Unit 5:

A GIS and Remote Sensing Technology-Based Water management in Agriculture

5.1. Multi-Criteria Analysis for Modeling Ground Water Potential

5.2. Identification of Suitable Site for Surface Water Harvesting
5.3. Mapping and Monitoring Irrigated Land
5.4. Flood inundation delineation and Damage Assessment
5.5. Land suitability and capability assessment for agriculture

Exercise 5. Land suitability and capability modeling for the specific crop types

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5.1. Multi-Criteria Analysis for Modeling
(MCAM) Ground Water Potential

Focus

1. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352801X19300797
2. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002216942201071X
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5.1.Multi-Criteria Analysis for Modeling(MCAM) Ground Water Potential (GWP)

• Multi-Criteria Analysis for Modeling(MCAM) Ground Water

Potential (GWP) is modelling approach using several criteria.
Some of these are :

1. Drainage density (DD),

2. Slope (SLO),
3. Geomorphology (GM), Negatively
4. Soil thickness (ST), influences GWP
5. Groundwater Table Depth (GWTD)
6. lineament density (LD),
7. Rainfall (RF), positively influence with increasing
8. Infiltration rate (IR) class range values for GWP

• Surface lithology (SL) and land use/land cover (LULC) are reliant
on porosity and presence of water bodies for percolation into the
aquifer.

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 1. Surface lithology (SL)

• It is general physical
characteristics of a rock or the
rocks in a particular area
• Surface lithology influences
recharge to the groundwater
• The presence of fine-grain
materials (clay, peat or silt, and the
percentage of organic matter
within the soil) decreases intrinsic
permeability and prevent
infiltration of surface water to the
groundwater.
• Lithological information can be
obtained from the Geological
Survey
• Examples of dominant types of soil
layer namely clay, marsh clay,
peat, alluvial silt, limestone,
basalt…

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 2. Lineament density (LD)

• Lineaments are structurally

controlled linear or
• curvilinear features, which are
identified from the satellite
imagery by their relatively linear
alignments
• Lineament density is the ratio of the
total length of lineaments to the
catchment area and the unit is km per
km2.
• High lineament density provides
more recharge and good for
groundwater potentiality.
• The lineament map can be prepared
from Landsat ETM panchromatic
band of 15 m resolution image by
edge enhancement technique.
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 3. Drainage density (DD)

• Drainage network can be extracted

from the Digital Elevation
Model(DEM) and the drainage
density map obtained using a line
density tool.
• DD value calculated by using the
ratio of the total length of the
channel to the basin area and the
unit is km per km2.
• DD determines the rate of water
percolation of a particular area
• Higher values allow very high and
quick surface water runoff, so
infiltration is low.
• In addition, the lower value of
drainage density allows lower
runoff, so the infiltration rate is high

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 4. Infiltration rate (IR)

• The infiltration rate is the product of drainage density and stream

frequency of a watershed.
Infiltration number is directly proportional to the surface runoff,
which may be used to detect the high percolation zone.
The stream frequency of an area is the summation of all streams of
a particular order divided by the catchment area.
• Dry soil percolates rainwater rapidly and finally reaches the aquifer.
• Soil infiltration measures in a watershed are difficult for the
dependency on so many factors viz. soil texture, topography, rainfall
intensity and vegetation etc.

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ’𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟’

Stream frequency=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎,

Infiltration Rate(IR)=𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦*Stream frequency

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Stream frequency refers to the number of streams per unit area
 5. Groundwater table depth (GWTD)

• The depth to the water table is the vertical distance between the
ground surface and the water table.
• The most reliable method of obtaining the depth to the water table at
any given time is to measure the water level in a shallow well with a
tape.
• Groundwater table depth represents the interaction of groundwater
with natural and anthropogenic activities of recharge and discharge
components in response to geology, climate, physiography, land and
hydrology.

