, etc., or store in the
magnetic field or electric field. These passive components act as loads in the circuit.
Therefore, a passive component cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an
electric circuit. Some common examples of passive circuit components are resistors,
inductors, capacitors and transformers, etc.
Types of Passive Components
Passive components are mainly divided into four basic passive electronic components which
include:
• Resistor
• Capacitor
• Inductor
Resistors
Resistors control the flow of current by offering resistance. They are used to limit current,
divide voltage, and set biasing conditions in electronic circuits.
• Resistors oppose the flow of electrical charge or electrical current.
• Resistance is measured in ohm.
• The opposition to the flow of electrical current through the material is known as
the resistance of that material.
• Resistors are made up of materials like Tungsten, Bronze, and Constantan.
Resistor voltage equation:
V= I x R
• where V stands for Voltage
• I stands for Current
• R stands for Resistance
Applications of Resistors
• It is used in Potential Divider.
• It helps in Biasing Circuits.
• It is used in Feedback Networks.
• It is used in Amplifiers.
• It is used in Current controlling devices.
• It is used in Coupling Networks.
• It is used in DC Power Supplies.
Capacitors
Capacitors store and release electrical energy. They are commonly used for decoupling,
filtering, and energy storage in electronic circuits.
• It is used to pass AC and block DC.
• It opposes the flow of direct current.
• It consists of two conducting parallel plates separated by dielectric.

• Dielectric is made up of ceramic, mica, glass, waxed paper, and bakelite.

Capacitor current equation with respect to time:
I(t)=C dV(t)/dt
• I(t) stands for current in capacitor with respect to time
• C stands for capacitance
• V(t) stand for voltage across the capacitor with respect to time t.
Capacitor (Passive Component)
Applications of Capacitors
• It is used for storage of energy.
• It is used in filter circuits to minimize the repel voltage.
• It is used in tunning circuits for selection of frequency.
• It is used in timing circuits to select the time.
• It is used in Amplifiers.
Inductors
Inductors store and release magnetic energy. They are used for applications such as filtering,
energy storage, and impedance matching.
• All inductors are coiled structures and insulated wire wrapped around the area.
• Inductors work on electromagnetic induction.
• It is used to decrease the electric spikes in electronic circuits.
Inductor Current equation with respect to time:
V(t)=L di(t)/dt
• V(t) stand for voltage across the inductor with respect to time t
• L stands for inductance
• i(t) stand for current through the inductor with respect to time t
Applications of Inductors
• It is used in minimizing alternating current in the circuits.
• It is used in RF choke in the oscillator.
• It is used in LC resonance.
• It is used in Radio Transmitter and receiver.

2.2 SIGNAL SOURCES
In electronic circuits, some components are used to supply the required electrical energy for
the operation of the circuit. These components are known as energy/signal sources. Signal
sources are the active circuit elements that can supply the necessary excitation, i.e. required
electrical energy, to the circuit. In practice, we have several types of voltage and current sources
such as batteries, generators, alternators, photovoltaic cells, etc. In this article, we will discuss
the different types of signal sources.
Types of Signal Sources
The signal sources are broadly classified into the following two types −
• Voltage Sources
• Current Sources
An energy that is used to create a voltage (potential difference) between two points in an
electric circuit is referred to as a voltage source. While, the energy source that delivers a
specified electric current to the circuit is referred to as a current source.
Both voltage sources and current sources are further classified into the following two categories
• Independent Sources
• Dependent Sources
Let us discuss the independent and dependent sources in detail one by one.
Independent Voltage Source
A voltage source whose output voltage does not depend upon the voltage or current of any
other part of the circuit is known as an independent voltage source. In other words, the
independent voltage source is one whose output voltage is not affect by the voltage or current
of any other part of the circuit.
The independent voltage sources may be classified into the following two types −
Constant Voltage Sources
The constant voltage sources, also called time-invariant voltage sources, are those
independent voltage sources whose output voltage remains constant throughout their operation.

