PlSc.452 - Management of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Economic Importanc-Insect Pests

Management of Crop Diseases & Insect Pests of Economic Importance (PlSc452)
Wollega University Shambu Campus

Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Plant Sciences
Course Title: Management of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Economic Importance
Course code: PlSc322
Credit hour: 3(2+1)
Lecture hour: 2hr/week
Practical: 3hrs/week
Instructor/s: Dr. Temesgen Fita
Academic Year: 2023
Course Contents
1. INTRODUCTION(2hrs)
1.1 Tropical Environment versus Pest Development
1.2 Disease and Insect Pest Assessment
1.3 Sampling of Insect Population
1.4 Types of Disease and Insect pest Damage
1.5 Option of Pest management
2. DISEASE OF MAJOR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE (2hrs)
2.1 Naming and Classification of the Disease and Pathogen
2.1.1 Economic Importance
2.1.1.1 Extent of loss
2.1.1.2 Nature of loss
2.1.2 Symptom and signs
2.2 MAJOR CROP DISEASE IN ETHIOPIA (12hrs)
2.2.1 Damping of and Seedling blight
2.2.2 Root Rots
2.2.2.1 Root rots of Annuals
2.2.2.2 Root and foot rots of trees
2.2.3 Wilts
2.2.3.1 Fungal wilts
2.2.3.2 Bacterial wilts
2.2.4 Mildews
2.2.4.1 Downy mildews
2.2.4.2 Powdery mildew
2.2.5 Rusts
2.2.5.1 Cereal Rusts
2.2.5.2 Coffee Rusts
2.2.6 Smuts
2.2.6.1 Loose smut
2.2.6.2 Covered smut
2.2.7 Virus Diseases
Prepared by Temesgen Fita, PhD in Agricultural Entomology, MSc in Plant Protection Page i
2.2.8 Nematodes diseases
3 INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE (16hrs)

3.1 General seedling pests (2hrs)
3.1.1 Crickets
3.1.2 Grasshoppers
3.1.3 Termites
3.1.4 Cutworms
3.1.5 Gojam red ants
3.1.6 White grubs
3.2 Insect pests of Cereal crops (4hrs)
3.2.1 Maize and Sorghum Insect Pests
3.2.1.1 maize/Sorghum stem borers
3.2.1.2 Maize & Sorghum Aphids
3.2.1.3 African Boll Worms
3.2.1.4 Pluisa Worms
3.2.1.5 Sorghum midge
3.2.1.6 Sorghum Chafer, Shoot fly and Cluster bugs
3.2.2 Insect pests of Barley and Wheat
3.2.2.1 Barley Fly
3.2.2.2 Army Worm
3.2.2.3 Pluisa Worm
3.2.2.4 Various Aphid species
3.2.3 Insect Pests of Teff
3.2.3.1 Red teff Worm
3.2.3.2 Welo Bush Crickets
3.2.3.3 Teff Epilachna
3.3 Cotton Insect Pests (3hrs)
3.3.1 Sucking Insect Pests
3.3.1.1 Cotton Aphid
3.3.1.2 Cotton Jassid
3.3.1.3 Cotton Thrips
3.3.1.4 Cotton White fly
3.3.1.5 Red Spider mite
3.3.2 Cotton Stainer
3.3.3 Cotton Leaf Eater(1hr)
3.3.3.1 Cotton Leaf Worm
3.3.3.2 Fruit Fly
3.3.4 Cotton boll worm
3.3.4.1 African boll worm
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3.3.4.2 Pink boll worm

3.3.4.3 Spiny boll worm
3.3.4.4 Sudan boll worm
3.4 Insect pests of Horticultural crops (3hrs)
3.4.1 Irish Potato
3.4.1.1 Eplichna beetle
3.4.1.2 Potato tuber moth
3.4.2 Sweet potato
3.4.2.1 Sweet potato butter fly
3.4.2.2 Sweet potato weevil
3.4.3 Onion
3.4.3.1 Onion thrips
3.4.4 Cabbage
3.4.4.1 Cabbage Aphid
3.4.4.2 Daimond back moth
3.4.4.3 Cabbage sawfly
3.4.4.4 Cabbage flea beetle
3.4.5 Tomato
3.4.5.2 Tobacco whitefly
3.5 Pests of Grain legumes (1hr)
3.5.1 African boll worm
3.5.2 Bean Aphid
3.5.3 Bean fly
3.5.4 Pollen beetle
3.5.5 Striped blitrer beetle
3.6 Citrus Pests (1hr)
3.6.1 The Mediteranian fruit fly
3.6.2 Orange Doge
3.6.3 Citrus Pyslid
3.6.4 Red Scale
3.6.5 Cottony cushion scale
3.7 Mango insect pests
3.7.1 Weevil
3.7.2 Spider mite
3.7.3 Thrips
3.7.4 White Mango Scale
3.8 Coffee Insect Pests (1hr)
3.8.1 Coffee Antestia
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3.8.2 Coffee leaf miner

3.9 Stored product insect pests (1hr)
3.9.1 Maize weevil
3.9.2 Anpomouis grain moth
3.9.3 Bean bruchids
4. PRACTICAL OUTLINE
4.1 Observation and identification of important insect Pests and Diseases of crops
4.2 Preservation of Insect and Disease sample
4.3 Isolation of different plant pathogens
4.4 Purification and storage of Pant pathogens
4.5 Inoculation of different plant pathogens
5. PLAND ACTIVITIES
5.1 Field Trips to various Sites
5.5.1 Make Insect pest and diseases assessment practices
5.5.2 Observe Insect pest damage and Disease symptoms
5.5.3. Collect different samples of insect pests and diseases
5.2. Introduction to Agricultural Pesticides
Introduction to pesticides and their application (formulation, dosage, rate of application, labeling,
safe use, storage types of sprayers, protective’s). Each student will practice spraying with
knapsack sprayer, ULVA, motorized knapsack sprayer. It will be planned at least that each
student will spray one thank of each sprayers. The following practice will include:
5.2.1 Calibration
5.2.1.1 Calibration of manual knapsack sprayer
5.2.2. 2 Calibration of Tractor mounted boom sprayer
5.2.2.3 A film show on calibration of Tractor mounted sprayer
5.2.2 Application Equipment
RECOMMENDED REFERENCES
1) Agrois, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology 5th ed. Academic press

2) B.G. Tweedy Henry, 1994. Pesticide Residues and Food safe
3) Chaube, H.S and Singh, U.S. 1990. Plant Disease Management and practice.
4) Dent D. 1989. Insect Pest Management. CAB International.
Prepared by Temesgen Fita, PhD in Agricultural Entomology, MSc in Plant Protection Page iv
5) Hill,D.S. and Waller, J,M. 1990. Pest and Disease of tropical Crops. Vol. Longman Scientific
and Technical.
6) K.P. Srivastava and Dnamo K. Butani, 1998. Pest Management in Vegetables
7) K.P. Srivastava and Y.S. Ahlawat, 1999. Pest Management in Citrus
8) K.R. Nair, 2007. Integrated Production and Pest Management
9) Opender Koul, Guramail S. Dhaliwal & Germit W. Caperus, 2004, Integrated Pest
Management, Potential, Constraints and challenges
10) R.C. Mandal. 2007. Weed, Weedicide and Weed control Principles and practices.
11) Robrt L. Z. 2007. Fundamentals of Weed Science
12) S. A.V. Godewar, B.P. Singh, 2006. Plant Protection in new millennium, vol II.
13) Tsedeke Abate. 1985. A Review of Crop Protection Research in Ethiopia. Proceedings of
first Ethiopian Crop Protection Symposium. IAR, Addis Ababa.
Prepared by Temesgen Fita, PhD in Agricultural Entomology, MSc in Plant Protection Page 2
CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT VERSUS PEST DEVELOPMENT
Why a tropic is favorable place for pest development?
A tropic is the most suitable location for pest development. Due to certain reasons:-
 The temperature is relatively high
 Humidity is roughly high
 Usually there is high rain fall
They are always constant in all seasons but in temperate zone we can see there is a distinct
variation between seasons with regard to temperature, humidity and rainfall
 During winter  wet condition (temperature 0oc/freezing) and
 Summer  dry season (temperature  30oc)
In tropical environment  one can’t see a dramatic variation in climatic factors. The food/s
available throughout the season’s  diseases and insect pests. When the temperature is 0 oc or
freezing  the insect pests normally they stops feeding and go to diapausing state/hibernate but
the insect pests not died. They cannot feed and reproduce.
Tropical pests have normally large numbers of generations per year but not in temperate.
Single generation: Egg larvae pupaadult complete metamorphosis or
Egg nymph adult incomplete metamorphosis
E.g. stem borer (chilopartellus spp) only found in the tropical (low land areas) six (6)
generations per year.
1.2. DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS ASSESSMENT
I. CROP DISEASE ASSESSMENT
Crop disease assessment is otherwise called phytopathometry. It involves the measurement and
quantification of crop diseases. Accurate disease assessment will help in predicting the
development of epidemics and in developing a decision support system for timing the application
of fungicides to control diseases. Diseases are assessed by different methods, based on the type
of disease symptoms and their relationship with yield loss. Remote sensing and image analysis
are important tools in disease assessment.
A. Disease Incidence Assessment
A disease is assessed either as a percentage of disease incidence or as disease severity. Disease

incidence is calculated as follows:
Disease incidence % = Number of infected plants X 100

Total number of plants assessed
Assessment of disease incidence will be useful for measuring systemic infections, which may
result in total plant loss.
 Virus diseases such as rice tungro, barley yellow dwarf, and banana bunchy top, and
 Fungal diseases such as loose smut of wheat and barley and sugarcane smut are assessed
by estimating disease incidence.
 Some fungal pathogens may not cause systemic infection, but may cause total
crop loss.
 Wilt diseases such as Fusarium wilt of tomato, Panama wilt of banana, and
Fusarium wilt of chickpea causes total losses and these diseases are assessed as
percentage of disease incidence.
 Percentage of disease incidence is calculated also for some leaf spot and fruit
spot/rot diseases.
 Brown spot of pear, which is caused by Stemphylium vesicatarium, is assessed by
recording the number of leaves that show leaf spots out of ten leaves of four
shoots per tree
 The brown spot disease incidence was also recorded as a percentage pear fruit
infection
 Diseases such as damping-off and some root rots in which total losses occur are
assessed by percentage of disease incidence.
B. Disease Severity Assessment
Disease severity is generally calculated as follows:-

Disease severity = Area of diseased tissue X 100
Total tissue area
Disease severity is assessed by allotting a grade value (category value or scale value) depending
upon the area of infection. The severity scale is fixed, mostly based on the disease’s effect on
yield loss. Disease severity is usually assessed using either descriptive or pictorial keys. Standard
diagrams illustrate the developmental stages of a disease on simple units (e.g., leaves, fruits) or
on large composite units such as branches or whole plants.
Such standard diagrams are derived from a series of disease symptom pictures, which may be in
the form of line drawings, photographs, or preserved specimens. Pictorial disease assessment
keys are available for measuring disease severity on a range of hosts using the principle of
standard area diagrams. Standard area diagrams are prepared using graph paper outlines.
Planimeters, electronic scanners, and image analyzers are used to assess the area of infection.
Lesion areas can be determined by computer-assisted image analysis.
Disease severity is assessed by using arbitrary categories. Horsfall and Barratt (1945) proposed a
logarithmic scale for the measurement of plant disease severity, in which 12 grades were allotted
according to the leaf area diseased, keeping 50 percent as a midpoint.
Another Grading systems consisting of five grades (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 or 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4) or nine
grades (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 or 0 to 9) are commonly used. Citrus greasy spot caused by
Mycosphaerella citri was assessed using a 0-to-5 scale. Greasy symptoms on the top ten leaves
of each plant were rated on a scale of
0 = none
1 = 1 to 5 percent
2 = 6 to 10 percent
3 = 11 to 15 percent
4 = 16 to 20 percent
5 = more than 20 percent of the leaf surface area affected by the disease.
Monosporascus disease in cucumber was assessed using a 1-to-5 scale as follows: 1 = healthy
with no lesions or discoloration on hypocotyls, 2 = slight discoloration, 3 = moderate
discoloration and/or with lesions, 4 = moderate maceration and 5 = severe maceration. Bacterial
spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria) of bell pepper was assessed using a 0-to-9 rating
scale in which
0 = no diseased leaves
1 = <1 percent leaf area diseased
2 = 2 to 10 percent leaf area diseased or defoliated
8 = 81 to 99 percent leaf area diseased and very few leaves (one to three) remaining on
plant
9 = complete defoliation (plant dying or dead).
Foliar symptoms of sudden death syndrome of soybean caused by Fusarium solani f. sp. glycines
are assessed on a 0-to-9 scale based on (different types of symptoms) the percentage of leaf area
that is chlorotic, necrotic, or defoliated as follows:
0 = no detectable leaf symptoms
1 = 1 to 10 percent chlorotic or 1 to 5 percent necrotic
2 = 10 to 20 percent chlorotic or less than 10 percent necrotic
5 = greater than 60 percent chlorotic or greater than 40 percent necrotic
6 = up to one-third premature defoliation
7 = one-third to two-thirds premature defoliation
8 = greater than two-thirds premature defoliation
9 = plants are prematurely dead
Brown spot of pear was measured by calculating the severity of infection. Measurements were
performed on ten leaves of four shoots per tree. Disease severity per shoot was calculated
according to a scale index based on an approximate lesion number per leaf corresponding to 0
(none), 1 (1 to 5 lesions), 2 (6 to 25 lesions), and 3 (more than 25 lesions). Developed a leaf
blotch severity scale based on the position of leaves of wheat plants.
The top leaves, particularly the top two leaves, contribute to grain yield in cereals. The scoring
system was based on corresponding yield loss. Hence, scored the top four leaves (flag leaf, flag
leaf-1 [the leaf immediately below the flag leaf], flag leaf-2 [the leaf below flag leaf-1], and flag
leaf-3 [the leaf below flag leaf-2]) of tillers into different category values. Flag-3 leaves with 0 to
5 percent severity were given the scale value of 1, 5 to 20 percent (scale value 2), 20 to 40
percent (scale value 3), 40 to 70 percent (scale value 4), 70 to 90 percent (5), 90 to 100 percent
(scale value 6), and 100 percent (scale value 7). Contrarily, flag-2 leaves with 1 to 10 percent
disease severity were given the scale value of 4, 10 to 25 percent (scale value 5), 25 to 75 percent
(scale value 6), 75 to 100 percent (scale value 7), and 100 percent (scale value 8). Flag-1 leaves
with 0 to 1 percent disease severity were given scale value of 5, 1 to 10 percent (scale value 6),
10 to 50 percent (scale value 7), 50 to 90 percent (scale value 8), 90 to 100 percent (scale value
9), and 100 percent (scale value 9.5), and flag leaves with 1 to 20 percent disease severity were
given a scale value of 8, 20 to 90 percent (scale value 9), and 90 to 100 percent (scale value 9.5).
Mean severity was calculated from the average of the four leaves of each tiller, based on
midpoint values for each range.
Disease severity is also calculated by measuring the height up to which infection spreads in an
infected plant (vertical disease progress). Rice sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) disease
intensity is measured using a relative lesion height percentage as follows: The highest point a
lesion is seen in a plant (cm)/plant height 100. In this case, it has been shown that the relative
lesion height corresponds to yield loss.
C. Disease index
Data from both percentage of disease incidence and disease severity with different scale values
are often used to assess the disease index. Disease index is also calculated as the mean grade
value (totaling grade values of all the examined plants and dividing them by number of the
examined plants) 100 maximum grade value. A brown spot of pear disease index was calculated
by adding the scale index of each leaf in a tree and dividing the sum obtained by 3 (the
maximum level of severity) and the number of leaves assessed per shoot. The disease scale can
be recalculated to a percentage severity value called the disease index.
D. Area under disease progress curve (audpc)