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 6. Rainfall (RF)

• Rainfall intensity and its duration play an important role in infiltration

• When all conditions fulfill, the groundwater recharge situation
becomes suitable to reach rainfall water into the aquifer

a) Groundwater
table depth map
and classes,
b) Rainfall map
and classes

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 7. Geomorphology (GM)

• Geomorphology map helps to

understand various geomorphic
parts, landforms and underlying
rock that provide an outline of
processes, materials, structures,
and geologic controls relating to
groundwater prospects
• Roughness or irregularities have a
direct influence on the water
movement
• Geomorphological divisions can
be categorized as as very smooth,
smooth, moderate, irregular and
highly irregular
• The very smooth landform is
suitable for groundwater
recharge
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 8. Soil thickness (ST)

• The clay layer is impervious to

the recharge; therefore, the
surface water cannot reach the
aquifer in the clay layer zone
• Using inverse distance
weighting (IDW) the clay layer
thickness interpolation map
can be prepared
• Dry clay soil has more cracks
to the top layer those facilities
to the infiltration of rainfall
water,
• Wet clay soil has more water
holding capacity therefore wet
soil play role against recharge

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 9. Slope (SLO)

• Slope refers to the elevation

changing rate and plays a role
in identifying the groundwater
potential zone.
• The steeper slope supports
the high surface runoff and
rapid erosion of surface soil.
• The slope is important for
groundwater recharge; a high
slope angle is less suitable for
infiltration that allows quick
runoff of rainfall water.
• DEM used for slope map
preparation.

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 10. Land use/land cover (LULC)

• LULC can be prepared from Landsat, Sentinel and other satellite

image
• The agriculture land, water body and the vegetation area favorable
for groundwater recharge, but settlement and wasteland areas are
not significant for groundwater recharge.

• What are the common LULC types in Lake Hawassa Watershed?

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5.1.Multi-Criteria Analysis for Modeling Ground Water Potential

• Application of modern techniques is a pre-requisite for

sustainable groundwater development
• The Analytical Hierarchal Process (AHP) employed to assign
weights to various thematic maps, and they will be overlaid using
the “Weighted sum” overlay analysis in the geographic
information system (GIS) domain
• Each layer weight and their classes are ranked individually based
on the field experience and literature review for the proposed
area.
• Layer class rank (individual class has individual rank) and weight
from Saaty’s assumption of each layer (each layer has unique
weight) will be multiplied to get the probable individual layer
that is added to get groundwater potential zone (GWPZ) map. Eq.
(11) shows the required groundwater potential zone calculation.

෍ Wi R i GWPZ = Groundwater potential zone, Wi = Weight for each

i=1 layer,R i = Rate for eachMN(PhD)
class of each layer.
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 Flow chart of the methodology used to select the best model

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https://www.mdpi.com/2220-9964/11/12/603
 Weighted Overlays

• Each input can be weighted according to its

importance or its percent influence.
• The weight is a relative percentage, and the sum of
the percent influence weights must equal 100%.

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 GIS-MCDA common steps

• Determine the criteria and the constraints. Using a combination of

experts' opinions and information from various sources.
• This could be acquired from discussions with experts of relevant
fields, surveying of literature and analysis of historical data.
• Transform the values onto a relative scale.
• This allows for comparison between each of the criteria, and for
us to represent the judgments and expert knowledge with
meaningful numbers.
• Weight the importance of each criteria in regards to the objective,
and in respect to each other.
• Combine, synthesise and aggregate the layers/criteria together.
• Analyse and then validate your results

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Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

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5.2.Identification of Suitable Site for
Surface Water Harvesting

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5.2.Identification of Suitable Site for Surface Water Harvesting(SWH)

• Identification of SWH suitable sites in this study used biophysical

and hydrological parameters:
• slope gradient,
• soil texture,
• drainage density,
• land use, &
• runoff potential.
• These parameters were utilized to evaluate potential RWH sites
through AHP analysis.
• Furthermore, distance to road, river, and settlement was the
additional socio-economic parameter utilized in determining the
suitable location for SWH
• Following that, the obtained SWH potential map and unsuitable
RWH map combined to produce the final map of RWH suitable
sites.

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 Conceptual framework of determining RWH suitable map

See details @ https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/1039/1/012010/pdf

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5.3.Mapping and Monitoring
Irrigated Land

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 WHY IRRIGATION?
 Among the human activities altering the natural water cycle,
irrigation is the most impactful one.

 More than 70% (almost 90% in some countries) of global

freshwater withdrawals are destined to irrigation
practices (Foley et al., 2011; doi:10.1038/nature10452 )

 But , detailed information on irrigation dynamics (i.e., timing,

mapping, and amounts) is generally lacking worldwide.