Examples of constant independent voltage sources are cells, batteries, and many other direct
voltage sources.
Time Variant Voltage Sources

The types of independent voltage sources whose output voltage changes with time are
known as time-variant independent voltage sources. Although, it is important to note that
the change in the output voltage of the time-variant independent voltage source does not occur
due to change in the voltage or current of any other part of the circuit. But, it only changes with
time. Examples of time-variant voltage sources are alternator (AC generator).
Independent Current Source

The type of current source whose output current does not depend upon the voltage or current
of any other part of the circuit is known as independent current source.
Similar to independent voltage sources, the independent current sources are also classified into
two types −
Constant Current Source

An independent current sources whose output current remains constant throughout its operation
is known as a constant independent current source. It is also known as timeinvariant
current source.
Time-Variant Current Source

An independent current source whose output current changes time is referred to as a time
variant independent current source. Here, it must note that the output current does not
change due to variation in voltage or current in any other part of the circuit, but it only changes
with time.
Independent voltage and current sources may also be classified into the following categories,
depending their internal resistance −
• Ideal Voltage Source
• Practical Voltage Source
• Ideal Current Source
• Practical Current Source
Ideal Voltage Source
A voltage source which has zero internal resistance is known as ideal voltage source.
Therefore, for an ideal voltage source, the output voltage always remains constant and equal to
the EMF of the source. It is because, there is no voltage drop inside the source when current
drawn from it. However, the ideal voltage sources do not exist in practice. These are just
theoretical models of voltage sources.

Practical Voltage Source
An independent voltage source which has a finite internal resistance is known as a practical
voltage source or real voltage source. In a real voltage source, the internal resistance is
shown connected in series with the source voltage as shown in the figure.
Another important fact to note about the real voltage is that the output voltage or terminal
voltage of the real voltage source decreases with the increase in current drawn from it when a
load circuit is connected across its terminals. It is because, when a current is drawn from the
source, it causes a voltage drop in the internal resistance. Consequently, the output voltage at
the source terminals is reduced. The voltage sources such as cells, batteries, generator, etc. are
examples of real voltage sources.
Ideal Current Source
A current source which has infinite internal resistance is known as ideal current source.
Therefore, the output current of an ideal current source is equal to the source current due to its
infinite internal resistance. Thus, an ideal current source always delivers same current
throughout its operation when a load is connected to it. Any change in the load circuit does not
affect the output current of the ideal current source. Again, the ideal current sources are not
practically possible.

Practical Current Source
A practical current source (or real current source) is one which has a finite internal
resistance which is connected in parallel with the source current. Therefore, when there is any
change in the load voltage, the current delivered by the real current source is changed. It is
because, the increase in the load voltage forces an extra current to flow through the internal
resistance of the source, which results in the decreased output current.
Examples of real current sources include semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors,
operational amplifiers, etc.
Dependent Sources
Dependent sources are those whose output voltage is governed by a voltage or current in any
other part of the circuit. Dependent sources are represented using diamond shapes as shown in
the figure below −

Based on the combination of controlling quantity and output quantity, the dependent sources
are classified into the following four types −
• Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

• Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
• Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)
• Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)
Sometimes, the dependent sources are referred to as controlled sources. The dependent
sources are used in modeling the behavior of electronic devices such as amplifiers.
2.3 REPRESENTATION UNDER ASSUMPTION OF LINEARITY
In electronics, a linear circuit consists of elements within a resistor that result in a

proportional relationship between voltage and current.
Resistors are considered to be a linear element. When placed in a circuit, the flow of
current through the resistor changes proportionately to the voltage that falls across it. The
relationship between voltage and current can be expressed in a linear equation of ax + b = 0.
Inductors and capacitors are also considered linear elements.
The relationship between voltage and current in a resistor.

What about a non-linear circuit? How does it react to current changes? This type of circuit is
made up of one or more non-linear components, which does not satisfy the linear equation.
Changes made to one parameter is not proportionately reflected in another parameter.
The diode is a good example.
Non-linear I-V curve of a diode.
Consider the above I-V chart of a diode. When driven in forward-bias, no current
flows between 0V to the junction voltage, which is around 0.7V for silicone. Once the
voltage exceeds the junction voltage, the current rises dramatically.
The diode also demonstrates non-linearity when driven in reverse bias configuration,
with a small amount of leakage contrasted by the large breakdown current. Other non-linear
elements include transistors, transformers, and SCR.
Linear circuits are solvable for any time constant. However, non-linear circuits have
many solutions or no solutions at all.
Performing Linearity Circuit Analysis
Analyzing a linear circuit requires basic electronics knowledge, particularly in Ohm’s

Law and Kirchoff’s Laws. Ohm’s Law defines the relationship of voltage, current, and
resistor with the following formula:
V = IR
When any two of the parameters are known, the third one can be calculated.
Often, a linear circuit consists of many elements that are either in series, parallel, or a
combination of both. This is when Kirchoff’s Laws become useful. The first Kirchoff Law,
or Kirchoff’s Current Law, states that the total current entering the node is equal to the
amount leaving it.