Disease severity is also measured by calculating the area under disease progress curve. Bacterial
spot (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria) of bell pepper was assessed by using a 0-to-9
rating scale.
E. Remote sensing
Another disease assessment method involves aerial photography and photogrammetry using
infrared film or color filter combinations. Remote sensing and digital image analysis are methods
of acquisition and interpretation of measurements of an object without physical contact between
the measuring device and the object. The term remote sensing is restricted to instruments that
measure electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted from an object. The instruments record
radiation in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum: Ultraviolet (UV, 10-390 nm), visible
(390- 700 nm), near infrared (NIR, 770-1300 nm), infrared (IR, 1300-2500 nm), etc. The human
eye records three visual spectral ranges: Red, green, and blue. However, sensitivity to red over
650-700 nm is only slight. The human eye cannot detect the infrared spectrum. The amount of
reflected light (radiance) as a percentage of incoming light (irradiance) is called the reflectance
factor. If the radiance from a healthy leaf is measured by a radiometer, substantially high
reflectance can be seen in NIR at 750-1100 nm. NIR reflectance decreases greatly when a
diseased leaf is viewed due to the reduction in chlorophyll and xanthophylls caused by infection.
A relative decrease in NIR reflectance may indicate the disease severity. Aerial photography
using infrared film helps to detect disease incidence.
Remote sensing for detecting and estimating the severity of plant diseases is used at three levels
above the crop canopy. Handheld multispectral radiometers or multiple waveband video cameras
are used at the lowest altitude (within 1.5 to 2.0 meters above crop height). At 75 to 1500 m,
aerial photography is used. At the highest altitude, satellite imagery is employed utilizing
satellites orbiting 650 to 850 km above the Earth’s surface.
F. Digital image Analysis
Digital image analysis is being used to assess various plant diseases. Digital image analysis
includes analysis of satellite images, aerial photographs and videographs, nucleic magnetic
resonance images, and images in electron microscopy. Image processing reduces the total
information to a manageable amount. Aerial IR color photographs can be enhanced and color
coded to facilitate visual interpretation of the distribution and severity of diseases in fields.
II. INSECT PEST ASSESSMENT
Insect pest damage assessment is done in order to apportion loss occasioned by particular insect
pests and to know when to initiate control measures. In most cases it is impracticable to count the
entire pest present in a field; therefore pest population may be estimated by samples.
 Sampling: Pests are usually sampled so that their abundance can be predicted, losses
attributable to them measured and the damage they cause prevented. Sampling may be
direct wherein insects are counted directly on the plant parts (e.g. flea beetles on okra
leaves); or indirect where insect populations are estimated via the damage they cause
(e.g. stem borers).
Sampling Program
A. Sampling Techniques: is a method used to collect data by using different methods
1) In situ sampling: used to collecting of the insect in place of plant, soil, etc
2) Knock down: to remove the insect (jar (bottle), shaking, chemical, heating)
3) Netting: remove the insect from its habitat by using different types of nets.
a. Sweep net: the heavy muslin cloth used to collecting insects.
b. Aerial net: used to collect the butterflies and moths
4) Trapping: it exploit for the collecting to insects behavioral attraction
a. Pheromones: sex pheromones mimic the natural sex.
b. Light trap: attracted by light e.g. Moths
c. Color traps: e.g. Aphids  attracted to yellow color trap
Mosquito  black/blue color traps
B. Sampling Pattern: is the way how to sample the insect pest in the field.
i. Diagonal (/ or \)
ii. Double diagonal (“X”) best
iii. “W” fashion, “S” Fashion, “Z” fashion, “ U” fashion, etc
C. Sampling Unit: it is the object from where samples are taken
 Plant part/s is/are highly affected by the insect pest/s.
D. Sampling time: When to sample. Largely depends on the biology of the insect pest
(morning, day and night).
 Biology  activity of the insect pest in general is biology
 Active during the day time is  “Diurnal” e.g. Many insects
 Active during the night time is  “Nocturnal” e.g. Moths
 Active during the morning time e.g. aphids
a. Sampling Number: how many samples are taken?
 It varies based upon the precision required /accuracy/ and cost of sampling
depends on:
i. Fixed number of samples: a set of identified number of samples,
o Determined by prior/pilot sampling/
o e.g. depending on the sample the researchers take usually more than (>30)
samples
ii. sequential sampling: determine the lower to upper limit
o It varies from the number of samples to be taken in between lower to
upper limit. E.g. lower limit = 5 and upper limit= 50, etc.
1.3. TYPES OF INSECT PESTS DAMAGE
Insect Damage: loss of plant parts or organ as a result of insect injury. There are 2 types of
damage: direct damage and indirect damage.
 Direct damage is when the harvestable part of a crop is affected (e.g. cowpea pod)
 Indirect damage is when the non-harvestable portion of the crop is affected (e.g. maize
leaf)
A. Types of Direct insect damage

a. Biting and chewing insects
1. Holing of leaves thereby reducing photosynthetic areas
2. Boring of the stem causing reduction in plant vigor
3. Scrapping of leaf surface causing burning of leaves
4. Rasping of leaf edges
5. Mining of leaves
6. Cutting of roots
7. Destruction of buds or growing points
8. Flower abortion
9. Premature fruit fall
b. Piercing and sucking insects
1. Cause loss of vigor due to removal of sap (wilting)
2. Sucking of sap from leaves or stems
3. Staining or discoloring of seeds
4. Transmission of diseases
B. Indirect effects of insect infestation

1. Make crops much more difficult to cultivate
2. May make crops develop spreading habit which makes weeding and spraying difficult
3. Contamination of produce thereby reducing quality and marketability
4. Transmission of diseases
Insect pest forecasting:

Accurate forecasting of pest attacks helps control program to be effective. It depends on the
established relationship among the following factors
1. Stage of development of the crop
2. Stage of the development of the pest
3. Environmental factors
Definition of pests:
Pests are any form of plant or animal life that is injurious or potentially injurious to man, his
properties, etc. E.g: insects, vertebrates, weeds, pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, etc.
Categories of pests:
a. Key/major/main pests. These are insect pests that are found everywhere particular crops are
grown. They are usually the target of insect pest control. They cause significant losses on the
crops that they attack, e.g. Clavigralla tomentosicollis on cowpea.
b. Occasional (Sporadic) pests: These species cause economic damage to crops only at certain
times of the year, period, season or places. They do not occur regularly because they are
regulated by certain ecological factors, e.g. Sylepta derrogata
c. Potential pests: A pest that could become highly noxious if allowed to establish. They assume
the position of a key pest only when certain ecological balance that regulate them are disrupted
for instance with the use of insecticides, Bathycoelia thalassima
d. Migrant pests: The insects cause serious damage outside their local habitat. They move
together in large numbers causing serious economic loss to the crops attack, e.g Locusta
migratoroides
Development of Pest Situations

Certain situations cause pest development. These can be categorized into 3:
(a) Ecosystem concentration and simplification
(b) Transportation
(c) Man’s attitude and demands.
a. Ecosystem concentration and simplification: in the course of human development, man has
simplified the ecosystem. This has caused pest situations in several instances.
Examples of such simplifications include the following
i. Planting of monocrops
ii. Storage of large quantities of grains in a closed environment
iii. Planting of improved varieties
iv. Fertilization of crops
v. Weeding which invariably removes competition
vi. Spraying of insecticides
b. Transportation: with the advent of fast means of transportation, a lot of insects have moved
from their places of origin to new places causing serious damage in the absence of their natural
enemies.
c. Man’s attitude and demands: The demand for blemish-free produce or high grade produce
has led to the labeling of many insects as pests even when they are not.
1.4. OPTION OF PEST MANAGEMENT

i. Legislative control: This is the enactment of laws to prevent entry, spread of pests into
free areas.
ii. Cultural control: Making crop environment not conducive for insect pest establishment.
It is preventive and does not decimate already existing pest population. Examples of
cultural control: intercropping, crop sanitation, crop rotation, close season, manuring,
early planting, early harvesting, etc.
iii. Mechanical/Physical control: solarization, direct picking, flooding, burning, etc
iv. Biological control: The use of living organism to destroy, repel, replace an existing pest
population. This method is hinged on the fact that all organisms have their natural
enemies. Biological control agents include: predators (e.g. lady birds), pathogens (e.g.
Bacillus thuringiensis), parasites (e.g. nematodes) and parasitoids (Gyranusoides tebygi).
v. Chemical control: The use of natural or synthetic compounds to kill, repel, attract or
decimate pest population. There are 2 major categories of insecticides: organic (which
contains carbon atoms in their molecules) and inorganic (those that do not contain carbon
in their molecules).
vi. Integrated pest management (IPM) is an integrated approach of crop management to
solve ecological problems when applied in agriculture. These methods are performed in
three stages: prevention, observation, and intervention. It is an ecological approach with a
main goal of significantly reducing or eliminating the use of pesticides while at the same
time managing pest populations at an acceptable level.
An IPM system is designed around six basic components:

1. Acceptable pest levels: The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holds that wiping
out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can be economically expensive,
environmentally unsafe, and frequently unachievable. IPM programs first work to establish
acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds, and apply controls if those thresholds are
crossed. These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at one site
to have a weed such as white clover, but at another site it may not be acceptable. By allowing a
pest population to survive at a reasonable threshold, selection pressure is reduced. This stops the
pest gaining resistance to chemicals produced by the plant or applied to the crops. If many of the
pests are killed then any that have resistance to the chemical will form the genetic basis of the
future, more resistant, and become population. By not killing all the pests there are some un-
resistant pests left that will dilute any resistant genes that appear.
2. Preventive cultural practices: Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions, and
maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense, together with plant quarantine and 'cultural
techniques' such as crop sanitation (e.g. removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of
infection).
3. Monitoring: Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Observation is broken into two
steps, first; inspection and second; identification. Visual inspection, insect and spore traps, and
other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels. Accurate pest
identification is critical to a successful IPM program. Record-keeping is essential, as is a
thorough knowledge of the behavior and reproductive cycles of target pests. Since insects are
cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the temperature of their environment.
Many insects have had their development cycles modeled in terms of degree days. Monitor the
degree days of an environment to determine when is the optimal time for a specific insect's
outbreak.
4. Mechanical controls: Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical methods are the
first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps,
vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding.
5. Biological controls: Natural biological processes and materials can provide control, with
minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main focus here is on promoting
beneficial insects that eat target pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring
microorganisms (e.g.: Bt, entomopathogenic fungi and entomopathogenic nematodes), also fit in
this category.
6. Responsible Pesticide Use: Synthetic pesticides are generally only used as required and often
only at specific times in a pest’s life cycle. Many of the newer pesticide groups are derived from
plants or naturally occurring substances (e.g.: nicotine, pyrethrum and insect juvenile hormone
analogues), but the toxophore or active component may be altered to provide increased
biological activity or stability. Further 'biology-based' or 'ecological' techniques are under
evaluation.
CHAPTER TWO
2. CROP DISEASE OF MAJOR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
Crop disease of major economic importance in Ethiopian context as well as in the world as
follows:- Damping off, seedling blight, root rots, wilts, mildews, rusts, smuts, viral and nematode
diseases, etc.
2.1. Naming and Classification of the Disease and Pathogen
 Casual organisms are:- Fungi, Bacteria, Viruses, nematodes, MLO’s, and others
 Naming: based upon the international committee of the disciplines
o ICBN  Fungi and algae
o ICZN  Parasitic worms and Nematodes
o Bergey’s Manual  Bacteria, etc
 Classification of the Diseases are
 Biotic – infectious diseases
 Abiotic – Due to unfavorable environmental condition and
 Iatrogenic – due to continuous application of Agricultural pesticides
2.1.1. Economic Importance of Diseases
Crop damage is defined as being severe enough to make control measures an economic
necessity. Of course the difference in yield that can be achieved through these measures must
greatly out weight the costs involved. Damage decreases the yields of different crops. Neither
chemical nor integrated control measures are needed in that case, and they may even be
undesirable if their use would necessitate an avoidable investment.
What required in dealing with individual diseases?

 Detection: Verifying the presence and absence of diseases/pathogens. This could by
looking to symptoms, structure of the pathogen (identity)
 Diagnosis: detail identification of diseases/pathogens. This is follows the principles of
“Koch’s Postulates”.
o Describe the symptoms and signs isolation of pathogens (from plant, soil, etc)
culture on media Purification inoculation to healthy plants describe the
symptoms and signs then compare and contrast those symptoms
o Finally we conclude that –for further identities of the pathogen/disease refer to
literature and declare the pathogen is/are new or not.
 Quantification: help us to conclude about the impacts of the pathogen/disease
o Yield loss: use protected (sprayed plot) versus non-protected plots (unsprayed
plot) finally compare the yield between the two.
o Yield loss estimation is done during the data collection at the field.
o The computer programme use to estimate the severity of disease are called
“DITRAIN”
Fig.1. Yield levels and crop loss
2.1.2. Symptoms and Signs of Plant Diseases
Symptom: The physical manifestation of the host's response. Symptoms may be localized
(confined to a small area of the plant) or systemic (spread throughout the plant).
 Primary symptom: symptom proximal to the infection site produced as a direct response
to the causal agent. A common primary symptom is a lesion; a well defined localized
diseased area.
 Secondary symptom: symptoms which result from indirect or "chain of events"

interactions and occur some distance from the infection point and in many cases distal to
the causal agent.
o Whether primary or secondary symptoms; tissue may be:
 Verdant (greener than normal),
 Chlorotic (yellower than normal), or
 Necrotic (dead, often tan or brown in color).
 Hypertrophy and Hyperplasia are symptoms that result from increase in tissue volume
(growth) due to increase in cell volume and cell numbers, respectively. Overdeveloped
tissue includes galls, club root, leaf curls, and warts.
 Hypotrophy is a stunting due to retarded growth of lack or development. Ironically, it
may involve increased cell division but without the corresponding increase in cell
volume. Underdeveloped tissue includes stunting, dwarfing, and some malformations.
 Wilt is the loss of rigidity and drooping of plant parts. Wilt may be due to low soil
moisture, necrosis of the roots or stems, or a disease agent plugging the plant’s water
transport tissue.
Plant diseases are often classified according to symptoms, for example: blights, mildews, rots, or
mosaics.
Sign: The physical manifestation of the causal agent. May be in the form of spores, mycelia,
thallus, bacterial ooze (when the bacterium is present), etc.
2.2.MAJOR CROP DISEASE IN ETHIOPIA

