Computer Organization and Architecture (KCS-302)

Unit - 5
INPUT/OUTPUT

Mr. Laxman Singh

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

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 Introduction to Input-Output
Interface
Input-Output Interface: The method that is used to transfer information
between internal storage and external I/O devices is known as I/O interface
 A peripheral device is that which provide input and output for the computer,
it is also called Input-Output devices. For Example: A keyboard and mouse
provide Input to the computer are called input devices while a monitor and
printer that provide output to the computer are called output devices.
Just like the external hard-drives, there is also availability of some peripheral
devices which are able to provide both input and output.

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 Input-Output Interface
 The nature of peripheral devices is
electromagnetic and electro-
mechanical. The nature of the CPU is
electronic. There is a lot of difference
in the mode of operation of both
peripheral devices and CPU.
 There is a special need of the
additional hardware to resolve the
differences between CPU and
peripheral devices to supervise and
synchronize all input and output
devices.

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 Functions of Input-Output Interface:
1. It is used to synchronize the operating speed of CPU with respect to
input-output devices.
2. It selects the input-output device which is appropriate for the
interpretation of the input-output device.
3. It is capable of providing signals like control and timing signals.
4. In this data buffering can be possible through data bus.
5. There are various error detectors.
6. It converts serial data into parallel data and vice-versa.
7. It also convert digital data into analog signal and vice-versa.

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 Input Output Ports
Ports: The connection point acts as an interface between the computer
and external devices like printers, modems, etc
There are two types of ports :
Internal Port: It connects the system’s motherboard to internal devices like
hard disk, CD drive, internal Bluetooth, etc.
External Port: It connects the system’s motherboard to external devices
like a mouse, printer, USB, etc.

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 Types of Computer Ports
There are different types of ports 7.FireWire Port
available:
1. Serial port 8. Sockets
2. Parallel port 9. Infrared Port
3. USB port
10. Game Port
4. PS/2 port
11. Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port
5. VGA port
6. Modem port 12. Ethernet Port
Sockets

Infrared Port

Game Port

Digital Video Interface(DVI) Port

Ethernet Port LAXMAN SINGH 6

Input Output Ports

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 Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal emitted by hardware or software when a process or an
event needs immediate attention.
It alerts the processor to a high-priority process requiring interruption of the
current working process.
In I/O devices, one of the bus control lines is dedicated for this purpose and is
called the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
When a device raises an interrupt at the process, the processor first completes
the execution of an instruction. Then it loads the Program Counter (PC) with
the address of the first instruction of the ISR. Before loading the program
counter with the address, the address of the interrupted instruction is moved
to a temporary location. Therefore, after handling the interrupt, the processor
can continue with the process.

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 Interrupts
While the processor is handling the
interrupts, it must inform the device
that its request has been recognized to
stop sending the interrupt request
signal. Also, saving the registers so that
the interrupted process can be
restored in the future increases the
delay between the time an interrupt is
received and the start of the execution
of the ISR. This is called Interrupt
Latency.

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A single computer can perform only one computer instruction at a time.
But, because it can be interrupted, it can manage how programs or sets
of instructions will be performed.
This is known as multitasking. It allows the user to do many different
things simultaneously, and the computer turns to manage the programs
that the user starts. Of course, the computer operates at speeds that
make it seem like all user tasks are being performed simultaneously.

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Types of Interrupt

Interrupt signals may be issued in response to hardware or software

events. These are classified as hardware interrupts or software
interrupts, respectively.

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 1. Hardware Interrupts
A hardware interrupt is a condition related to the state of the hardware that
may be signaled by an external hardware device, e.g., an interrupt request
(IRQ) line on a PC, or detected by devices embedded in processor logic to
communicate that the device needs attention from the operating system. For
example, pressing a keyboard key or moving a mouse triggers hardware
interrupts that cause the processor to read the keystroke or mouse position.

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2. Software Interrupts
The processor requests a software interrupt upon executing particular
instructions or when certain conditions are met. Every software
interrupt signal is associated with a particular interrupt handler.
A software interrupt may be intentionally caused by executing a special
instruction that invokes an interrupt when executed by design. Such
instructions function similarly to subroutine calls and are used for
various purposes, such as requesting operating system services and
interacting with device drivers.

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Handling Multiple Devices

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1. Polling
Polling is a method of controlling the access to a transmission medium which is
shared by a number of stations.
In polling, the first device encountered with the IRQ bit set is to be serviced first, and
appropriate ISR is called to service the same. It is easy to implement, but a lot of
time is wasted by interrogating the IRQ bit of all devices.
2. Vectored Interrupts
In vectored interrupts, a device requesting an interrupt identifies itself directly by
sending a special code to the processor over the bus. This enables the processor to
identify the device that generated the interrupt. The special code can be the starting
address of the ISR or where the ISR is located in memory and is called the interrupt
vector.

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3. Interrupt Nesting
In this method, the I/O device is organized in a priority structure.
Therefore, an interrupt request from a higher priority device is
recognized, whereas a lower priority device is not. The processor
accepts interrupts only from devices/processes having priority more
than it.
Processors priority is encoded in a few bits of PS (Process Status
register), and it can be changed by program instructions that write into
the PS. The processor is in supervised mode only while executing OS
routines, and it switches to user mode before executing application
programs.

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Mode of data Transfer:
The binary information that is received from an external device is
usually stored in the memory unit.
The information that is transferred from the CPU to the external device
is originated from the memory unit.
CPU merely processes the information but the source and target is
always the memory unit.
Data transfer between CPU and the I/O devices may be done in
different modes.