Kirchoff’s Voltage and Current Laws
Meanwhile, the second Kirchoff Law, or Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, states that the sum of all
potential differences in a closed loop is equal to zero. By using both Kirchoff Laws, you can
solve complex linear circuits by establishing the equations for each of the subcircuits.
Here’s an example.
Example of a linear circuit.
The above circuit consists of resistors arranged in parallel-series configuration. When the
voltage and resistance are known, the current flowing to each loop can be calculated.
According to KVL, two equations for each loop can be defined as such:
Thus, I1 and I2 can be solved as follow:

Applying KCL, It is known by the following equation.
Are AC-Driven Circuits Linear?

Often, AC-driven circuits can be mistaken as non-linear as the basis that determines the
linearity of a circuit is the relationship between the voltage and current. While an AC signal
varies with time, it still exhibits a linear relationship across elements like resistors, capacitors,
and inductors. Therefore, AC driven circuits are linear.
Dependent sources
Voltage and current are the two primary state variables in an electronic system. Just as there
are two kinds of independent sources (voltage and current), there are four basic types of
dependent sources: their output can be either voltage or current, AND their input can be either
voltage or current.
Each dependent source has two output terminals, just like an independent source would.
Each dependent source also has two input terminals, thought these are not always explicitly
shown. For voltage controlled sources these act like an open-circuit voltage measurement in
parallel with the controlling voltage. For current controlled sources these act like a short-circuit
current measurement in series with the controlling current.
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

A VCVS is a voltage source where the voltage is controlled by a voltage elsewhere in
a circuit.
The VCVS1 element is set with a gain of 10, so it creates an equation:

VXY=10VABV(X)−V(Y)=10⋅(V(A)−V(B))
As discussed in Systems of Equations and Solving Circuit Systems, we commonly write
linear systems with all multiplicative terms on the left side, and just a single constant on the
right hand side:
V(X)−V(Y)−10⋅(V(A)−V(B))=0V(X)−V(Y)−10V(A)+10V(B)=0
All of our linear controlled sources will have zero right-hand-side term.
This example circuit is solvable by inspection because there is no feedback between the
controlling side and the controlled side of the circuit.
Since no current flows into the controlling measurement terminals of VCVS1, then V1, R1,
and R2 form a simple resistive voltage divider, with VA=12 and VB=6 , so VAB=6 .
Because of the VCVS relationship, the source will look like a voltage of 10VAB , which is
just 60 in this case. From there, we can solve the right hand side
directly: VY=5 and VXY=60 , so VX=65 and a current of i3=0.65 A flows through resistor
R3.
In other circuits there will be an interconnection that makes the system harder to solve, but
when there is no feedback, systems with controlled sources can be solved from input to
output.
In practice, a VCVS is often used in modeling operational amplifiers (op-amps), and can also
be used in modeling a voltage signal chain more generally.
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
A VCCS is a current source where the current is controlled by a voltage elsewhere in

a circuit.
We’ve replaced our VCVS above with a VCCS with gain 0.5, meaning that for every 1 V of
voltage difference at the input terminals, the current source will have a current of 0.5 A in the
direction of the arrow as drawn. This is the branch current i2 as labeled. (For a review
see Labeling Voltages, Currents, and Nodes.)
i2=0.5VABi2=0.5⋅(V(A)−V(B))
Or collecting terms on the left-hand side:
i2−0.5V(A)+0.5V(B)=0

Again, this circuit has no feedback and is simple enough to solve by inspection. VAB=6 as
before, so i2=3 . To map to our resistor current as labeled i3 we simply have to observe
that i3=−i2 , so i3=−3 A .
If we’re interested in node voltages as well, we’d simply use Ohm’s Law on R3 and see
that VX=−300 , while it remains true that VY=5 due to voltage source V2.
In practice, a VCCS is often used in modeling MOSFETs or other voltage-effect-based
transistors.
Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)
A CCVS is a voltage source where the voltage is controlled by a current elsewhere in

a circuit. Here, we’ve specified a gain of 100, and a controlling current of R1.nA, meaning
the current into terminal nA of resistor R1:
VXY=100⋅I(R1.nA)V(X)−V(Y)=100i1V(X)−V(Y)−100i1=0
Again, with no feedback, the total current on the left-hand side

is i1=121000+1000=0.006 , so the source will be VXY=0.6 . This makes the total
voltage VX=5.6 , so i3=0.056 .
Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
A CCVS is a current source where the current is controlled by some other current
elsewhere in a circuit: Here we’ve defined a gain of 0.5 and again are using the same
controlling terminal current of R1.nA.