2.2.1. Damping off
Damping-off diseases (Pythium spp.) of seedlings occur worldwide in valleys and forest soils, in
tropical and temperate climates, and in every greenhouse. The disease affects seeds, seedlings,
and roots of all plants. Damping-off  rotting and collapse of seedlings at soil level or
prevention of seedling emergence (e.g. damping-off of vegetables and tobacco). It is destruction
of seedlings near the soil line, resulting in the seedlings falling over on the ground. In all cases,
however, the greatest damage is done to the seed and seedling roots during germination either
before or after emergence. Losses vary considerably with soil moisture, temperature, and other
factors. Quite frequently, seedlings in seedbeds are completely destroyed by damping-off or they
die soon after they are transplanted.
In many instances, poor germination of seeds or poor emergence of seedlings is the result of
damping-off infections in the pre-emergence stage. Older plants are seldom killed when infected
with the damping-off pathogen, but they develop root and stem lesions and root rots, their
growth may be retarded considerably, and their yields may be reduced drastically. Some species
of the damping-off oomycete also attack the fleshy organs of plants, which rot in the field or in
storage. Pythium debaryanum, P. ultimum, and P. aphanidermatum cause damping-off of
vegetables and fruit trees. Pythium arrhenomanes, P. graminicola, and P. tardicrescens cause
root rot in cereals.
Symptoms
When seeds of susceptible plants are planted in infested soils and are attacked by the damping-
off fungi, they fail to germinate, become soft and mushy, and then turn brown, shrivel, and
finally disintegrate (Fig. 1- A). Young seedlings can be attacked before emergence at any point
on the plant, from which the infection spreads rapidly, the invaded cells collapse, and the
seedling is overrun by the oomycete and dies (pre-emergence damping-off). Seedlings that have
already emerged are usually attacked at the roots and sometimes in the stems at or below the soil
line. The invaded areas become water soaked and discolored and they soon collapse (Figs. 1- B
and C).
A B C
Figure 1 (A) Pythium seed rot. (B) One healthy bean seedling and several seeds and seedlings infected with
Pythium. (C) Damping off of cucumber seedlings caused by Pythium sp.
The basal part of the seedling stem becomes softer and much thinner than the uninvaded parts
above it; as a result, the seedling falls over on the soil. The fungus continues to invade the fallen
seedling, which quickly withers and dies (post-emergence damping-off). In cereals and turf
grasses, the pathogen causes “Pythium blight,” i.e., it invades and kills the roots and whole
seedlings and even young plants, causing the appearance of numerous empty patches on the lawn
or field (Figs. 2, A–C).
A B D
C
Figure 2. Pythium root rots and blights. (A) Root rot of Caladium, (B) barley seedlings, (C) blight of turfgrass and
root rot and wilt of tomato (D) caused by Pythium.
In older plants the damping-off oomycete may kill rootlets or induce lesions on the roots and
stem. The lesions cause plants to become stunted and sometimes to wither or die (Fig. 2 D).
Soft, fleshy organs of vegetables in contact with the soil, such as cucurbit fruits, green beans, and
potatoes, are sometimes infected by damping-off oomycetes during extended wet periods. Such
infections result in a cottony growth on the surface of the fleshy organ, while the interior turns
into a soft, watery, rotten mass, called “leak” (Figs. 3, A and B).
a b
Figure 3- soft rots of squash (a) and potato (b) caused by pythium.
The fungus may attack the seedling at any stage in the nursery. Sprouting seedlings are infected
and wither before emergence from the soil (Pre-emergence damping off). Water soaked minute
lesions appear on the stems near the soil surface, soon girdling the stem, spreading up and down
in the stems and within one or two days stem may rot leading to toppling over of the seedlings
(Post-emergence damping off).
Figure 4. Post-emergence damping off seedling of tobacco

The young seedlings in the nursery are killed in patches and infection spreads quickly. Under
favorable conditions, the entire seedlings in the nursery are killed within 3 to 4 days. A thick
weft of mycelium may be seen on the surface of the soil.
The Pathogen (Pythium spp.)
The fungus produces thick, hyaline, thin walled, non-septate mycelium. It produces irregularly
lobed sporangia which germinate to produce vesicle containing zoospores. The zoospores are
kidney shaped and biflagellate. Oospores are spherical and light to deep yellow or yellowish
brown colored.
Several species of Pythium cause pre- and post-emergence damping-off. Certain other oomycetes
and fungi, however, such as Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium, often cause symptoms
quite similar to those described earlier. Several more fungi, and even some bacteria, when
carried in or on the seed, also cause damping-off and kill seedlings. Pythium produces a white,
rapidly growing mycelium. The mycelium gives rise to sporangia, which germinate directly by
producing one to several germ tubes or by producing a short hypha at the end of which forms a
balloon-like secondary sporangium called a vesicle (Figs. 6 and 7). In the vesicle, 100 or more
zoospores are produced, which, when released, swarm about for a few minutes, round off to form
a cyst, and then germinate by producing a germ tube. The germ tube usually penetrates the host
tissue and starts a new infection, but sometimes it produces another vesicle in which several
secondary zoospores are formed, and this may be repeated.
A B
Figure 6. Pythium mycelium and sporangia in infected root tissue (A) and oospore (B) of Pythium.
The mycelium also gives rise to spherical oogonia and club-shaped antheridia (Figs. 6- A and B).
The antheridium produces a fertilization tube, which enters the oogonium; nuclei of the
antheridium move through the tube toward the nuclei of the oogonium, unite with them, and
form the zygote. The fertilized oogonium produces a thick wall and is then called an oospore
(Fig. 6-B). Oospores are resistant to adverse temperatures and moisture and serve as the survival
and resting stage of the fungus.
Disease cycle
The fungus survives in the soil as oospores and chlamydospores. The primary infection is from
the soil-borne oospores and secondary spread through sporangia and zoospores transmitted by
wind and irrigation water.
Favorable Conditions
Overcrowding of seedlings, ill drained nursery beds, heavy shade in nursery, high atmospheric
humidity (90-100 per cent), high soil moisture, low temperature (below 24 0C) and low soil
temperature of about 200C.
Figure 7. Disease cycle of damping-off and seed decay caused by pythium sp.
Figure 8. Disease cycle of Rhizoctonia solani (Thanatephorus cucumeris).
Management: Pythium diseases in the greenhouse can be controlled through the use of soil
sterilized or pasteurized by steam or dry heat and through the use of chemically treated seed.
Greenhouse benches and containers must also be sterilized or treated with an appropriate
chemical solution.
So far, no commercial varieties of plants resistant to Pythium are available. Since the mid-1990s,
experimental control of Pythium seed rot and damping-off has been obtained by treating the
seeds with conidia of antagonistic fungi and with certain bacteria, or by incorporating conidia of
antagonistic fungi into commercial soilless mixes used in greenhouses and by nursery owners.
Certain cultural practices are sometimes helpful in reducing the amount of infection. Such
practices include providing good soil drainage and good air circulation among plants, planting
when temperatures are favorable for fast plant growth, avoiding application of excessive
amounts of nitrate forms of nitrogen fertilizers, and practicing crop rotation. Some new methods,
such as osmopriming, i.e., controlled hydration, of seeds before planting, have appeared
promising. For container grown nursery crops and ornamentals, including composted tree bark as
a replacement for most of the peat markedly reduced the root rots caused by Pythium and several
other root pathogens.
In the field, seed or bulb treatment with one or more effective chemicals is the most important
disease preventive measure. Some systemic fungicides, usually in combination with broad-
spectrum fungicides, give excellent control of damping-off, seedling blights, and root rots caused
by Pythium and Phytophthora; they can be applied as soil or seed treatment.
Seed treatment is sometimes followed by spraying of seedlings with the same or different
effective fungicides than those used for seed treatment. This is especially important when the soil
is infested heavily with Pythium or when the soil stays wet for prolonged periods during the early
stages of plant growth. Cucumber seed treatment with Pseudomonas putida bacteria or with the
mycoparasite Verticillium lecanii results in the systemic production of phytoalexins and other
host defense reactions that protect seedlings from attack by Pythium. Similarly, experimental
treatment of Norway spruce seedlings with methyl jasmonate induced accumulation of free
salicylic acid, chitinase, and other defense responses that protected up to 75% of the seedlings
from infection by Pythium.
Summary
 Raised seed beds of 15-45 cm height should be formed.
 Avoid overcrowding of seedlings by using optimum seed rate of 3-3.5 kg/ha (1 to 1.5g/2.5m2)
 Provide adequate drainage facility and avoid excess watering of the seedlings.
 Burn the seed beds with paddy husk or dry twigs before sowing.
 Drench the seed bed with 0.4% per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent Copper oxychloride,
two days before sowing.
 Spray the nursery beds twice with 0.4% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 Copper oxychloride or
Metalaxyl or Mancozeb at 20 and 30 days after germination.
 Soil incorporation of Trichoderma viride or T. harzianum in seed beds one week before seed
sowing and thereafter Bordeaux mixture should be sprayed at 0.4 per cent.
2.2.2. Root rots
They are a wide diseases and it is decaying of plants and plant organ or discoloration of plants.
Rot is the softening, discoloration, and often disintegration of a succulent plant tissue as a result
of fungal or bacterial infection. Soft rot is a rot of a fleshy fruit, vegetable, or ornamental in
which the tissue becomes macerated by the enzymes of the pathogen. Dry rot is the opposite of
soft rot.
a. Root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola
(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)
Economic importance
This disease is severe in many parts of world.

Symptoms
The fungus causes different types of symptoms, viz., seedling disease and root rot. Germinating
seedlings of one to two weeks old are attacked by the fungus at the hypocotyl and cause black
lesions, girdling of stem and death of the seedling, causing large gaps in the field. In sore-shin
stage (4 to 6 weeks old plants), dark reddish-brown cankers are formed on the stems near the
soil surface which later turns dark brown or black and plant breaks at the collar region leading to
drying of the leaves and subsequently the entire plant. Typical root rot symptom appears
normally at the time of maturity of the plants. The most prominent symptom is sudden and
complete wilting of plants in patches in concentric circles.
Initially, all the leaves droop suddenly and die within a day or two. The affected plants when
pulled reveal the rotting of entire root system except tap root and few laterals. The bark of the
affected plant shreds and even extends above ground level. In badly affected plants the woody
portions may become black and brittle. A large number of dark brown sclerotia are seen on the
wood or on the shredded bark.
Root rot
Fig.1. Root rots of disease

Pathogen
The fungal hyphae are septate and fairly thick and produce black, irregular sclerotia which
measure 100 μm in diameter.
Disease cycle
The disease is mainly soil-borne and the pathogen can survive in the soil as sclerotia for several
years. The spread is through sclerotia which are disseminated by irrigation water, implements,
heavy winds and other cultural operations.
Fig 2. Disease cycle of root rots of trees caused by Armillaria mellea.

Dry weather following heavy rains, high soil temperature (35-39oC), low soil moisture (15-20
per cent), cultivation of favorable hosts like vegetables, oil seeds and legumes preceding cotton
and wounds caused by ash-weevil grubs and nematodes.
Management
 Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed.
 Treat the seeds with Carboxin or Thiram at 4 g or Carbendazim at 2g/kg.
 Spot drench with 0.1% Carbendazim or 0.05% Benomyl.
 Apply farm yard manure at 100 t/ha or neem cake at 2.5t/ha.
 Adjust the sowing time, early sowing (First Week of April) or late sowing (Last week of June) so
that crop escapes the high soil temperature conditions.
 Adopt intercropping with sorghum or moth bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius) to lower the soil
temperature.
 Grow resistant varieties
b. Root rot or stem rot or charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseolina
(Sclerotial stage: Rhizoctonia bataticola)
Economic importance
It is very destructive disease in all sesame growing areas of the world.

Symptoms
The disease symptom starts as yellowing of lower leaves, followed by drooping and defoliation.
The stem portion near the ground level shows dark brown lesions and bark at the collar region
shows shredding. The sudden death of plants is seen in patches. In the grown-up plants, the stem
portion near the soil level shows large number of black pycnidia. The stem portion can be easily
pulled out leaving the rotten root portion in the soil. The infection when spreads to pods, they
open prematurely and immature seeds become shrivelled and black in colour. Minute pycnidia
are also seen on the infected capsules and seeds. The rotten root as well as stem tissues contains
a large number of minute black sclerotia. The sclerotia may also present on the infected pods and
seeds.
Pathogen
The fungus produces dark brown, septate mycelium showing constrictions at the hyphal
junctions. The sclerotia are minute, dark black and 110-130μm in diameter. The pycnidia are
dark brown with a prominent ostiole (a small pore or opening in some algae or fungi, through
which reproductive spores pass). The conidia are hyaline, elliptical and single celled.
Disease cycle
The fungus remains dormant as sclerotia in soil as well as in infected plant debris in soil. The
infected plant debris also carries pycnidia. The fungus primarily spreads through infected seeds
which carry sclerotia and pycnidia. The fungus also spreads through soil borne sclerotia. The
secondary spread is through the conidia transmitted by wind and rain water.
Day temperature of 300C and above and prolonged drought followed by copious irrigation.
Management
 Treat the seeds with Trichoderma viride at 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens 10 g/kg or treat the
seeds with carbendazim@0.1% or Thiram at 4g/kg.
 Apply farm yard manure or green leaf manure at 10t/ha or neem cake 250 kg/ha.
 Spot drench with Carbendazim at 0.5 g/liter.
 Intercropping sesame with moth bean at 1:1 ratio is effective in managing the disease.
 Soil solarization with transparent polythene mulch of 50μ for 6 weeks during hot summer after
ploughing and irrigation
c. Root rot/Charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseolina
Symptoms
Sudden wilting of plants in patches under high soil moisture stress coupled with high soil
temperatures is a common symptom. The plants show signs of water shortage. Within a week,
the leaves and petiole droop down and within a fortnight the infected plants dry up. Dark brown
lesions are seen on the stem near the ground level. The taproot shows signs of drying and root
bark sheds off easily. Fruiting bodies (pycnidia) of the fungus are seen as minute black dots on
woody tissues and in pith region. In severe infection entire branch or top of the branch withers
away. Young leaves curl inwards with black margins and drop off later. Such branches die-back.
Diseased plants flower prematurely. Incidence at maturity causes spike blight. Seed development
is affected.
Disease cycle
Pathogen survives in soil, plant debris and many cultivated and wild plants as sclerotia and
pycnidia. Secondary spread is through sclerotial bodies.
Favorable conditions
Disease is favoured by soil temperature of 35oC and moisture stress conditions preceding crop
maturity and application of more nitrogenous fertilizers.
Management
 Burn crop debris containing the sclerotia of the fungus.
 Seed treatment with Trichoderma viride@4g/kg seed or carbendazim@1g/kg seed.
 Crop rotation with cereals
 Provide irrigation at critical stages of crop growth
 Soil drenching with carbendazim@0.1%, 2-3 times at 15 days interval.
 Grow tolerant and resistant varieties / hybrids like Jwala, GCH-4, and GCH-6, etc
d. Stem and Root rot or dry root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola
(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina) and (Sexual stage: Thanatephorus cucumeris)

Symptoms
The disease generally appears around flowering and podding time in the form of scattered dried
plants. The seedlings can also get infected. The first symptom of the disease is yellowing of the
leaves. The affected leaves, petioles and leaflets droop within a day or two. The leaves and stems
of the affected plants turn straw colored and plants wilt within a week. The lower portion of the
tap root usually remains in the soil when plants are uprooted. The tap root is dark showing signs
of rotting and is devoid of most of the lateral and finer roots. Dark minute sclerotial bodies can
be seen on the roots exposed or inside the wood.
Dry root rot
Pathogen
The hyphae of the fungus are dark brown, filamentous and septate with constrictions in hyphal
branches at the junction with main hypha. The sclerotia are brown and irregular in shape. The
fungus has its sexual stage, T. cucumeris, which produces 2-4 basidiospores in terminal clusters
on a celled hypha.
Disease cycle
The pathogen survives in the soil in infected host debris as sclerotia for several years. The
secondary spread is through farm implements, irrigation water and rain splash.
Favorable conditions
Maximum ambient temperatures above 300C, minimum above 200C, and moisture stress favour
disease development.
Management
 Treat the seeds with Carbendazim or Thiram at 2 g/kg or seed pelleting with Trichoderma viride
at 4 g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed.
 Apply farmyard manure at 10 t/ha.
 Grow tolerant genotypes like ICCV 10.
e. Dry root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola
(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