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Data transfer to and from the peripherals may be done in any of the
three possible ways
1. Programmed I/O.
2. Interrupt- initiated I/O.
3. Direct memory access( DMA).

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1. Programmed I/O: It is due to the result of the I/O instructions that
are written in the computer program. Each data item transfer is initiated
by an instruction in the program. Usually the transfer is from a CPU
register and memory. In this case it requires constant monitoring by the
CPU of the peripheral devices.Example of Programmed I/O: In this case,
the I/O device does not have direct access to the memory unit. A
transfer from I/O device to memory requires the execution of several
instructions by the CPU

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2. Interrupt- initiated I/O: Since in the above case we saw the CPU is
kept busy unnecessarily. This situation can very well be avoided by using
an interrupt driven method for data transfer. By using interrupt facility
and special commands to inform the interface to issue an interrupt
request signal whenever data is available from any device. In the
meantime the CPU can proceed for any other program execution.
Note: Both the methods programmed I/O and Interrupt-driven I/O
require the active intervention of the
processor to transfer data between memory and the I/O module

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 Direct Memory Access(DMA)
DMA is a method that allows an I/O devices directly to or from
the main memory bypassing the CPU to speed up memory
operation.
The process is managed by Chip know as a DMA
controller(DMAC).
DMA Controller is a hardware device that allows I/O devices to
directly access memory with less participation of the processor.
DMA controller needs the same old circuits of an interface to
communicate with the CPU and Input/Output devices.
It gets 4 parameters.
1) Source Address
2) Destination Address
3) Byte Count
4) Read/Write

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Block diagram of DMA

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 DMA:
Fig-1 below shows the block diagram of the DMA controller.
The unit communicates with the CPU through data bus and control lines. Through
the use of the address bus and allowing the DMA and RS register to select inputs,
the register within the DMA is chosen by the CPU.
RD and WR are two-way inputs. When BG (bus grant) input is 0, the CPU can
communicate with DMA registers. When BG (bus grant) input is 1, the CPU has
relinquished the buses and DMA can communicate directly with the memory.
The DMA controller has three registers as follows.
Address register – It contains the address to specify the desired location in
memory.
Word count register – It contains the number of words to be transferred.
Control register – It specifies the transfer mode.

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DMA:
Explanation :
The CPU initializes the DMA by sending the given information through
the data bus.
The starting address of the memory block where the data is available (to
read) or where data are to be stored (to write).
It also sends word count which is the number of words in the memory
block to be read or write.
Control to define the mode of transfer such as read or write.
A control to begin the DMA transfer.

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 DMA:
Bus Request : It is used by the DMA
controller to request the CPU to
relinquish the control of the buses.
Bus Grant : It is activated by the CPU to
Inform the external DMA controller that
the buses are in high impedance state
and the requesting DMA can take
control of the buses. Once the DMA has
taken the control of the buses it
transfers the data. This transfer can take
place in many ways.

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Serial Communication
Serial communication is the process of sequentially transferring the
information/bits on the same channel. Due to this, the cost of wire will be
reduced, but it slows the transmission speed. Generally, communication can be
described as the process of interchanging information between individuals in
the form of audio, video, verbal words, and written documents.
In serial communication, binary pulses are used to show the data. Binary
contains the two numbers 0 and 1. 0 is used to show the LOW or 0 Volts, and 1
is used to show the HIGH or 5 Volts.
The serial communication can either be asynchronous or synchronous.

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1. Synchronous Communication
In synchronous communication, the frames or data will be constructed
with the help of combining the groups of bits. That frames will be
continuously sent in time with a master clock. It uses a synchronized
clock frequency to operate the data of sender or receiver. In
synchronous communication, there is no need to use the gaps, start bits
and stop bits.

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2. Asynchronous Communication
In asynchronous communication, the groups of bits will be treated as
an independent unit, and these data bits will be sent at any point in
time. In order to make synchronization between sender and receiver,
the stop bits and start bits are used between the data bytes. These bits
are useful to ensure that the data is correctly sent. The time taken by
data bits of sender and receiver is not constant, and the time between
transmissions will be provided by the gaps.

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 Serial Communication
On the basis of the data transfer rate
and the type of transmission mode,
serial communication will take many
forms. The transmission mode can be
classified into
1. simplex
2. half-duplex
3. full-duplex
Each transmission mode contains the
source, also known as sender or
transmitter, and destination, also known
as the receiver.

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1. Simplex
In the simplex method, the data
transmission can be performed only
in one direction. At a time, only one
client (either sender or receiver) can
be active.
Example 1:
Printers and computers are one
more example of the simplex.
Computers always send data to the
printers, but printers are not able to
send the data to the computers

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2. Half Duplex
In the half-duplex, the sender and
receiver can communicate in both
directions, but not at the same
time.
Example: Walkie-talkie is also a
classic example of half-duplex.

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 3. Full Duplex
In the full-duplex, the sender and the
receiver are able to send and receive
at the same time. The communication
mode of full-duplex is widely used in
the world.
Example: Audio calling or Video
calling is also an example of full-
duplex.
Telephone Network is a good example
of full-duplex mode

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 Parallel communication
Parallel communication is used to
transmit a huge amount of data signals
simultaneously on the different channels
within the same radio path or cable at a
time.
It is used to comprise a huge amount of
wired channels in parallel. In parallel
communication, the data transfer
between sender and receiver is done with
the help of multiple channels.
The data bus in the parallel devices is
wider as compared to the serial devices.

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Thank You

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