i2=0.5i1i2−0.5i1=0
With still no feedback, the total controlling current is unchanged i1=0.006 , so the
source will be i2=0.003 . We can map to i3=−i2=−0.003 . From there, the voltage VX=−0.3 .
In practice, a CCCS is often used in modeling Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) or
other current-effect-based transistors.
2.4 ELECTRONIC SYSTEM
Every electronic device we use in our daily life is one type of system. The systems working
depending up on electronic variables like power or voltage or current is known as Electronic
system. Number of blocks having different input – output relationship are connected together
to form a system, which is supposed to execute a particular task or process.
Sometimes an electronic system is also referred as “Control system”. A system that is
used to control or regulate the output of the other system is called control system. This is also
a group or collection of different systems and blocks.The industrial automations systems
which are used in heavy industries are the example of control system. These are used to
control the production process in industries.
The block diagram of a basic control system, with control loop is shown below.
The input is connected to the controller to control the system output and the output of the
controller is connected to the system or processor, which processes the output.
If the produced system output is deviated from the desired output, indicates that the system is
encountered with some noise or error. The error signal is connected back to the controller, to
make changes in the system according to system requirements.
A system can be represented in many ways such as pictorial manner, descriptive manner,
schematic and mathematical manner etc. But many of the electronic systems are schematically
represented by inter – connecting the individual blocks in series.

Each and every block of the system has its individual inputs and outputs. Each block in a control
system will represent a system or an individual component of a system.
Block diagram of system
The block diagram for the simple system is shown below, with individual inputs and outputs
The electronic system may have multiple inputs and multiple outputs. The system accepts the
inputs and it processes the required task to produce the outputs. The state of the system can be
changed by processing the inputs. So the inputs are the “cause” of change in system’s
equilibrium state.
This means the inputs and outputs of a system are in an direct relationship that inputs will show
effect on outputs. This analysis of control system is called as “Cause and Effect analysis”.
An audio system, TV, or any Mp3 player is the example of an electronic system. The sound
waves are converted to electrical signals and they are amplified to process the output of high
strengthened audio signals, through speakers.
Example
We come across so many systems in our day to day life, such as washing machine, drier,
keypad, Air conditioner etc. we use control systems mostly in industrial purposes like space
technology, weapons, power systems and quality controlling of products like industrial
automation etc.
Types of electronic systems
As we already explained earlier, every control system will have its own input and output. The
input signal may be of continuous and discrete. Based on the input provided to the system, the
control systems are classified into 2 types.
They are
1. Continuous system
2. Discrete system

Continuous system
Continuous system is that in which the input signals are defined as the analog signals. The
analog signals are continuous in nature, so they are called as “continuous time signals”.
The magnitude of the continuous signal will vary with the time period T. As the input is
Analogues in nature, the continuous electronic systems produce the analogous output. This is
the reason they are notified as “Pure analog systems”.
The values of the continuous electronic system varies only with time.
Example for continuous system
The process of measuring the temperature of a room is an example of continuous system. As

the temperature is measured in a range of time duration, like Monday to Saturday or
temperature levels from cold to hot etc, the temperature monitoring system is analog in nature
or it is said to be an example of continuous electronic system.
Other examples of the continuous electronic systems are current and voltage signals, pressure,
velocity and temperature signal etc.
Discrete system
The discrete system is defined as the system having the sequence of discrete time values as its
input. The values obtained at particular intervals of time are called “Discrete values”. As the
input of discrete system is the sequence of instinctual values, the output will be in the form of
sequence of numbers.
So these discrete systems are also known as “Digital systems”. Generally the output of digital
system will be a binary number sequence, such as the collection of 0’s and 1’s.