Symptoms
The disease symptom starts initially with yellowing and drooping of the leaves. The leaves later
fall off and the plant dies within week. Dark brown lesions are seen on the stem at ground level
and bark shows shredding symptom. The affected plants can be easily pulled out leaving dried,
rotten root portions in the ground. The rotten tissues of stem and root contain a large number of
black minute sclerotia.
Pathogen
The fungus produces dark brown, septate mycelium with constrictions at hyphal branches.
Minute, dark, round sclerotia are produced in abundance. The fungus also produces dark brown,
globose ostiolated pycnidia on the host tissues. They pycnidiospores (conidia) are thin walled,
hyaline, single celled and elliptical.
Disease cycle
The fungus survives in the infected debris and also as facultative parasite in soil. The primary
spread is through seed-borne and soil-borne sclerotia. The secondary spread is through seed-
borne and soil-borne sclerotia. The secondary spreads is through pycnidiospores which are air-
borne.
Favourable Conditions
Day temperature of 300C and above and prolonged dry season followed by irrigation.
Management
 Treat the seeds with Carbendazim or Thiram at 4 g/kg or pellet the seeds with Trichoderma viride
at 4 g/kg or Pseudonomas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed.
 Apply farm yard manure or green leaf manure (Gliricidia maculate) at 10 t/ha or neemcake at 250
kg/ha.
Soft rot: Soft, water-soaked, irregular lesions appear on tubers, rhizomes, fruits, vegetables, and
other storage organs. These lesions are more or less superficial, but soon spread and cover the
inner tissues. Lesions lead to rotting of storage organs (e.g. soft rot of potato caused by Erwinia
carotovora).
Rhizopus soft rot of fruits and vegetables
Rhizopus soft rot of fruits and vegetables occurs throughout the world on harvested fleshy organs
of vegetable, fruit, and flower crops during storage, transit, and marketing of these products.
Among the crops affected most by this disease are sweet potatoes, strawberries, all cucurbits,
peaches, cherries, peanuts, and several other fruits and vegetables. Corn and some other cereals
are affected under fairly high moisture. Bulbs, corms, and rhizomes of flower crops, e.g.,
gladiolus and tulips, are also susceptible to this disease. When conditions are favorable, the
disease spreads rapidly throughout the containers, and losses can be great in a short period of
time.
Rhizopus also causes hull rot of maturing almond fruit and necrotic areas and death of adjacent
leaves and of part or all of the attached spur or shoot. Three species of Rhizopus also cause head
rot of sunflower.
Symptoms
Infected areas of fleshy organs appear water soaked at first and are very soft. If the skin of the
infected organ remains intact, the tissue loses moisture gradually until it shrivels into a mummy.
More frequently, however, fungal hyphae grow outward through the wounds and cover the
affected portions by producing tufts of whisker-like gray sporangiophores and sporangia. The
bushy growth of the fungus often spreads over the surface of the healthy portions of affected fruit
and even to the surface of the containers when they become wet with the exuding liquid.
Affected tissues at first give off a mildly pleasant smell, but soon yeasts and bacteria move in
and a sour odor develops.
When loss of moisture is rapid, infected organs finally dry up and mummify; if the loss of
moisture is slow, they break down and disintegrate in a “leaky” watery rot.
A B C D E
Figure 1. Rhizopus rot of strawberries (A), of peach externally (B), and of peach in cross section (C).
Sporangiophores with sporangia (D) and zygospore (E) of Rhizopus sp.
The Pathogen: Rhizopus spp.
The mycelium of the fungus produces long, aerial sporangiophores at the tips of which black
spherical sporangia develop. The sporangia contain thousands of spherical sporangiospores.
When the mycelium grows on a surface, it produces stolons, i.e., hyphae that arch over the
surface and at the next point of contact with the surface produces both root-like hyphae, called
rhizoids, which grow toward the surface, and aerial sporangiophores bearing sporangia. From
each point of contact more stolons are produced in all directions.
FIGURE 2. Disease cycle of soft rot of fruits and vegetables caused by Rhizopus spp.
Adjacent hyphae produce short branches called progametangia, which grow toward one another.
When they come in contact, the tip of each hypha is separated from the progamentangium by a
cross wall. The terminal cells are gametangia. This fuses with their nuclei pair. The cell formed
by the fusion enlarges and develops a thick, black, and warty cell wall. This sexually produced
spore is called a zygospore and is the overwintering or resting stage of the fungus. When it
germinates it produces a sporangiophore bearing a sporangium full of sporangiospores.
Development of Disease
Throughout the year, sporangiospores float about and if they land on wounds of fleshy fruits,
roots, corms, or bulbs they germinate. The resulting hyphae secrete pectinolytic enzymes, which
break down and dissolve the pectic substances of the middle lamella that hold the plant cells in
place in the tissues. This results in loss of cohesion among the cells and development of “soft
rot.”
The pectinolytic enzymes secreted by the fungus advance ahead of the mycelium and separate
the plant cells, which are then attacked by the cellulolytic enzymes of the fungus. The cellulases
break down the cellulose of the cell wall and the cells disintegrate. The mycelium does not seem
to invade cells but is instead surrounded by dead cells and nonliving organic substances, the
fungus living more like a saprophyte than a parasite.
The fungus continues to grow inside the tissues. When the epidermis breaks, the fungus emerges
through the wounds and produces aerial sporangiophores, sporangia, stolons, and rhizoids, the
latter capable of piercing the softened epidermis. In extremely fleshy fruits, the mycelium can
penetrate even healthy fruit. Unfavorable temperature and humidity, or insufficient maturity of
the fruit, slow down the growth and activity of the fungus. This allows some hosts to form layers
of cork cells and other histological barriers that retard or completely inhibit further infection by
the fungus. When the food supply in the infected tissues begins to diminish and compatible
strains are present together, zygospores are produced. Zygospores help the fungus survive
periods of starvation and of adverse temperature and moisture.
Control Measures
Avoid wounding fleshy fruits, roots, tubers, and bulbs during harvest, handling, and
transportation. Discard or pack and store wounded organs separately from healthy ones. Clean
and disinfest storage containers and warehouses with a copper sulfate solution, formaldehyde,
sulfur fumes, or chloropicrin. Control temperatures of storage rooms and shipping cars. Pick
succulent fruits, such as strawberries, in the morning when it is cool and keep them at
temperatures below 10°C. Keep sweet potatoes and some other not so succulent organs at 25 to
30°C and 90% humidity for 10 to 14 days, during which the cut surfaces cork over and do not
allow subsequent penetration by the fungus. Subsequently lower the temperature to about 12°C.
Biological control of Rhizopus on stored peaches and nectarines has been achieved
experimentally by treating them with yeasts of the genera Candida and Pichia.
2.2.3. Vascular Wilts

2.2.3.1.Fungal wilts
Caused by ascomycetes and deuteromycetes (mitosporic fungi)

Vascular wilts are widespread, very destructive, spectacular, and frightening plant diseases. They
appear as more or less rapid wilting, browning, and dying of leaves and succulent shoots of
plants followed by death of the whole plant. Wilts occur as a result of the presence and activities
of the pathogen in the xylem vessels of the plant. Entire plants may die within a matter of weeks,
although in perennials, death may not occur until several months or years after infection. As long
as the infected plant is alive, wilt-causing fungi remain in the vascular (xylem) tissues and a few
surrounding cells.
Only when the infected plant is killed by the disease do these fungi move into other tissues and
sporulate at or near the surface of the dead plant. There are two genera of fungi that cause
vascular wilts: Fusarium, and Verticillium. Each of them causes disease on several important
crop, forest, and ornamental plants.
Fusarium wilts affect and cause severe losses on most vegetables and flowers; several field
crops, such as cotton and tobacco; plantation crops, such as banana, plantain coffee and
sugarcane; and a few shade trees. Fusarial wilts are most severe under warm soil conditions and
in greenhouses. Most fusarial wilts have disease cycles and develop similar to those of the
Fusarium wilt of tomato.
Most of the wilt causing Fusarium fungi belongs to the species Fusarium oxysporum. Different
host plants are attacked by special forms or races of the fungus. The fungus that attacks tomato is
designated F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici; cucurbits, F. oxysporum f. sp. conglutinans; banana,
F. oxysporum f.sp. cubense; cotton, F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum; carnation, F. oxysporum f.
sp. dianthii; and so on.
Verticillium causes vascular wilts of vegetables, flowers, field crops, perennial ornamentals, and
fruit and forest trees. Two species, Verticillium albo-atrum and V. dahliae, attack hundreds of
kinds of plants, causing wilts and losses of varying severity.
All vascular wilts have certain characteristics in common. The leaves of infected plants or of
parts of infected plants lose turgidity, become flaccid and lighter green to greenish yellow,
droop, and finally wilt, turn yellow, then brown, and die. Wilted leaves may be flat or curled.
Young, tender shoots also wilt and die. In cross sections of infected stems and twigs, discolored
brown areas appear as a complete or interrupted ring consisting of discolored vascular tissues. In
the xylem vessels of infected stems and roots, mycelium and spores of the causal fungus may be
present.
a. Fusarium wilt of tomato (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici)
The disease causes great losses, especially on susceptible varieties and when soil and air
temperatures are rather high during much of the season. Infected plants become stunted and soon
wilt and finally die. Occasionally, entire fields of tomatoes are killed or damaged severely before
a crop can be harvested.
Symptoms
The first symptoms appear as slight vein clearing on the outer, younger leaflets. Subsequently,
the older leaves show epinasty caused by drooping of the petioles. Plants infected at the seedling
stage usually wilt and die soon after appearance of the first symptoms. Older plants in the field
may wilt and die suddenly if the infection is severe and if the weather is favorable for the
pathogen.
The Pathogen
The mycelium is colorless at first, but with age it becomes cream-colored, pale yellow, pale pink,
or somewhat purplish. The fungus produces three kinds of asexual spores. Microconidia, which
have one or two cells, are the most frequently and abundantly produced spores under all
conditions, even inside the vessels of infected host plants. Macroconidia are the typical
“Fusarium” spores; they are three to five celled, have gradually pointed and curved ends, and
appear in sporodochia-like groups on the surface of plants killed by the pathogen.
Chlamydospores are one- or twocelled, thick-walled, round spores produced within or terminally
on older mycelium or in macroconidia. All three types of spores are produced in cultures of the
fungus and probably in the soil, although only chlamydospores can survive in the soil for long.
A B C D E
Fusarium wilt of tomato caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici: wilted tomato plants in the field (A) and
severe brown discoloration of vascular tissues along stem of infected plant (B). Clogged and discolored vascular
tissues in cross section of watermelon stem infected with F. oxysporum f. sp. niveum (C). (D) Fusarium wilt
(Panama disease) of banana caused by F.oxysporum f. sp. cubense. (E) Lower leaves of infected banana plants wilt,
turn brown, and die. (F) Discolored vascular tissues of infected banana rhizomes.
The pathogen is a soil inhabitant. Between crops it survives in infected plant debris in the soil as
mycelium and in all its spore forms but, most commonly, especially in the cooler temperate
regions, as chlamydospores. It spreads over short distances by means of water and contaminated
farm equipment and over long distances primarily in infected transplants or in the soil carried
with them. Usually, once an area becomes infested with Fusarium, it remains so indefinitely. The
fungus then invades all tissues of the plant extensively, reaches the surface of the dead plant, and
there sporulates profusely. The spores may be disseminated to new plants or areas by wind,
water, and so on.
Disease cycle of Fusarium wilt of tomato caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici.
Management
Use of tomato varieties resistant to the fungus is the only practical measure for controlling the
disease in the field. Several such varieties are available today. The fungus is so widespread and
so persistent in soils that seedbed sterilization and crop rotation, although always sound
practices, are of limited value. Soil sterilization is too expensive for field application, but it
should be always practiced for greenhouse grown tomato plants. Use of healthy seed and
transplants is of course mandatory, and hot-water treatment of seed suspected of being infected
should precede planting.
In the last several years, biological control of Fusarium wilt has given encouraging results.
Control may involve prior inoculation of plants with nonpathogenic strains of F. oxysporum or
the use of antagonistic fungi, such as Trichoderma and Gliocladium, Pseudomonas fluorescens
and Burkholderia cepacia bacteria, and others. However, none of the biocontrols are used in
practice yet. Solar heating (solarization) of field soil by covering with transparent plastic film
during the summer also reduces disease incidence. More recently, it was shown that spraying
tomato plants with a suspension of zoospores of the oomycete Phytophthora cryptogea induces
the development of systemic acquired resistance in the tomato plants, which remained free of
wilt following inoculation with F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici. Although promising, none of
these methods have been used for control of Fusarium wilt in practice so far.
a. Fusarium (panama) wilt of banana (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense)
Panama wilts of banana, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense, was discovered in
Australia in the late 1880s but it reached epidemic proportions in the 1950s in Panama, where it
destroyed 40,000 hectares of Gros Michel bananas and was then recognized as a devastating
disease and a major threat to the banana industry in Central America. Panama disease now
occurs in most areas where bananas are grown.
The symptoms of Panama disease consist of yellowing of the oldest leaves or lengthwise
splitting of the lower leaf sheath. Leaves may wilt and buckle at their petiole base and, later,
younger leaves collapse and die. Internally, brown streaks develop on and within older leaf
sheaths and these are followed by large portions of the xylem turning brick red to brown. In the
meantime, the fungus, which enters the banana plant from the soil through the feeder roots,
advances into the xylem vessels of the rhizome and from there into the pseudostem, which it
colonizes, resulting in discoloration and blockage.
The pathogen is F. oxysporum f. sp. cubense. It produces micro- and macroconidia and
chlamydospores. Several races of the pathogen are known that differ in the banana varieties they
attack. The fungus over seasons in infected plants as mycelium and in the soil mostly as
chlamydospores. The latter survive in the soil for at least 20 years. The pathogen is spread
primarily in infected rhizomes (suckers), which are used traditionally for the vegetative
propagation of banana. Less frequently, the pathogen is spread as spores in soil, running water,
and on farm equipment and machinery.
There are no easy or good controls of Panama disease. The most effective control is achieved by
planting banana varieties resistant to the existing races of the pathogen. Planting pathogen-free
rhizomes in pathogen free soil is also effective. The use of tissue culture produced propagative
material free of the pathogen is helpful. Also, certain cultural practices and measures toward
biological control of the disease are helpful but far from adequate.
b. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum)
Symptoms
The disease affects the crop at all stages. The earliest symptoms appear on the seedlings in the
cotyledons which turn yellow and then brown. The base of petiole shows brown ring, followed
by wilting and drying of the seedlings. In young and grown up plants, the first symptom is
yellowing of edges of leaves and area around the veins, i.e. discoloration starts from the margin
and spreads towards the midrib. The leaves lose their turgidity, gradually turn brown, droop and
finally drop off. Symptoms start from the older leaves at the base, followed by younger ones
towards the top, finally involving the branches and the whole plant. The defoliation or wilting
may be complete leaving the stem alone standing in the field. Sometimes partial wilting occurs;
where in only one portion of the plant is affected, the other remaining free. The taproot is usually
stunted with less abundant laterals. Browning or blackening of vascular tissues is the other
important symptom, black streaks or stripes may be seen extending upwards to the branches and
downwards to lateral roots. In severe cases, discoloration may extend throughout the plant
starting from roots extending to stem, leaves and even bolls. In transverse section, discolored
ring is seen in the woody tissues of stem. The plants affected later in the season are stunted with
fewer bolls which are very small and open prematurely.
Marginal chlorosis & necrosis Browning of vascular bundles