 From the hydrological point of view

 Irrigation water is often delivered in a site different from
where it is withdrawn (from rivers, dams, groundwater)
 Irrigation water alters surface and sub-surface flows
 Irrigation increases evapotranspiration, as crops have the
optimal amount of water allowing the evapotranspiration
at the potential rate 2
3

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 Available irrigation data
Salmon et al., 2015;
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2015.01.014)
(Nagaraj et al.,
021;https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2021.103910)

(Huang et al., 2018;

https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2117-2018) SATISTICAL SURVEYS /
STATISTICAL SURVEYS + REMOTE SENSING
MODELING APPROACHES

2
4

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 Available irrigation data
• The only information available is often represented by statistical surveys at the
country (or even at a coarser) scale
• Farmers are generally reluctant to share information on irrigation doses, as
agricultural water is often paid on the basis of concessions and not on the
basis of actual consumption
• Information on irrigation practices are often collected through surveys relying
on self-declarations, which can be affected by several uncertainties

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 WHY IRRIGATION?
• The only information available is
often represented by statistical
surveys at the country (or even
at a coarser) scale

• Information on irrigation
practices are often collected
through surveys relying on self-
declarations, which can be Areas equipped for irrigation, GMIA–FAO (Siebert et al., 2015)
affected by several
uncertainties

Key (unsolved) questions:

 Do we know when and where irrigation practices actually occur
and required?
 How much water is used & required for irrigation?
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26
 IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES
How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?
Optical sensors
 Observations retrieved by optical sensors can be used to develop approaches
aimed at detecting changes in vegetation status, at measuring land surface
temperature, and at modeling evapotranspiration (ET)
 Such methodologies find widespread use in irrigation detection (i.e., mapping
and timing) applications. They mainly rely on the different spectral response
from irrigated and non-irrigated fields

27

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IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES…….

How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?

Optical sensors
Nevertheless, observations from optical sensors are used for quantification
purposes as well. Several studies focus on ET, with different strategies:

 Irrigation estimates calculated as the difference between ET and rainfall (i.e.,

the natural input)
 Irrigation estimated as the difference between satellite and modeled ET
 Use of water and energy balances
 Irrigation estimated on the basis of ET differences observed over irrigated
and non-irrigated fields

Main disadvantage: limitations due to cloud coverage

28

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 IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES
• How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?

Microwave (MW) sensors

 MW satellite products (e.g., soil moisture) can be used to detect and quantify
irrigation.
• The main advantage is that they are not affected by weather conditions.
Discrepancies between satellite
(including, theoretically,
irrigation) and modeled (not
Detection and Mapping including irrigation) data sets
methods
based on MW soil
moisture Analysis of satellite soil moisture
data sets and their features

Soil water balance

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 IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES

How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?

Data Assimilation

Two main tools to understand the Earth surface and

its processes:
→ Models
→ Observations

30

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 IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES
How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?
Data Assimilation

Courtesy of S. Modanesi
Can be used to
optimize:
→ model parameters
→ model forcing
→ model state 31

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 IRRIGATION MONITORING THROUGH
SATELLITES

How can we use satellites for monitoring irrigation?

(Massari et al., 2021; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13204112)

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5.4. Flood inundation delineation &
Damage Assessment

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 Floodplain Definitions

 To define a floodplain depends somewhat on the goals in mind as:

 topographic category it is quite flat and lies adjacent to a
stream;
 geomorphologically, it is a landform composed primarily of
unconsolidated depositional material derived from sediments
being transported by the related stream;
 hydrologically, it is best defined as a landform subject to
periodic flooding by a parent stream
 A combination of these [characteristics] perhaps comprises the
essential criteria for defining the floodplain"

 Floodplain is any land area susceptible to being inundated by

flood waters from any source

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 Floodplain Definitions
 A floodplain or bottomlands is
an area of land adjacent to a
river.
 Floodplains stretch from the
banks of a river channel to the
base of the enclosing valley, and
experience flooding during
periods of high discharge.
• The soils usually consist of
clays, silts, sands, and gravels
deposited during floods
• Because of regular flooding,
floodplains frequently have
high soil-fertility since nutrients
are deposited with the flood
waters.

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What’s so Important About Floodplains

• 82% of the world’s population lives in areas with high flood risk (UNDP,
2004).