One important thing about the discrete system is that, the discrete values defined at particular
time intervals must be spaced equally. For example, if the time periods are t1, t2, t3, t4 and t5,
then t1 – t2 = t2 – t3 = t3 – t4 = t4 – t5. The values of discrete system don’t vary over the time
period, but changes at particular instances of time.
Example for Discrete system
The temperature measuring (monitoring) system which measures the temperature of room only
at particular intervals of times, such as particular days like on Monday, on Tuesday or in
particular time intervals like 1pm, at 2pm, at 3pm etc is the example of discrete time electronic
system.
Representing continuous system as a set of discrete intervals
We can represent the continuous electronic system into discrete electronic system, by changing
the domain of the system. This means, a continuous system with input and output signals as X
(t) and Y (t) can be represented as discrete electronic system with input and output as X (n) and
Y (t), where X (t) and Y (t) represents the time domain and X (n) and Y (n) represents the
frequency domain
Interconnection of systems
The blocks of the electronic system can be connected with one another, to form more complex
systems. This is called “Interconnection of blocks”. These interconnected blocks are about to
perform the specific action or task. This interconnection is of two types

1) Parallel connection
2) Series connection
Series connected electronic system
The system formed by the series connection of the individual blocks is called as “Series
connected system”. The output of the system formed by series connection of the two blocks is
equal to the multiplication of the outputs of two individual blocks.
Let’s see the system below. Here a complex system is formed by connecting the two individual
blocks, G1 and G2.
If the output of the system first system is G1 and the output of the system is G2 then the output
of the series connected system is equal to Y (t) = G1(s)*G2(s).
If the system has 3 blocks A, B, C connected in series, then the output of the series connected
system is equal to Y = A*B*C. We can apply this for any number of blocks in series.
Example: a micro phone connected with amplifier and speaker.
Parallel Connected Electronic System
The system formed by the parallel connection of the individual blocks is called as “Parallel
connected system”. The output of the system formed by series connection of the two blocks is
equal to the sum of the outputs of two individual blocks.
Let’s see the system below. Here a complex system is formed by connecting the two individual
blocks, G1 and G2.

If the output of the system first system is G1 and the output of the system is G2 then the output
of the parallel connected system is equal to Y (t) = G1(s) + G2(s).
If the system has 3 blocks A, B, C connected in series, then the output of the series connected
system is equal to Y = A + B + C. We can apply this for any number of blocks in parallel.
Example: several micro-phones connected with single amplifier and to a single speaker system.
Electronic feedback systems
Feedback is another type of interconnection of systems. Feedback loop means connecting some
part of output value connecting back to the input. The electronic systems having a connected
feedback loop are called “Closed feedback system”.
.
The feedback loop allows the system to check errors and avail it to auto correct the errors

occurred in its output. So these systems are more stable than open loop systems (which doesn’t
contain any feedback loop).
Based on the nature of the feedback loop, the closed loop systems classified as positive
feedback systems and negative feedback systems.
The system in which the feedback loop increases the level of output of the system is known as
“Positive feedback electronic systems”. Similarly, the system in which the feedback loop
decreases the level of output of the system is known as “Negative feedback electronic systems”.
Example: An automatic heating system is an example of the simple feedback system.
2.5 RPS
An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the load terminals
irrespective of changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. Thus, the primary
function of a regulated power supply is to convert an AC power into a steady DC power. The
regulated power supply is sometimes also called as a linear power supply.
The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should remain
constant even if the input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an AC power as input
and generates a constant DC power as output. A regulated power supply is basically an embedded
circuit consisting of various blocks.
Block Diagram and Operation of Regulated Power Supply
The block diagram of a typical regulated power supply is shown in Figure-1.
The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts −
• Step-down transformer
• Rectifier circuit
• DC filter circuit
• Voltage regulator
Now, let us discuss the operation of each block of the regulated power supply one by one.
Function of Step-Down Transformer
The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply changes the input AC
voltage to the desired lower voltage value. Also, this transformer provides an electrical isolation