Pathogen
The fungus produces three types of spores. Macroconidia are 1 to 5 septate, hyaline, thin
walled, falcate with tapering ends. The microconidia are hyaline, thin walled, spherical or
elliptical, single or two celled. Chlamydospores are dark coloured and thick walled. The fungus
also produces a vivotoxin, Fusaric acid which is partially responsible for wilting of the plants.
Disease cycle
The fungus can survive in soil as saprophyte for many years and chlamydospores act as resting
spores. The pathogen is both externally and internally seed-borne. The primary infection is
mainly from dormant hyphae and chlamydospores in the soil. The secondary spread is through
conidia and chlamydospores which are disseminated by irrigation water.
Favourable Conditions
Soil temperature of 20-30oC, hot and dry periods followed by rains, heavy black soils with an
alkaline reaction, increased doses of nitrogen and phosphatic fertilizers, soil amendment with
manganese and wounds caused by nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and grubs of Ashweevil
(Myllocerus pustulatus).
Management
 Treat the acid-delinted seeds with Carboxin or Chlorothalonil at 4 g/kg or
Carbendazim@2g/kg seed
 Remove and burn the infected plant debris in the soil after deep summer ploughing.
 Apply increased doses of potash with a balanced dose of nitrogenous and phosphatic
fertilizers.
 Multiply Trichoderma viride (2kg) in 50 kg of Farm yard manure for 15 days and then
apply to the soil.
 Apply heavy doses of farm yard manure or other organic manures at 10 t/ha. Follow
mixed cropping with non-host plants to lower the soil temperature below 200C by
providing shade.
 Soil amendment with zinc.
 Grow disease resistant varieties of G. hirsutum and G. barbadense.
c. Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahlia)
Economic importance
The disease is a major disease in cotton in USA and USSR and was first reported in India during
1968 on hirsutum cottons in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. The disease usually appears in November
and December when the crop is in squares and bolls, about three months after sowing.
Symptoms
The symptoms are seen when the crop is in squares and bolls. Plants infected at early stages are
severely stunted. The first symptoms can be seen as distinct mottling of leaves with pale
yellowish irregular areas at the margins and between the principal veins. The yellowish areas
become pale, more whitish and extensively necrotic. The necrosis of the leaves spreads from
lower to upper leaves and there is heavy defoliation. The affected leaves fall off leaving the
branches barren. Infected stem and roots, when split open, show a pinkish to pinkish brown
discolouration of the woody tissue which may be continuous or interrupted. Pinkish streaks
alternating with healthy tissue (Tiger stripe) are seen on removing the bark of the roots, stem
and petiole. The affected plants may bear a few smaller bolls with immature lint.
Pinkish discolorations Conidiophore & conidia

Pathogen
The fungus produces hyaline, septate mycelium and two types of spores. The conidia are single
celled, hyaline, spherical to oval, borne singly on verticillate conidiophores. The micro sclerotia
are globose to oblong, measuring 48-120 X 26-45um.
Disease cycle
The fungus also infects the other hosts like brinjal, chilli, tobacco. The fungus can survive in
the infected plant debris and in soils as micro sclerotia up to 14 years. The seeds also carry the
micro sclerotia and conidia in the fuzz. The primary spread is through the micro sclerotia or
conidia in the soil. The secondary spread is through the contact of diseased roots to healthy ones
and through dissemination of infected plant parts through irrigation water and other implements.
Low temperature of 15-20oC, low lying and ill-drained soils, heavy soils with alkaline reaction
and heavy doses of nitrogenous fertilizers favours the disease.
Management
 Treat the delinted seeds with Carboxin@4g/kg or Carbendazim at 2 g/kg.
 Remove and destroy the infected plant debris after deep ploughing in summer months.
 Apply heavy doses of farm yard manure or compost at 10t/ha.
 Follow crop rotation by growing Lucerne or chrysanthemum for 2-3 years.
 Spot drench with 0.05 per cent Benomyl or Carbendazim.
 Grow disease resistant varieties.
d. Sugar cane Wilt (Cephalosporium sacchari)
Economic importance
This is an important disease of sugarcane and is common in Ethiopia. The disease occurs singly
or in combination with red rot. The disease is more in wilt sick soils and in alkaline soils.
Moisture stress aggravates the disease.
Symptoms
The first symptom of the disease is visible in the canes of 4-5 months age. The canes may wither
in groups. The affected plants are stunted with yellowing and withering of crown leaves. The
midribs of all leaves in a crown generally turn yellow, while the leaf lamina may remain green.
The leaves dry up and stem develop hollowness in the core or pith.
The pith shows reddish discolouration with longitudinal red streaks passing from one internode
to another. In severe cases, spindle shaped cavities tapering towards the nodes develop in each
internode. The canes emit a disagreeable odour, with lot of white mycelial threads of the fungus
covering the cavity. Weight gets reduced due to hollow canes.
Wilt and red rot of sugar cane Condiophores and microconidia
Pathogen
The fungal mycelium is hyaline, septate and thin walled. The conidiophores are simple, slender
or swollen on which hyaline, single celled, hyaline, oval to elliptical microconidia collecting in
a slime drop. Macroconidia are not produced.
Disease cycle
The fungus is primarily sett borne and also survives in the soil as saprophyte for 2-3 years. The
disease is primarily transmitted through infected seed setts. The secondary spread is aided by
wind, rain and irrigation water.
High day temperature (30-35oC), low humidity (50-60 %), low soil moisture, alkaline soils and
excess doses of nitrogenous fertilizers.
Management
 Select the seed material from the disease-free plots.
 Avoid the practice of ratooning in diseased fields.
 Burn the trash and stubbles in the field.
 Grow coriander or mustard as a companion crop in the early stages of crop.
 Avoid alkaline soils for growing the crop
 Treat the setts in hot water at 500C for 2 hours followed by dipping in 0.05%
Carbendazim for 15 minutes.
 Dip the setts in 40ppm Boron or Manganese for 10 minutes
 Grow resistant varieties.
d. Check pea (Cicer arietinum) Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri)
Symptoms
The disease occurs at two stages of crop growth, seedling stage and flowering stage or adult
stage. The field symptoms of wilt are death of seedlings or adult plants in patches. Seedlings
collapse and lie flat on the ground retaining their dull green color. When split open or cut
transversely, brown to black discoloration of the internal tissues can be seen. Grown up plants
show typical symptoms of wilting, i.e., drooping of petioles, rachis and leaflets. All the leaves
turn yellow and then light brown. Vascular discoloration is observed on longitudinal splitting of
stem. Sometimes only a few branches are affected, resulting in partial wilt.
Wilted Check pea

Pathogen
The fungus produces hyaline to light brown, septate and profusely branched hyphae.
Microconidia are oval to cylindrical, hyaline, single celled, normally arise on short
conidiophores. Macroconidia which borne on branched conidiophores, are thin walled, 3 to 5
septate, fusoid and pointed at both ends. Chlamydospores are rough walled or smooth, terminal
or intercalary, may be formed singly or in pairs in chains.
Disease cycle
The fungus may be seed-borne and survives in infected plant debris in soil. The primary
infection is through chlamydospores in soil, which remain viable upto next crop season. The
weed hosts also serve as a source of inoculum. The secondary spread is through irrigation water,
cultural operations and implements.
High soil temperature (Above 25oC), high soil moisture, monocropping and presence of weed
hosts like Cyperus rotundus, Tribulus terrestris and Convolvulus arvensis.
Management
 Treat the seeds with Carbendazim or Thiram at 2 g/kg or treat the seeds with
 Trichoderma viride at 4 g/kg or Pseudonomas fluorescens @ 10g/kg of seed.
 Apply heavy doses of organic manure or green manure.
 Follow 6-year crop rotation with non-host crops.
 Grow resistant cultures.
2.2.3.2.Bacterial vascular wilts
Vascular wilts caused by bacteria affect mostly herbaceous plants such as several vegetables,
field crops, ornamentals, and tropical plants. The bacteria and the most important vascular wilts
they cause are listed. Clavibacter (Corynebacterium), causing ring rot of potato (C.
michiganense subsp. sepedonicum) and bacterial canker and wilt of tomato (C. michiganense
subsp. michiganense) Curtobacterium (Corynebacterium) flaccumfaciens, causing bacterial wilt
of bean Erwinia, causing bacterial wilt of cucurbits (E. tracheiphila), and fire blight of pome
fruits (E. amylovora) Pantoea, causing Stewart’s wilt of corn (P. stewartii) Ralstonia, causing
the southern bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops and the Moko disease of banana (R.
solanacearum) Xanthomonas, causing black rot or black vein of crucifers (X. campestris pv.
campestris)
a. Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits (Erwinia tracheiphila)

Bacterial wilt of cucurbits occurs in the United States, Europe, South Africa, and Japan. It affects
many species of the family Cucurbitaceae. This vascular wilt disease caused by the bacterium
Erwinia tracheiphila affects only certain members of the cucumber family including Cucumber,
cantaloupe, squash, and pumpkin are susceptible, whereas water melon is resistant or immune to
bacterial wilt. Affected plants develop sudden wilting of foliage and vines and finally die.
Affected squash fruit develop a slime rot in storage. The severity of the disease varies from an
occasional wilted plant to destruction of 75 to 95% of the crop.
Fig. 1: Symptoms of yellowing, wilting and dieback of the foliage of squash; Close up of the symptoms in stems of
infected plants respectively.
Symptoms of the disease first appear on a single leaf which suddenly wilts and becomes dull
green (Fig.1.). The wilting symptoms spread up and down the runner sometimes as a recurring
wilt on hot, dry days. Soon infected runners and leaves turn brown and die. The bacteria spread
through the xylem vessels of the infected runner to the main stem, then to other runners.
Eventually the entire plant shrivels and dies.
Disease Cycle
Bacterial wilt is an unusual disease in that the bacterial pathogen can survive the winter only in
the digestive tract of striped cucumber beetles and spotted cucumber beetles. In spring the
overwintered bacteria land on cucurbit leaves within the fecal droppings of beetles which have
begun to feed on the plants. The bacteria can then infect the plant through wounds produced by
the feeding of the beetles or other chewing insects. Bacteria cannot infect the plant through
normal plant openings (stomates and hydathodes) nor are they carried on or in seed. The beetles'
mouthparts become contaminated with the bacteria while feeding on infected leaves. In this
manner the beetles carry the bacteria to the next three or four plants on which they feed. Beetles
apparently prefer to feed on plants with bacterial wilt symptoms.
Fig-2. Disease cycle of bacterial wilt of cucurbits caused by Erwinia tracheiphila.
Fortunately, only a small number of beetles become active carriers of the bacteria and infection
can only take place when there is a film of water on the leaf sufficient for the bacteria to reach a
wound and gain entry into the inner leaf tissue. Weather conditions have an indirect effect on the
disease. Environmental conditions which favor the over-wintering, feeding, and reproduction of
the cucumber beetles will affect the prevalence of bacterial wilt. A year with a good winter snow
cover followed by a warm March and April could be expected to increase the number of beetles
and therefore increase the incidence of bacterial wilt.
Management
The bacterial wilt of cucurbits can be controlled best by controlling the cucumber beetles,
especially the early ones, with insecticides. To avoid squash rot in storage, only fruit from
healthy plants should be picked and stored in a clean, fumigated warehouse. Resistant cucurbit
varieties should be preferred to more susceptible ones.
b. Southern bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants

Southern bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants is caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. The disease
is present in the tropics and in the warmer climates throughout the world. It causes severe losses
on tobacco, tomato, potato, and eggplant in some warm areas outside the tropics. Many other
hosts, however, are attacked by the disease. At least five races of the pathogen cause disease on
the various hosts. One of them attacks all the solanaceous and many nonsolanaceous crops as
well as some bananas, another attacks only plants in the banana family, and a third attacks potato
and sometimes tobacco. Two other races cause disease in plants of little importance.
Bacterial wilt on solanaceous crops appears as a sudden wilt. Infected young plants die rapidly.
Older plants first show wilting of the youngest leaves, or one sided wilting and stunting, and
finally the plants wilt permanently and die. In some plants, such as tomato, excessive
adventitious roots may form. The vascular tissues of stems, roots, and tubers turn brown, and in
cross sections they ooze a whitish bacterial exudate. Bacterial pockets develop around the
vascular bundles in the pith and in the cortex, and roots and especially tubers often rot and
disintegrate by the time the plant wilts permanently.
Fig-1 Bacterial wilt of tomato and potato caused by Ralstonia solanacearum.
Ralstonia solanacearum bacteria overwinter in diseased plants or plant debris, in vegetative

propagative organs, such as potato tubers, on the seeds of some crops, in wild host plants, and
probably in the soil. Injured or decaying infected tissues release bacteria in the soil. Bacteria are
spread through the soil water, through infected or contaminated seeds, tubers, and transplants, by
contaminated knives used for cutting tubers or for pruning suckers, and, in some instances, by
insects. Bacteria enter plants through wounds made in roots by cultivating equipment,
nematodes, insects, and at cracks where secondary roots emerge. Bacteria reach the large xylem
vessels and through them spread into the plant. Along the vessels they escape into the
intercellular spaces of the parenchyma cells in the cortex and pith, dissolve the cell walls, and
create cavities filled with slimy masses of bacteria and cellular debris.
Management
The control of bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants depends mostly on the use of resistant
varieties, when available, and proper crop rotation or fallow. Only bacteria-free propagative
material should be used, and tools, such as knives, should be disinfested when moving from one
plant to another. Infested soils should be kept fallow for about a year and frequently disked
during the dry season to accelerate the desiccation of plant material and the death of wilt
bacteria. Experimental biological control of the disease through treatment of propagative organs
with antagonistic bacteria has been obtained.
c. Bacterial wilt or moko disease of banana

The Moko disease of banana got its name from the fact that it almost eliminated the banana
relative Moko plantain in Trinidad around 1890, long before the cause of the disease was known.
The Moko disease of banana now occurs throughout the tropical western hemisphere where
bananas are grown.
In the Moko disease of banana, young plants wilt rapidly and die, their central leaves breaking at
a sharp angle while still green (Fig. 1). In older plants, first the inner leaf turns a dirty yellow
near the petiole, the petiole breaks down, and the leaf wilts and dies. In the meantime, more and
more of the surrounding leaves droop and die from the center outward until all the leaves bend
down and dry out (Figs. 1). Fruit growth in infected plants, if it had started, stops. Banana fingers
are deformed, turn black, and shrivel. If the fruit was near maturity when infected, it may show
no outward symptoms, but the pulp of some fingers may be discolored and decaying. In cross
section, an infected banana pseudostem shows many discolored, yellowish brown or almost
black vascular bundles, particularly in the inner leaf sheaths and in the fruit stalk. Pockets of
bacteria and decay may be present in the pseudostem, in the rhizome, and most strikingly in
individual bananas that become filled with a dark, gummy substance. The pulp of such bananas
finally dries out into a gray, crumbly, starchy residue that pours out when the peel splits open.
Fig-1. Bacterial wilt (Moko disease) of banana caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. Banana plants showing different
stages of bacteria wilt, including wilted foliage only (A), infection of stalk and early infection of banana fruit (B),
and thorough invasion and destruction of banana fruit (C). (D) Early (right) and later invasion and destruction of the
contents of infected bananas (left). (E) Colonies of R. solanacearum growing on a specialized nutrient medium.
The pathogen is R. solanacearum, race 2. When cultured on certain special media containing
triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, the pathogen produces characteristic colonies. The epidemiology
of the disease is very similar to the other blights caused by this bacterium and described earlier.
Bacteria survive in host plants and, for several months at least, in the soil. Bacteria enter roots
through wounds, reach the xylem vessels and multiply, and move through them. Bacteria are
transmitted through infected banana rhizomes and through contaminated tools and equipment.
Management
The control of Moko disease is very difficult. It depends primarily on the use of resistant
varieties, crop rotation, and cultural practices. Diseased and adjacent banana plants and rhizomes
should be cut up and burned.
d. Bacterial wilt (black rot) of crucifers