Mortality risk is expressed within

a decile range with 10 being the
most exposed (Decile 10= est.
300 people/sq. km and decile 9 is
around 150 people/sq. km).
Source: Mark Pelling, Visions of
Risk, UNDP / ISDR, 2004

•¾ of world population lives within coastal zone

USA – 16.5 million (5% population) within flood prone coast
•½ billion people live within flood prone deltas
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If We Know Where the Floodplain Is …

• Operations
•Flood prevention (dam and levee operations)
•Emergency management
•Facility management

• Planning
•Design
•Insurance (not everywhere)
•Emergency planning

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Principles of GIS
Floodplain
Delineation

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 How to Get the Floodplain
• Observations
• Water surface elevations
• Flows
• Precipitation (rainfall, snow)
• Temperature, soil moisture, E/T, …

• Modeling (H&H)
• Precipitation-runoff
• Real-time
• Planning (design)

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 Direct Observations (stage/flow)
• Traditionally through gaging
station
• Problems with sensors
during floods

• High water marks

• Not real time

• Remote sensing –
airborne/satellite
• Problem with sensors and
cloud cover, cost, timeliness
• Some new options with
UAVs

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 Modeling

• How much water is there?

•Hydrologic modeling (precipitation-runoff
modeling), determines for a given storm on a
landscape, how much water will become runoff.
• Where will it go?
•Hydraulic modeling takes the quantity of water and
the shape of the landscape and stream channel and
determines how deep and fast the water will be, and
what area it will cover.
• Types of modeling
•Real-time (operations, forecasting)
•Long term (planning, design)

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 Hydrologic Modeling

• Goal: Find stream discharge, Q, at a

location for a given precipitation event.

• There are many ways to calculate Q.

• Statistical methods
• USGS regression equations (NFF,
StreamStats)
• Deterministic/physical modeling
(“rainfall/runoff”)
• HEC-HMS, SMS, …

 GIS is used to summarize terrain and hydrologic characteristics of the

watershed for input to a model.

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Observations For Modeling (precipitation)

• Space and time distribution issues

• Traditional rain gages
• Nexrad
• Satellite
• Needs calibration!!!!

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Observations For Modeling (other)

• Space and time distribution issues

• Needs calibration!!!!

Snow pack

Groundwater levels

Evaporation

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What Can GIS Do for Floodplain Modeling? –
A LOT!
• Centralized data storage
• Data preparation for multiple models
• Postprocessing of modeling results
• Integration of modeling results with other data
• Automation of operations (Map to Map)
• Mobilizing technology (once results are available):
• Emergency management
• Notifications
• Vehicle routing
• …

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Methods for GIS Floodplain Delineation
• Basic result “stack”:
• Floodplain extent polygon (the “blue blob”)
• Depth of flooding surface (usually raster)
• Water surface elevation surface (usually raster)
• The stack can have two domains:
• Temporal (for real-time analysis – e.g. what will the flood
extent be today at 16:00)
• Probabilistic (for planning – e.g. what is the 100-year return
period flood extent)
• Extended “stack” (heavily dependent on the method used):
• Velocities
• Risks
• …

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Methods for GIS Floodplain Delineation

• One size does NOT fit all! Why not?

• Depends on the available data and scope of the analysis.
• Anything:
• From basic topographic analysis
• To full integration with 2D/3D hydraulic models
• And anything in between
• A matrix of solutions and tools that have to be assembled into
coherent workflows for specific use cases.

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 Floodplain Delineation Solutions Matrix -
Simplest
• “Flooding out” technique based
on DEM only.
• Derived stream centerline.
• Floodplain stack derived using
“flood out” technique for fixed or
incremental depth increase
along the stream.

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 Flood Inundation

http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods

 Monitors flooding
worldwide
 Uses data from a
combination of satellites to
produce inundation images
for larger floods
 Archives available

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5.5. Land suitability and capability assessment for agriculture

Exercise 5. Land suitability and capability modeling for the

specific crop types

Key questions?
1) What is the difference between the land suitability(LS) and capability assessment for
agriculture?
2) What are key factors used in LS analysis?

Land Suitability is always used for specific production e.g. onion production, while
Land capability is used in a broader sense, such as agriculture or urban development

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 Group/Individual practical

Land suitability and capability

modeling for the specific crop types
https://www.fao.org/3/x5310e/x5310e04.htm

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 Suitability Mapping

• How can we define Land Suitability ?

• Land suitability is the fitness of a given
type of land for a defined use.
• The land may be considered in its present
condition or after improvements.
• The process of land suitability
classification is the appraisal and grouping
of specific areas of land in terms of their
suitability for defined uses.
• Suitability mapping helps to identify
locations where a given crop can be best
produced given prevailing biophysical
conditions of soils and climate and the
need to use natural resources as efficient
as possible.
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Land suitability for rainfed wheat

Land suitability for rainfed wheat at high inputs as total

potential production (tonnes/hectare based on
average climate from 1980–2010 and global soil and
terrain information)

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 Key factors in LSA for crop

• Climatic factors?
• Soil factors? (inputs & existing )
• Slope
• Crop DGD
• Water availability ? (GWS & SWS)
• Others?