between two circuits. The reduced output AC voltage of the step-down transformer is used as the
input to the rectifier circuit.
Function of Rectifier Circuit
The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It consists of diodes
that perform the rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC voltage into the DC voltage.
However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage. In practice, a full wave rectifier is
used for the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave rectifier can be a center-
tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier converts both positive and
negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
Function of Filter Circuit
Since the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high ripple content.
Hence, the raw output of the rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a pure ripple free direct voltage,
a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of filter circuits such as capacitor filter choke
input filter, π-filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating direct voltage
into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.
Voltage Regulator
The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It monitors and
corrects the fluctuations in the output voltage of the power supply. The output voltage may change
or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC voltage or the change in the load or change in any
physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator takes care of this
problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant at the output terminals.
A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and variable IC regulators
are commonly used in different regulated power supplies as the voltage regulator.
Features of Regulated Power Supply
Following are the main features of the regulated power supply −
• The regulated power supplies have the efficiency ranging from 20% to 25%.
• Regulated power supplies are relatively more reliable.
• Regulated power supplies have less complex circuit and less weight.
• Regulated power supplies give faster response.
• The cost and noise level of the regulated power supplies is low.
Applications of Regulated Power Supplies
As discussed earlier, the regulated power supplies are the embedded circuits that convert an
unregulated AC power supply into a steady DC power supply which is the basic requirement of
several electronic circuits. Hence, the regulated power supplies are extensively used in several
applications such as −
• Mobile charging circuits
• Testing circuits
• Bench power supplies
• Oscillators and amplifiers

• Electronic computers
• Automatic control systems, etc.
2.6 DMM
A digital multimeter (DMM) is a measuring instrument used to measure various

electrical quantities. The standard measurements that are performed by a DMM are current,
voltage and resistance. Apart from these, a digital multimeter can also measure temperature,
frequency, capacitance, continuity, transistor gains etc.
Block Diagram of Digital Multimeter
DMM Controls and Connection Ports
A typical DMM has a rotary switch, digital display and connecting jacks for the probes. Let’s
see the various parts of DMM in somewhat details −

• Display − The DMM has an illuminated display screen for better visualisation. Most
DMM have four digit display, the first of which can only be either a 0 or 1 and a + / -
indication as well. There may also be some more indicators like AC / DC etc.
• Connection Ports − There are three or four ports available on the front of the DMM.
However, only two are needed at a time. Typical ports of the DMM are −
o Common − It is used with all measurements. The negative (black) probe is
connected to this.
o VΩmA Port − This port is used for the most measurements and positive
(red)probe is connected to it.
o 10A Port − It is used to measure the large currents in the circuits.
• Dial (Selection Knob) − There is a rotary switch to select the types of measurement to
be made and range that is needed.
• Additional Connections − There are some additional connections in DMM for other
measurements like temperature, transistor gains etc.
• Additional Buttons and switches − There are a few additional buttons are present in
a DMM. The main one is ON/OFF button.
Measurements using Digital Multimeter
• In AC Voltage Mode − The applied input voltage is fed through a

calibrated,compensated attenuator, to a full-wave rectifier followed by a ripple
reduction filter.The resulting DC is fed to analog to digital converter (ADC) and finally
to the display system.
• For Current Measurement −
o In DC Current Mode − The drop across an internal calibrated shunt is
measured directly by the ADC.
o In AC Current Mode − After AC to DC conversion, the drop across the
internal calibrated shunt is measured by the ADC
• In Resistance Mode − In the resistance range, the digital multimeter operates by
measuring the voltage across the externally connected resistor, resulting from a current
flowing through it from a calibrated internal current source.

Operation of Digital Multimeter
With the knowledge of how to make voltage, current and resistance measurements, the
operation of DMM is quite easy. It is necessary to install a battery in the DMM to power it.
Steps for the use of digital multimeter −
• Turn the meter ON.

• Insert the probes into the correct connecting ports.
• Set the dial (rotary switch) to the correct measurement type and range for the
measurement to be made. While selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is
above than that is expected. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible enable
all the leading digits to not read zero, in this way the greatest number of significant
digits can be read.
• Once the measurement is completed, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the
voltage measurement ports and turn the range to maximum voltage. So that if the meter
probes are accidentally connected across a high voltage point, there is a little chance of
damage to the DMM.
Advantages of Digital Multimeter
• Cheap and easily available.

• Auto range according to requirements.
• Smaller size and light in weight.
• Auto off.
• Auto polarity, etc.
2.7 OSCILLOSCOPE
Oscilloscope is an electronic equipment, which displays a voltage waveform. Among

the oscilloscopes, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is the basic one and it displays a time
varying signal or waveform.
Let us discuss about the block diagram of CRO and measurements of some parameters by
using CRO.
Block Diagram of CRO
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical amplifier, delay
line, trigger circuit, time base generator, horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) &
power supply. The block diagram of CRO is shown in below figure.