Black rot of crucifers is caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. The disease is
present throughout the world. It affects all members of the crucifer family and often causes
severe losses. The disease affects primarily the above ground parts of plants of any age. In hosts
such as turnip and radish, however, the fleshy roots may also be affected and may develop a dry
rot. Infected young seedlings show dwarfing, one-sided growth, and their lower leaves droop.
The first symptoms, however, usually appear in the field as large, often V-shaped, chlorotic
blotches at the margins of the leaves (Fig. below). The affected area later turns brown and dry.
In the meantime, the blackening of the veins advances to the stem and from there upward and
downward to other leaves and roots.
Infected leaves may fall off prematurely one after the other. The stem and the stalks of infected
leaves in cross section show blackening of vascular tissues, yellow slime droplets of bacteria,
and, sometimes, cavities full of bacteria in the pith and cortex. Cabbage and cauliflower heads
are also invaded and discolored, as are the fleshy roots of turnip and radish. Infected areas are
subsequently invaded by soft-rotting bacteria, which destroy the tissue, and a repulsive odor is
given off.
Fig-1. Bacterial wilt or black rot of cabbage caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris. V-shaped infected
areas in close-up (A) and around several leaves of cabbage (B). (C) Dark greenish-brown discoloration in the veins
of a leaf and at a cross section of the base stem of a cabbage. (D) Area of field with many cabbage plants showing
symptoms of bacterial wilt, respectively.
Black rot bacteria overwinter in infected plant debris and on or in the seed. The bacteria infect
cotyledons or young leaves through stomata, hydathodes, or wounds and spread through them
intercellularly until they reach the open ends of outer vessels, which they invade. The bacteria
then multiply in the vessels and spread in them throughout the plant (Fig. above), reaching even
the seeds. At the same time, the xylem disintegrates in places, and the bacteria spread between
the surrounding parenchyma cells. These cells are soon killed and disintegrate, and cavities are
formed. Bacteria often ooze to the surface of the leaves through hydathodes or wounds and are
subsequently spread by rain splashes and wind or are carried by equipment, to other leaves,
which they infect. In wet, warm weather, infection develops rapidly, and visible symptoms may
appear within hours (Fig. above).
Management
The control of black rot depends on the use of bacteria- free seed and transplants planted in soil
free of black rot for at least two years. Seed treatment with hot water (50°C for 30 minutes) and
tetracycline or streptomycin helps ensure bacteria-free seed. Sprays with copper fungicides at 10-
day intervals help reduce spread of the disease.
e. Stewart’s wilt of corn

It has been reported from many countries and probably exists throughout the world. In the United
States the importance of the disease has declined with the availability of resistant corn hybrids,
but the disease causes significant losses in developing countries.
Infection of young plants causes them to wilt rapidly or, if they survive, to produce linear pale
yellow streaks with wavy margins. The streaks may extend the length of the leaf and may turn
brown and desiccate. Infected plants, especially of sweet corn, become infected systemically, and
may develop cavities in the pith near the soil line and bleached and dead tassels. More common
and appearing usually after tasseling are streak lesions originating from the feeding sites of the
corn flea beetle (Chaetocnema pulicaria) that die and become straw colored (Figs. 1A and 1B).
Such lesions may cover entire leaves, which die and dry up.
Fig-1. Bacterial wilt (Stewart’s disease) of corn caused by Erwinia (Pantoea) stewartii. (A) Young corn plant
showing leaf stripes caused by the disease. (B) Close-up of infected leaves showing stripes of dead tissue caused by
bacterial wilt. (C) The corn flea beetle, which is the main vector of the bacterial wilt bacteria.
The pathogen of Stewart’s wilt of corn is Erwinia stewartii, which, in 1993, was renamed
Pantoea stewartii, but the latter name has not yet been totally accepted by scientists. The
pathogen overwinters in the gut of, primarily, the corn flea beetle (Fig. 1C), which is also the
most important vector of the bacteria from plant to plant. As the adult corn flea beetles emerge
from dormancy, they feed on plants to which they carry the bacteria and deposit them in the
feeding wounds where they can start new infections. The severity of the disease in a year is
almost proportional to the favorable temperatures for the survival of large numbers of beetles
through the previous winter. Monitoring these conditions in the winter is used to forecast the
severity of the disease the following growing season. Stewart’s wilt bacteria may also be carried
in a small number of seed corn.
Management
The control of Stewart’s wilt of corn depends on the use of resistant corn hybrids, the use of
bacteria-free seed, and, to a lesser extent, spraying plants with insecticides to control the insect
vector of the bacteria.
2.2.4. Mildews
2.2.4.1.Powdery Mildews
Powdery mildews are probably the most common, conspicuous, widespread, and easily
recognizable plant diseases. They affect all kinds of plants except gymnosperms. Powdery
mildews appear as spots or patches of a white to grayish, powdery, mildew growth on young
plant tissues or as entire leaves and other organs being completely covered by the white powdery
mildew (Figs. 1 and 2). Tiny, pinhead-sized, spherical, at first white, later yellow-brown, and
finally black cleistothecia (Figs.2 E and F) may be present singly or in groups on the white to
grayish mildew in the older areas of infection. Powdery mildew is most common on the upper
side of leaves, but it also affects the underside of leaves, young shoots and stems, buds, flowers,
and young fruit.
Figure1. Powdery mildew symptoms on rose leaves (A) and petals (B), peach fruit (C), and squash leaf (D).
Powdery mildew symptoms on dark (E) and white (F) grape bunches.
Fungi causing powdery mildews are obligate parasites: they cannot be cultured on artificial
nutrient media, but recently the powdery mildew fungus of barley, Blumeria graminis f. sp.
hordei, was grown in culture. They produce mycelium that grows only on the surface of plant
tissues but does not invade the tissues themselves. They obtain nutrients from the plant by
sending haustoria (feeding organs, Fig. 2B) into the epidermal cells of the plant organs. The
mycelium produces short conidiophores on the plant surface (Figs. 2C and 2D). Each
conidiophore produces chains of rectangular, ovoid, or round conidia that are carried by air
currents. When environmental or nutritional conditions become unfavorable, the fungus may
produce cleistothecia containing one or a few asci (Figs. 2E and 2F).
Powdery mildew fungi, although they are common and cause serious diseases in cool or warm,
humid areas, are even more common and severe in warm, dry climates. This happens because
their spores can be released, germinate, and cause infection even when there is no film of water
on the plant surface as long as the relative humidity in the air is fairly high. Once infection has
begun, the mycelium continues to spread on the plant surface regardless of the moisture
conditions in the atmosphere.
Powdery mildews are so common, widespread, and ever present among crop plants and
ornamentals that the total losses, in plant growth and crop yield, they cause each year on all
crops probably surpass the losses caused by any other single type of plant disease. Powdery
mildews seldom kill their hosts but utilize their nutrients, reduce photosynthesis, increase
respiration and transpiration, impair growth, and reduce yields, sometimes by as much as 20 to
40%.
Among the plants affected most severely by powdery mildew are the various cereals, such as
wheat and barley, primarily because the chemical control of plant diseases in these crops is
difficult, impractical, or not cost effective. Other crops that suffer common and severe losses
from powdery mildew are the cucurbits, especially cantaloupe, squash, and cucumber; sugar
beets; strawberries; clovers; many ornamentals, such as rose, begonia, dephinium, azalea, and
lilac; grape; and many trees, particularly apple, catalpa, and oak.
Figure 2. (A) Powdery mildew on wheat leaf. (B) A haustorium of a powdery mildew fungus inside an epidermal
cell of a host leaf. (C) Conidia of a powdery mildew fungus in typical shape and arrangement in chains. (D)
Scanning electron micrograph of conidia of a powdery mildew fungus. (E) Mycelium and cleistothecia of varying
maturity (color) on a strawberry leaf. (F) Cleistothecium of a powdery mildew (Erysiphe sp.) showing two asci and
mycilioid appendages.
Management
The control of powdery mildews in grapes and some other crops depends on dusting the plants
with sulfur. In cereals and several other annual crops, powdery mildew control is primarily
through the use of resistant varieties. More recently, powdery mildew control has been obtained
with systemic fungicides used as seed treatments or as foliar sprays. The same chemicals are
used as sprays for the control of powdery mildews in other crops and in ornamentals. Several
powdery mildew fungi, however, have developed resistance and are no longer controlled by
some systemic fungicides. Powdery mildew on trees, such as apple, is controlled effectively with
sprays of any of several sterol-inhibiting systemic fungicides. Powdery mildews have also been
controlled experimentally with sprays of phosphate salt solutions and detergents or ultrafine oils
and, in the greenhouse, by using blue photosensitive polyethylene sheeting. Experimentally,
powdery mildew control has also been obtained through sprays with the biocontrol fungus
Ampelomyces quisqualis and with plant activator compounds.
The powdery mildew diseases of the various crop or other plants are caused by many species of
fungi of the family Erysiphaceae grouped onto several main genera. These genera are
distinguished from one another by the number (one versus several) of asci per cleistothecium and
by the morphology of hyphal appendages growing out of the wall of the cleistothecium. The
most important diseases they cause are listed here.
Blumeria, B. graminis causing powdery mildew on cereals and grasses (Figs. 1 and 2A);
Erysiphe, E. cichoracearum causing powdery mildew of begonia, chrysanthemum, cucurbits
(Fig. 1D), dahlia, and zinnia; E. polygoni of legumes, beets, crucifers, and cucurbits; E. betae of
beets; and E. orontii of tomato; Leveillula, L. taurica causing powdery mildew of tomato;
Microsphaera, M. alni causing powdery mildew of many shade trees and woody ornamentals
Oidium, O. neolycopersicum causing powdery mildew of tomato, and Phyllactinia spp., causing
powdery mildew of shade and forest trees.
 Powdery mildew of rose

Powdery mildew is one of the most important diseases of roses, both in the garden and in the
greenhouse. The disease appears on roses year after year and causes reduced flower production
and weakening of the plants by attacking their buds, young leaves, and growing tips.
Symptoms
On young leaves the disease appears at first as slightly raised blister-like areas that soon become
covered with a grayish white, powdery fungus growth. As the leaves expand, they become curled
and distorted. On older leaves, large white patches of fungus growth appear that cause little
distortion but may eventually become necrotic. White patches of fungus growth also appear on
young, green shoots, and they may coalesce and cover the entire terminal portions of the growing
shoots. Infected shoots may become arched or curved at their tip. Sometimes buds are attacked,
become covered with white mildew before they open, and either fail to open or open improperly.
The infection may also spread to the flower parts, which become discolored, dwarfed, and
eventually die.
Figure 1. Disease cycle of powdery mildew of roses caused by Sphaerotheca pannosa f.sp. rosae.
The Pathogen:
Powdery mildew on roses (Sphaerotheca pannosa f.sp. rosae); powdery mildew on roses is
caused by a special form of S. pannosa. The fungus produces white mycelium that grows on the
surface of the plant tissues, sending globose haustoria into the epidermal cells (Fig. 1). The
mycelium forms a weft of hyphae on the surface, some of which develop into short, erect,
conidiophores. At the tip of each conidiophore, 5 to 10 egg-shaped conidia are produced that
cling together in chains.
With the coming of cool weather late in the season, the production of conidia ceases and
cleistothecia may be formed, mainly on canes. The cleistothecia have several mycelioid
appendages, i.e., hyphae arising from cells of the cleistothecium. The cleistothecia are more or
less buried in the mycelial wefts on the plant tissues. The ascospores continue to develop during
the fall, and in the spring they are mature and ready for dissemination. In the spring the
cleistothecia absorb water and crack open. The tip of the single ascus in each cleistothecium then
protrudes, bursts open, and discharges eight mature ascospores.
On outdoor roses the fungus overwinters mostly as mycelium in the buds. Cleistothecia form
occasionally toward the end of the season. On greenhouse roses the pathogen survives
exclusively as mycelium and conidia. Shoots arising from buds containing mycelium become
infected and provide inoculum (mycelium and spores) for subsequent secondary infection and
disease development on foliage and flowers. Cleistothecia, if present, discharge ascospores that
also serve as primary inoculum (Fig. 1). Ascospores or conidia are carried by wind to young
green tissues, and if temperature and relative humidity are sufficiently high the spores germinate
and infect these tissues. The germ tube produces a short, fine hypha that grows directly into the
epidermal cells and forms a globose haustorium by which the fungus obtains its nutrients. The
germ tube, however, continues to grow and branch on the surface of the plant tissue, producing a
network of superficial mycelium that sends haustoria into the epidermal cells.
The absorption of nutrients from the cells depletes their food supply, weakens them, and may
sometimes lead to their death. Photosynthesis in the affected areas is reduced greatly. Infection
of young tissues also causes irritation and uneven growth of the affected and the surrounding
cells, resulting in slightly raised areas on the leaf and distortion of the leaf. The aerial mycelium
produces numerous conidia, which cause new infections on the expanding leaves and shoots.
Greenhouse roses are susceptible throughout the year. In the field, however, expanding tissues
seem to be the most susceptible to infection. The growth of severely infected shoots is inhibited.
Infected buds often do not open. If they do open, the flowers become infected and do not develop
properly.
Management
Many rose varieties show a moderately high level of resistance, but most popular varieties are
highly susceptible to powdery mildew. The disease has been controlled in the past by application
of sulfur or by spraying with one of several other fungicides. Sulfur may be used as a spray, as a
dust, and, in the greenhouse, as a vapor. Under most conditions, weekly applications give
adequate protection, but during rapid development of new growth or frequent rains, more
frequent applications may be necessary. Since the early 1990s, more effective systemic
fungicides have replaced many of the older fungicides in the control of powdery mildew. More
recently, sprays of defense activating compounds like actigard and of sodium bicarbonate
solution and ultrafine oils have been shown to control powdery mildew of rose. Several fungi
have been reported to parasitize or antagonize the powdery mildew fungi of several crops.
Although this control approach appears promising, so far it has not been developed sufficiently
to be used for practical control of powdery mildews.
2.2.4.2.Downy Mildews+++
Downy mildews are primarily foliage blights. They attack and spread rapidly in young, tender
green leaf, twig, and fruit tissues. They develop and are severe when a film of water is present on
the plant tissues and the relative humidity in the air is high during cool or warm, but not hot,
periods. Downy mildews can cause severe losses in short periods of time.
Although even the late blight of potato and tomato looks like and is often called a downy
mildew, true downy mildews are caused by a group of oomycetes that belong to the family
Peronosporaceae. All species of this family are obligate parasites of higher plants and cause
downy mildew diseases on most cultivated grain crops, vegetables, field crops, ornamentals,
shrubs, and vines.
Downy mildews have caused spectacular and catastrophic epidemics on several crops in the past,
and some of them continue to cause severe losses. The best known downy mildew is the one
affecting grapes, which in the mid to late 1800s almost completely destroyed the grape and wine
industry in France and most of the rest of Europe. In recent years, the downy mildew of
sorghum has appeared and spread in the United States and has raised fears of future introduction
of other, even more serious, downy mildews of grain crops now present in Asia and Africa. In
1979, a devastating epidemic of downy mildew (blue mold) of tobacco spread rapidly from
Florida up the eastern states into New England and Canada and destroyed much of the tobacco in
its path, causing losses to growers worth hundreds of millions of dollars.
Downy mildew oomycetes produce sporangia on sporangiophores that branch in ways distinctive
for each oomycete. The sporangia are located at the tips of the branches. The sporangiophores
are usually long, white at first, grayish to brown later, emerging in groups from the plant tissues
through the stomata. Sporangiophores form a visible mat of oomycete growth on the lower side
or both sides of leaves and on other affected tissues. Each sporangiophore grows until it reaches
maturity and then produces its crop of sporangia, all at about the same time.
In most downy mildews, sporangia germinate by producing zoospores or, at higher temperatures,
by producing germ tubes. In the genus Bremia, however, sporangia germinate most commonly
by means of a germ tube, and in genera Peronospora and Peronosclerospora the sporangia
germinate only by means of a germ tube. Whenever sporangia germinate by producing a germ
tube, they are considered spores in themselves rather than sporangia, and in that case they are
often called conidia. Oospores of downy mildews usually germinate by germ tubes, but in a few
cases they may produce a sporangium that releases zoospores.
In most downy mildews, in which the pathogen is carried in the seed or bulb or infection takes
place at the seedling or young plant stage, the pathogen routinely causes systemic shoot infection
of its host. When older plants are attacked they may develop small or large localized infected
areas or they may allow the oomycetes to spread into young tissues and become locally systemic.
Downy mildews often cause rapid and severe losses of young crop plants still in the seedbed or
in the field. They often destroy from 40 to 90% of the young plants or young shoots in the field,
causing heavy or total losses of crop yields. The severity of loss depends on the prolonged
presence of wet, cool weather during which the downy mildews sporulate profusely, cause
numerous new infections, and spread into and rapidly kill young succulent tissues.
In cool, wet weather downy mildews are often uncontrollable, checked only when the weather
turns hot and dry. Since the discovery of systemic fungicides, our ability to control these diseases
has improved considerably, although downy mildews are still very difficult to control.
Bremia lactucae, causing downy mildew of lettuce; Hyaloperonospora parasitica, causing