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 Land Suitability Analysis (LSA)

• The analyses of suitability layer candidates are ranked and

scored based on criteria from the following three sources:
1. Variable-based criteria
2. Point-based criteria
3. Field-based criteria

• Variable-based criteria —You can enrich your Suitability

Analysis layer with data from ArcGIS Living Atlas of the World,
which includes the Business Analyst dataset.
• Examples of variable-based criteria include demographic,
socioeconomic, and spending data

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 Point-based criteria-SA

• Point-based criteria—You can enrich your Suitability Analysis

layer with data derived from proximity of points in a layer.
• When formatting point-based criteria, you define the
relationship between the Suitability Analysis layer and points as
positively or negatively impacting your success.
• Examples of point-based criteria include competitor locations,
which may negatively impact candidates, or customers, likely
having a positive impact on candidates if nearby.
• Point-based criteria requires you to define the criteria type in
one of three ways:
• Count—Returns the total points that fall within each of the
Suitability Analysis layer candidate areas.
• Weight—Aggregates and returns the total of a numeric field
value, such as sales, falling within each Suitability Analysis
layer candidate area.
• Minimal Distance —Returns the distance of the closest point
to each of the Suitability Analysis layer candidate areas
based on Distance type and Measure Units that you select.

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 Field-based criteria—SA

• Field-based criteria—You can select and create

criteria from existing fields in the Suitability Analysis
layer attribute table.
• Examples of field-based criteria include square
footage, available parking spaces, and existence of
important facilities.

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 Structure of the suitability classification

• The framework has the same structure, i.e. recognizes the same
categories, in all of the kinds of interpretative classification.
• Each category retains its basic meaning within the context of the
different classifications and as applied to different kinds of land use.
• Four categories of decreasing generalization are recognized:

i. Land Suitability Orders: reflecting kinds of suitability.

ii. Land Suitability Classes: reflecting degrees of suitability within Orders.
iii. Land Suitability reflecting kinds of limitation, or main kinds of
Subclasses: improvement measures required, within Classes.

iv. Land Suitability Units: reflecting minor differences in required management

within Subclasses.

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STRUCTURE OF THE LAND SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

 Land Suitability Orders: S, N

Reflects kinds of suitability
 Land Suitability Classes:S1, S2, S3, S4, N1, N2
Reflects degrees of suitability within orders
 Land Suitability Subclasses: m, o, n, t, e, a, h, p, c, l, v,I.
Reflects kinds of limitations or main kinds of improvement measures
required within classes.
 Land Suitability Units: -1, -2
Reflects minor differences in required management within
subclasses.

Zemede MN(PhD) 59
 Suitability Mapping

• Multicriteria-spatial decision support systems (MC-

SDSS) offer a variety of techniques integrate
decision makers’ preferences to solve “real-world”
GIS-based planning and management problems.

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 Recap the binary approach

• A binary model uses logical expressions to select

spatial features from a composite feature layer or
multiple rasters.
• The output of a binary model is in binary format:
• 1 (true) for spatial features that meet the selection
criteria and
• 0 (false) for features that do not.

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 Recap the binary approach

• A binary model uses logical expressions to select

spatial features from a composite feature layer or
multiple rasters.
• The output of a binary model is in binary format:
• 1 (true) for spatial features that meet the selection
criteria and
• 0 (false) for features that do not.

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 Recap the binary approach: vector

To build a vector-based binary

model, first overlay the layers
so that their spatial features
and attributes (Suit and Type)
are combined.

Then, use the query statement,

Suit = 2 AND Type = 18, to
select polygon 4 and save it to
the output.

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 Recap the binary approach: raster

To build a raster
based binary
model, use the
query statement,
[Raster 1] = 3 AND
[Raster 2] = 3, to
select three cells
(shaded) and save
them to the output
raster.

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Recap the binary approach: raster

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 Further Reading

• https://www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/land-
resources-planning-toolbox/category/details/en/c/1109808/

• https://sis.agr.gc.ca/cansis/publications/manuals/1995-
lsrs/index.html

• http://www.innovativegis.com/basis/mapanalysis/Topic23/Topi
c23.htm

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