The function of each block of CRO is mentioned below.
• Vertical Amplifier − It amplifies the input signal, which is to be displayed on the

screen of CRT.
• Delay Line − It provides some amount of delay to the signal, which is obtained at the
output of vertical amplifier. This delayed signal is then applied to vertical deflection
plates of CRT.
• Trigger Circuit − It produces a triggering signal in order to synchronize both
horizontal and vertical deflections of electron beam.
• Time base Generator − It produces a sawtooth signal, which is useful for horizontal
deflection of electron beam.
• Horizontal Amplifier − It amplifies the sawtooth signal and then connects it to the
horizontal deflection plates of CRT.
• Power supply − It produces both high and low voltages. The negative high voltage
and positive low voltage are applied to CRT and other circuits respectively.
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) − It is the major important block of CRO and mainly
consists of four parts. Those are electron gun, vertical deflection plates, horizontal
deflection plates and fluorescent screen.
The electron beam, which is produced by an electron gun gets deflected in both vertical and
horizontal directions by a pair of vertical deflection plates and a pair of horizontal deflection
plates respectively. Finally, the deflected beam will appear as a spot on the fluorescent
screen.
In this way, CRO will display the applied input signal on the screen of CRT. So, we can
analyse the signals in time domain by using CRO
Measurements by using CRO
We can do the following measurements by using CRO.
• Measurement of Amplitude
• Measurement of Time Period
• Measurement of Frequency
Now, let us discuss about these measurements one by one.
Measurement of Amplitude

CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The amplitude of that
voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover the voltage
signal in vertical direction by varying volt/division knob on the CRO panel. Therefore, we
will get the amplitude of the signal, which is present on the screen of CRO by using
following formula.
A=j×nv
Where,
A is the amplitude
j is the value of volt/division
nv is the number of divisions that cover the signal in vertical direction.
Measurement of Time Period
CRO displays the voltage signal as a function of time on its screen. The Time period of that
periodic voltage signal is constant, but we can vary the number of divisions that cover one
complete cycle of voltage signal in horizontal direction by varying time/division knob on the
CRO panel.
Therefore, we will get the Time period of the signal, which is present on the screen of CRO
by using following formula.
T=k×nℎ
Where,
T is the Time period
j is the value of time/division
nh is the number of divisions that cover one complete cycle of the periodic signal in
horizontal direction.
Measurement of Frequency
The frequency, f of a periodic signal is the reciprocal of time period, T. Mathematically, it

can be represented as
f=1T=1
So, we can find the frequency, f of a periodic signal by following these two steps.
• Step1 − Find the Time period of periodic signal

• Step2 − Take reciprocal of Time period of periodic signal, which is obtained in
Step1.

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Unit Ii Introduction To Electronics Engineering

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231GE211 BASIC ENGINEERING SCIENCE UNIT 2

UNIT II INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Passive Components-Resistance, Inductance, Capacitance - Signal Sources-Voltage and

2.1 PASSIVE COMPONENTS

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Working of Passive components includes, passive components receiving electrical energy

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• Dielectric is made up of ceramic, mica, glass, waxed paper, and bakelite.

Capacitor (Passive Component)

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2.2 SIGNAL SOURCES

Types of Signal Sources

Independent Voltage Source

Constant Voltage Sources

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Time Variant Voltage Sources

Independent Current Source

Constant Current Source

Time-Variant Current Source

Ideal Voltage Source

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Practical Voltage Source

Ideal Current Source

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Practical Current Source

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• Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

2.3 REPRESENTATION UNDER ASSUMPTION OF LINEARITY

In electronics, a linear circuit consists of elements within a resistor that result in a

The relationship between voltage and current in a resistor.

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Non-linear I-V curve of a diode.

Performing Linearity Circuit Analysis

Analyzing a linear circuit requires basic electronics knowledge, particularly in Ohm’s

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Kirchoff’s Voltage and Current Laws

Example of a linear circuit.

Thus, I1 and I2 can be solved as follow:

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Applying KCL, It is known by the following equation.

Are AC-Driven Circuits Linear?

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

The VCVS1 element is set with a gain of 10, so it creates an equation:

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Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

A VCCS is a current source where the current is controlled by a voltage elsewhere in

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Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS)

A CCVS is a voltage source where the voltage is controlled by a current elsewhere in

Again, with no feedback, the total current on the left-hand side

Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

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2.4 ELECTRONIC SYSTEM

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Block diagram of system

Types of electronic systems

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Example for continuous system

The process of measuring the temperature of a room is an example of continuous system. As

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Example for Discrete system

Representing continuous system as a set of discrete intervals

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