downy mildew of crucifers; Peronospora, causing downy mildew of snapdragon (P. antirrhini),
of onion (P. destructor), of spinach (P. effusa), of soybeans (P. manchurica); mildew (blue
mold) of tobacco (P. tabacina), and of alfalfa and clover (P. trifoliorum); Peronosclerospora,
causing downy mildew of sorghum and corn (P. sorghi), of corn (P. maydis and P.
philippinensis), and of corn and sugarcane (P. sacchari) and Plasmopara, causing downy
mildew of grape (P. viticola), sunflower (P. halstedii); Pseudoperonospora, causing downy
mildew of cucurbits (P. cubensis) and of hops (P. humuli); Sclerophthora, causing downy
mildew of cereals (corn, rice, sorghum, wheat) and grasses (S.macrospora); Sclerospora, causing
downy mildew of grasses and millets (S. graminicola)
The most important downy mildew diseases are those affecting tobacco, onion, grape, and
cucurbits, but in a given year any of the downy mildews can cause catastrophic losses in their
hosts.
 Downy mildew of grape

Downy mildew of grape occurs in most parts of the world where grapes are grown. Although the
pathogen is native to North America, where it attacks native grape vines, it does not affect them
very seriously. When the oomycete, however, was introduced inadvertently into Europe in about
1875, the European or wine grape, Vitis vinifera, which had evolved in the absence of the downy
mildew pathogen, was extremely susceptible to it and the oomycete began to spread among
vineyards throughout France and most of Europe, destroying the crop and the vineyards in its
path.
Downy mildew is still most destructive in Europe and in the eastern half of the United States,
where it may cause severe epidemics year after year and, in some years, in other humid parts of
the world. Dry areas are usually free of the disease. Downy mildew affects the leaves, fruit, and
shoots of grapevines. It causes losses through killing of leaf tissues and defoliation, through
production of low-quality, unsightly, or entirely destroyed grapes, and through weakening,
dwarfing, and killing of young shoots. When the weather is favorable and no protection against
the disease is provided, downy mildew can easily destroy 50 to 75% of the crop in one season.
Symptoms
At first, small, pale yellow, irregular spots appear on the upper surface of the leaves, and a white
downy growth of the sporangiophores of the oomycete appears on the underside of the spots.
Later, the infected leaf areas are killed and turn brown, while the sporangiophores of the
oomycete turn gray. The spots often enlarge, coalesce to form large dead areas on the leaf, and
frequently result in premature defoliation.
Figure 1. Downy mildew symptoms on leaves of cantaloupe (A), cabbage (B), and soybean (C). (D) Soybean seeds
encrusted with oospores of the downy mildew pathogen Peronospora manchurica. Sorghum downy mildew on corn
caused by Peronosclerospora sorghi (E) and crazy top downy mildew caused by Sclerophthora macrospora (F).
All young grapevine tissues are particularly susceptible to infection. Infected grapes are quickly
covered with the downy growth, may become distorted or thickened, and may die. If infection
takes place after the berries are half-grown, the oomycete grows mostly internally; the berries
become leathery and somewhat wrinkled and develop a reddish marbling to brown coloration. In
late or localized infections of shoots, the shoots usually are not killed but show various degrees
of distortion.
The Pathogen:
Plasmopara viticola. The mycelium diameter varies from 1 to 60 micrometers because the
hyphae take the shape of the intercellular spaces of the infected tissues. Globose haustoria grow
into the cells (Fig. 3). The mycelium produces sporangiophores on the underside of the leaves
and on the stems through stomata and, in young fruit, through lenticels. Four to six or more
sporangiophores arise through a single stoma. Each produces four to six branches at nearly right
angles to its main stem. Each branch produces two or three secondary branches in a similar
manner. At the tips of the branches, single, lemon-shaped sporangia (conidia) are produced. The
oomycete also produces numerous oospores (Fig. 2B). It appears, however, that P. viticola is
heterothallic, consisting of two mating types, parent 1 and parent 2 that must be present for
sexual reproduction to occur.
The pathogen overwinters as oospores in dead leaf lesions and shoots (Figs. 1B and 2) and, in
certain areas, as mycelium in infected, but not killed, twigs. During rainy periods in the spring
the oospores germinate to produce a sporangium. The sporangium or its zoospores are
transported by wind or water to the wet leaves near the ground, which they infect through
stomata of the lower surface (Figs. 1C, 1D, 1-3).
Figure 2. (A) Sporangiophores and sporangia of Pseudoperonospora cubense. (B) Oospores of Peronosclerospora
sorghi in leaf tissue. Downy mildew symptoms on upper side of grape leaf (C), on lower (left) and upper side of
grape leaf (D), and on grape cluster (E). (F) Grape varieties showing different resistance to leaf loss due to infection
by downy mildew.
Leaf hairs provide a basic protection barrier against the downy mildew pathogen, but in varieties
lacking additional or different defense strategies it is overcome. The mycelium then spreads into
the intercellular spaces of the leaf, and when it reaches the substomatal cavity it forms a cushion
of mycelium from which sporangiophores arise and emerge through the stoma. The sporangia
may be carried by wind or rain to nearby healthy plants, germinate quickly, and produce many
zoospores that cause secondary infections and thus spread the disease rapidly.
Figure 3. Disease cycle of downy mildew of grapes caused by Plasmopara viticola.
A disease cycle may take from 5 to 18 days, depending on temperature, humidity, and varietal
susceptibility. In the stems, enlargement of the affected cells and the large volume of mycelium
present in the intercellular spaces cause distortion and hypertrophy. Finally, the affected cells are
killed and collapse, producing brown, sunken areas in the stem. In the young berries, infection is
also intercellular; chlorophyll breaks down and disappears, and the cells collapse and turn brown.
At the end of the growing season the oomycete forms oospores in the infected old leaves and
sometimes in the shoots and berries.
Control
Several American grape varieties show considerable resistance to downy mildew, but most
European (Vinifera) varieties are quite susceptible. Even the relatively resistant varieties,
however, require protection through chemicals. The most effective fungicides for the control of
downy mildew have been copper-based products such as the Bordeaux mixture, some broad
spectrum protective fungicides, and several systemic fungicides.
The applications begin before bloom and are continued at 7- to 10-day intervals or, depending on
the frequency and duration of rainfall, during the growing season. Disease prediction systems,
based on the duration of leaf wetness, relative humidity, and temperature, are used to identify
infection periods and to time fungicide applications. In recent years, sprays of systemic
fungicides in combination with copper or broad spectrum preventive fungicides have given
excellent control of grape downy mildew.
2.2.5. Anthracnose Disease
Caused by ascomycetes and deuteromycetes (mitosporic fungi)
Anthracnoses, meaning blackenings, are diseases of the foliage, stems, or fruits that typically
appear as darkcolored spots or sunken lesions with a slightly raised rim. Some cause twig or
branch dieback. In fruit infections, anthracnoses often have a prolonged latent stage. In some
fruit crops, the spots are raised and have corky surfaces. Anthracnose diseases of fruit often
result in fruit drop and fruit rot. Anthracnoses (from anthrax = carbon = black) are caused by
fungi that produce conidia within black acervuli. Four ascomycetous fungi, Diplocarpon,
Elsinoe, Glomerella, and Gnomonia, are responsible for most anthracnose diseases. They are
found in nature mostly in their conidial stage and can overwinter as mycelium or conidia.
Colletotrichum (Gloeosporium), causing anthracnose of cereals and grasses (C. graminicola),

anthracnose of cucurbits (C. lagenarium), anthracnose or fruit rot of eggplant and of tomato (C.
phomoides), anthracnose of strawberry (C. acutatum), coffee anthracnose/coffee berry disease
(C. coffeanum), crown rot and wilt of strawberry (C. gloeosporioides), red rot of sugarcane (C.
falcatum), and onion smudge (C. circinans). Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causes many
devastating fruit diseases in the tropics, such as anthracnose of citrus, fig, mango, olive, avocado,
and many other plants Coryneum (Stigmina), C. beijerynki (now Wilsonmyces carpophilus),
causing Coryneum blight, shot hole, or fruit spot of stone fruits, especially peach and apricot
Greeneria uvicola, formerly Melanconium fuligenum, causing bitter rot of grapes
Anthracnose diseases, particularly those caused by species of Colletotrichum or their teleomorph

Glomerella fungi, are very common and destructive on numerous crop and ornamental plants.
Although severe everywhere, anthracnose diseases cause their most significant losses in the
tropics and subtropics.
Colletotrichum diseases
Several species of Colletotrichum cause serious anthracnose diseases of numerous important
annual crop and ornamental plants. Some of them produce their teleomorph, Glomerella
cingulata, with some frequency and are sometimes referred to as Glomerella diseases. Such
species also causes cankers and dieback of woody plants such as camellia and privet, bitter rot of
apples, and ripe rot of grape, pears, peaches, and other fruits.
Colletotrichum anthracnose diseases of annual plants

Numerous important Colletotrichum anthracnose diseases affect annual plants. Only a few of the
most common and serious such diseases are described briefly here. They include the anthracnose
of bean, cotton, cucurbits, onion, pepper, tomato, and strawberry. Severe anthracnose diseases
often occur on corn and on cereals and grasses. The diseases are present wherever their hosts are
grown, although they are more severe in warm to cool, humid areas. Generally, they are not a
problem under dry conditions.
In anthracnose of beans, plants in all stages of growth are subject to anthracnose. The fungus,
Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, is often present in or on the seed produced in infected pods.
Infected seed may show yellowish to brown sunken lesions. When infected seeds are planted,
many of the germinating seedlings are killed before emergence. Dark-brown, sunken lesions with
pink masses of spores in the center are often present on the cotyledons of young seedlings. The
fungus may destroy one or both of the cotyledons. The spores spread and infect the stem,
producing more lesions.
Different anthracnose disease symptom
Anthracnose of cucurbits, caused by Colletotrichum orbiculare, is probably the most

destructive disease of these crops everywhere, being most severe on watermelon, cantaloupe, and
cucumber. All aboveground parts of the plants are affected. On the leaves, small, water-soaked,
yellowish areas appear that enlarge to 1 to 2 centimeters and become black in watermelon and
brown in all other cucurbits. Infected tissues dry up and break. Lesions also develop on the
petioles, which may result in defoliation of the vine; on the fruit pedicel, which cause the fruit to
turn dark, shrivel, and die; and on the stem, which weaken or kill whole vines. The fruit becomes
susceptible to infection at about the time of ripening. Circular, watery, dark, sunken lesions
appear on the surface of the fruit that may be from 5 millimeters to 10 centimeters in diameter
and up to 8 millimeters in depth. The lesions expand rapidly in the field, in transit, or in storage
and may coalesce to form larger ones.
Anthracnose or ripe rot of tomato and of several other vegetables and fruits causes serious
losses of fruit. Occasionally, it also damages stems and foliage. Canning tomatoes are
particularly susceptible to anthracnose before and after harvest, but other tomatoes, as well as
eggplant and pepper, may be attacked in a similar manner from the time ripening begins through
harvest and in storage. In early stages of tomato infection, the symptoms appear as small,
circular, sunken, water-soaked spots resembling indentations caused by burnt circular objects. As
the fruit softens, the spots enlarge up to 2 to 3 centimeters in diameter, and their central portion
becomes dark and slightly roughened as a result of black acervuli developing just beneath the
skin. The spots are often numerous and coalesce, leading to watery softening of the fruit and,
finally, rotting of the fruit, sometimes accelerated by other invading microorganisms. Enormous
numbers of conidia are present in acervuli below the skin even in the smallest spots.
Onion anthracnose or smudge is caused by Colletotrichum circinans. Dark smudges appear on

the outer scales or neck of the bulbs, primarily of white onions. Most colored varieties are mostly
resistant except in the colorless region of the bulb neck. Smudgy spots first appear beneath the
cuticle of the scale and may be scattered over the surface of the bulb; more commonly, they
congregate in uniformly black, smudgy, circular areas or are arranged in concentric circles, with
the outer one being up to 2 centimeters or more in diameter. In moist weather the fungus
produces acervuli filled with cream-colored masses of conidia containing numerous black, stiff,
bristle-like hairs (setae) visible with a hand lens. The fungus attacks inner, living scales only
under conditions of favorable high moisture and temperature. The fungus overwinters on
infected onions, on sets, and in the soil as a saprophyte.
Anthracnose symptoms on annual and perennial plants caused by various species or forms of the fungus Colletotrichum.
Strawberry anthracnose, a complex of three Colletotrichum species, C. acutatum, C. fragariae,

and C. gloeosporioides, causes a variety of symptoms that make anthracnose the most important
disease of strawberries. C. acutatum causes an anthracnose fruit rot and black leaf spots, whereas
C. gloeosporioides and C. fragariae infect primarily the crown of the plants and cause crown rot
and wilt. Symptoms may appear as sunken, dark lesions on petioles and stolons (runners), which
may then be girdled, resulting in wilting and death of the leaf or of the daughter plant beyond the
lesions on the stolon. The fungus often spreads into the crowns of young plants, which it rots,
and the plants then die in the nursery or after they are transplanted in the field.
Anthracnose symptoms on annual and perennial plants
In warm, humid weather the disease spreads very quickly throughout a field, and effective
control is impossible the rest of the season. Control measures include growing nursery plants
with as little fertilizer as possible; removing all infected fruit at each harvest; practicing sanitary
procedures when harvesting; using resistant cultivars when available; and applying fungicides
every other day or twice per week. The most commonly used fungicides include benomyl,
captan, and iprodione.
In anthracnose of cereals and grasses, all cereals, including corn, wheat, barley, rice, turf
grasses, and pasture grasses, are attacked by Colletotrichum graminicola and develop symptoms
of varying severity.
Disease cycle of anthracnose diseases caused by Glomerella cingulata and Colletotrichum or Gloeosporium sp.
Coffee anthracnose/Coffee Berry Disease (CBD) Caused by Colletotrichum coffeanum

Economic Importance
In coffee, ripening coffee berries become infected with several species of the fungus
Colletotrichum and one of them (C. coffeanum) causes the very destructive green coffee berry
disease. Losses vary from a small percentage of berries being infected to, usually, 20 to 80% of
the coffee berries becoming rotten by the fungus.
C. coffeanum is an ascomycete, a member of the sac fungi. One of the features of these fungi is
that they generate spores, called conidia or conidiospores, which can be easily dispersed by the
wind and splashing rain. Spread of C. coffeanum is dependent on water but it can also be spread
by animals with spread by coffee pickers being a particular problem. Colletotrichum invades the
main body of the plant but does so without any signs of disease. However, when the plant sets
fruit, the fungus becomes aggressive and the disease becomes apparent. In many cases, diseases
caused by Colletotrichum are known as anthracnose because they turn the fruit black.
Host range Genus -- Caffea like coffee plant (Coffee arabica L.)
Symptom: C. coffeanum affects green or immature coffee berries and the coffee flower at any
stage in its development. Infected berries often show dark sunken spits that spread and cover the
whole berry. As the fungus sporulates, a pale pink crust of conidia appears on the lesion.
Depending upon the timing of the infection, the bean can also become infected.
Favorable condition: temperature and moisture influence severity of the disease.

Moisturedisease development increases under moist condition
At humidity less than 100% very few spores germinate.
Dry weather hinders disease progress and only the skin is affected.
Temperature22oC lesion production by condia on berries,
<15oC & 28oC infection is almost negligible,
At lower altitudes the attack is less and
High severity occurs under cool cloudy weather when there is little sunshine.
Disease cycle: the organism lives in the maturing bark of the bearing wood. Spores disperse by
rain splash to the berries and cause infection. First lesions appear on berries. Berries will be
completely destroyed (dark Brown rot which usually penetrates and destroys the beans).
Management: The fungus is critically dependent upon water for germination and the dispersal
of conidia. Measures that ensure good airflow and prevent the accumulation of standing water
can limit the spread. Overhead spraying of fungicides can protect the flowers and berries without
necessarily protecting the rest of the plant. Effective copper fungicides include: benomyl,
captafol, chlorothalonil, copper formulations, dithianon, thiabendazole, thiophanate methyl.
Spraying is conducted at 8-10 days interval until the crop matures or the weather is not
conducive for the disease development. The disease is currently confined to Africa and
quarantine is used to limit the spread. A number of African cultivars have been found resistant,
but some are susceptible to the disease. Use resistant varieties.
Diseases of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

Anthracnose or red leaf spot Colletotrichum graminicola
Economic importance
This is wide spread and prevalent in all sorghum growing areas.
Symptoms
The fungus causes both leaf spot (anthracnose) and stalk rot (red rot) in sorghum. The disease
appears as small red colored spots on both surfaces of the leaf. The centre of the spot is white in
color encircled by red, purple or brown margin. Numerous small black dots are seen on the white
surface of the lesions which are the fruiting bodies (acervuli) of the fungus. Many lesions
coalesce and kill large leaf portions. In midrib region, elongate elliptical, red or purple regions
with black acervuli are formed. Stalk and inflorescence infection can be characterized externally
by the development of circular cankers. Infected stem when split open shows discoloration,
which may be continuous over a large area or more generally discontinuous giving the stem a
marbled appearance. The stem lesion also shows acervuli.
Anthracnose Stalk rot Black acervuli Falcate conidia

Etiology (cause of disease)
The mycelium of the fungus is localized in the spot. Acervuli with long dark setae arise through
epidermis. The conidiophores are short, single celled and colorless. Conidia are short, hyaline,
single celled, vacuolate and falcate in shape.
Disease cycle
Fungus has wide host range and survives on Johnson grass, Sudan grass, maize, barley and
wheat. Also survives in seed and infected plant debris. Primary infection is from the conidia
produced on the infected plant debris and infected seed. Disease spread within the season is
through air borne conidia, which are produced on first infected plants.
Continuous rain, temperature of 28-30oC and high humidity aggravates the disease.
Management
 Destruction of infected plant debris and collateral hosts
 Crop rotation with non-host crops
 Grow resistant varieties
 Treat the seeds with Captan or Thiram @3 g/kg.
 Spray the crop with Mancozeb @0.25% or carbendazim@0.1%.
2.2.6. Rust Diseases
Plant rusts, caused by (ClassBasidiomycetes; OrderUredinales), are among the most

destructive plant diseases. They have caused famines and broke the economies of large areas,
including entire countries. They have been most infamous for their destructiveness on field
crops, especially wheat, oats, sorghum, maize and barley, but they also attack vegetables such as
bean and asparagus, industrial crops such as cotton and soybeans, and ornamentals such as
carnation and chrysanthemum, and have caused tremendous losses on trees such as pine, apple,
and coffee.
Rust fungi attack mostly leaves and stems. Rust infections usually appear as numerous rusty,
orange, yellow, or even white-colored spots that rupture the epidermis. Most rust infections are
strictly local spots, but some may become systemic. There are about 5,000 species of rust fungi.
The most important rust fungi and the diseases they cause are listed as follows.
1. Puccinia, causing severe and often disastrous diseases on numerous hosts such as the stem
rust of wheat and all other small grains (P. graminis); yellow or stripe rust of wheat, barley, and
rye (P. striiformis); leaf or brown rust of wheat and rye (P. triticina); leaf rust of barley (P.
hordei); crown rust of oats (P. coronata); corn rust (P. sorghi); southern corn rust (P. polysora);
sorghum rust (P. purpurea); and sugarcane rusts (P. sacchari and P. melanocephala). Puccinia
also causes severe rust diseases on field crops such as cotton (P. stakmani); vegetables such as
asparagus (P. asparagi); and flowers such as chrysanthemum (P. chrysanthemi),
2. Uromyces, causing the rusts of legumes (U. appendiculatus) and of carnation (U.
caryophyllinus),
3. Hemileia, causing the devastating coffee leaf rust (H. vastatrix),
4. Phragmidium, causing rust on roses (P. mucronatum),

5. Melampsora, causing rust of flax (M. lini), and
6. Cronartium, causing white pine blister rust (C. ribicola)
Most rust fungi are very specialized parasites and attack only certain genera or only certain
varieties of plants. Rust fungi that are morphologically identical but attack different host genera
are regarded as special forms (formae specialis), e.g., Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici on wheat
and P. graminis f. sp. hordei on barley.
Within each special form of rust there are many so called pathogenic (physiological) races.
These can attack only certain varieties within the species and can be detected and identified only
by the set of differential varieties they can infect. Where sexual reproduction of the rust fungus is
rare, the races are more stable over fairly long periods of time, but even so some of these fungi
have as many races as those in which sexual reproduction is common.
Rust fungi are obligate parasites in nature, but some of them have now been grown on special
culture media in the laboratory. Most rust fungi produce five distinct fruiting structures with five
different spore forms that appear in a definite sequence. Some of the spore stages infect one host
while the others must infect and parasitize a different, alternate host. All rust fungi produce
teliospores and basidiospores. Rusts caused by fungi that produce only teliospores and
basidiospores are called microcylic or short cycled. Other rust fungi produce, in addition to
teliospores and basidiospores, spermatia (formerly known as pycniospores), aeciopores, and
uredospores (also known as urediospores or urediniospores) in that order. These are called
macrocyclic or long-cycled rusts.
Kinds and sequence of spores and spore producing structures in rust fungi along with the nuclear condition of each.
In some macrocyclic rusts, spermatia, uredospores, or both may be absent. Although

basidiospores are produced on basidia, the other spore forms are produced in specialized fruiting
structures called, respectively, spermagonia, aecia, uredia (also known as uredinia), and telia.
Basidiospores, aeciospores, and uredospores can attack and infect host plants. Teliospores serve
only as the sexual, overwintering stage, which on germination produce the basidium. The
basidium, following meiosis, produces four haploid basidiospores. Basidiospores, on infection,
produce haploid mycelium that forms spermagonia (formerly known as pycnia), containing
haploid spermatia and receptive hyphae. Spermatia act as male gametes and are unable to infect
plants; their function is the fertilization of receptive hyphae of the compatible mating type and
the subsequent production of dikaryotic mycelium and dikaryotic spores. This mycelium
forms aecia that produce aeciospores, which on infection produce more dikaryotic mycelium
that this time forms uredia. The latter produce uredospores, which also infect and produce
either more uredia and uredospores or, near host maturity, telia and teliospores. The cycle is thus
completed.
Some macrocyclic rusts, e.g., asparagus rust, complete their life cycles on a single host and are
called autoecious. Others, such as stem rust of cereals, require two different or alternate hosts
(e.g., wheat and barberry) for completion of their full life cycle and are called heteroecious. Rust
fungi spread from plant to plant mostly by windblown spores, although insects, rain, and animals
may play a role. Some of their spores (uredospores) are transported over long distances (several
hundred kilometers) by strong winds and, on landing (being scrubbed from the air by rain), can
start new infections.
The control of rust diseases in some crops, such as grains, is achieved by means of resistant
varieties. In some vegetable, ornamental, and fruit tree rusts, such as cedar-apple rust, the disease
is controlled with chemical sprays. In others, e.g., white pine blister rust, control has been
attempted through removal of the alternate host (Ribes spp.) and avoidance of high rust-hazard
zones. With the discovery of several new systemic fungicides effective against rusts, such as
triadimefon, triarimol, and fenapanil, the control of rust diseases of annual plants as well as trees
is possible with these chemicals applied as sprays, seed dressings, soil drenches, or injections.
2.2.6.1.Cereal Rusts
a. Stem rust of wheat
Stem rust of wheat occurs worldwide and affects wheat wherever it is grown. Similar rusts affect
other cultivated cereals and probably most wild grass genera and species. The stem rust fungus
attacks all the aboveground parts of the wheat plant. Infected plants usually produce fewer tillers
and set fewer seeds per head, and the kernels are smaller in size, generally shriveled, and of poor
milling quality and food value. Plants with heavily infected stems cannot support themselves and
lodge. Under extreme situations, heavily infected plants may die. Heavy seedling infection of
winter wheat may weaken the plants and make them susceptible to winter injury and to attack by
other pathogens. The amount of losses caused by stem rust may vary from slight to complete
destruction of wheat fields over large areas, sometimes encompassing several states. Losses from
stem rust are at least as severe, and generally much more severe, in many other wheat-growing
countries, particularly developing ones.
Symptoms
The pathogen causing stem rust of wheat attacks and produces symptoms on wheat and related
cereals (barley, oats, rye) and grasses and on plants of common barberry (Berberis vulgaris) and
certain other related species. The symptoms on wheat appear as elliptical blisters or pustules,
known as uredia, which develop parallel with the long axis of the stem, leaf, or leaf sheath.
Blisters may also appear on the neck and glumes of the wheat spike.
Stem rust of wheat caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, Teliospore and Basidiospore
The epidermis covering the pustules is later ruptured irregularly and pushed back, revealing a
powdery mass of brick red-colored uredospores. The uredia vary in size from 1 to 3 millimeters
wide by 10 millimeters long. Later in the season, as the plant approaches maturity, the pustules
turn black as the fungus produces teliospores instead of uredospores and uredia are transformed
into black telia. Sometimes telia may develop independently of uredia. Uredia and telia may exist
on wheat plants in such great numbers that large parts of the plant appear to be covered with the
ruptured areas, which are filled with the rust-red uredospores, the black teliospores.
On barberry, the symptoms appear as yellowish to orange-colored spots primarily on the leaves.
Within the spots, and in leaves generally on the upper side, appear a few minute, orange-colored
bodies, the spermagonia, usually bearing a small droplet of liquid or nectar. Beneath the
spermagonia, and occasionally next to them, groups of orange-yellow honor cup-like aecia
appear. The infected host tissue is frequently swollen. The torn, whitish aecial wall usually
protrudes at the margin of the aecia.
The Pathogen.
Puccinia graminis is a macrocyclic, heteroecious rust fungus producing spermagonia and aecia
on barberry and uredia and telia on wheat and other cereals and grasses.
Disease cycle: The hyphae in wheat leaves and stem are intercellular with small round or
branched haustoria. From this mycelium urediniospres develop in uredinia beneath the
epidermis. Each urediniospore is oval, stalked, brown colour, body 25-30 ×17-20 µm, and single
celled with echinulate exposure. There are four germ pores along an equatorial band. As host
epidermis ruptures, urediniospores are disseminated by wind. They germinate on healthy parts of
plant causing secondary infection. Thus urediniospores propagate the disease in the entire field.
Late in the season, telia begin to develop from the same mycelium in stem, leaf-sheath and
leaves. Telia however, are like uredinia more frequent on stem. Telia are oblong to linear, dark
brown to black exposed through the rifted epidermis. Each teliospore is stakled, two-celled with
a thick smooth wall. The apex is round or pointed. Spores are of chestnut brown colour,
measuring 40-46 ×15-20 µm. Each cell has a germ pore, that of upper cell at the apex, and that of
the lower at one side just below the septum. Teliospores undergo a period of rest for several
months (the fungus overwinters as teliospores on infected wheat debris). In cooler regions, if
conditions are suitable each cell of teliospore germinates to form a four-celled promycelium.
From each promycelium, four basidiospres are formed on sterigmata.
The basidiospores are ejected forcefully into the air and are carried by air currents for a few
hundred meters. These basidiospores cannot infect wheat but infect Barberries plants which
serve as alternate hosts. Basidiospores (wind-borne basidiospores) landing on young barberry
leaves germinate and penetrate the epidermal cells. After that, the mycelium grows mostly
intercellularly. Within 3 or 4 days the mycelium develops into a spermagonium, which ruptures
the epidermis, and its opening emerges on the surface of the plant tissue. Spermagonia are flask-
shaped structures on the upper surface. Each spermagonium has an ostiole, with some
periphyses. Inside it are spermatia. Sexual fusion occurs between spermatia and flexous hyphae
of spermogonia of opposite strains.
(A) Groups of aecia produced on the lower side of barberry leaves following fertilization of spermagonia. (B)
Scanning electron micrograph of a sectioned aecium showing chains of aeciospores; aeciospores like uredospores
(C), infect wheat and cause rust pustules (uredia) (C). Uredia contain uredospores (D and E); these can reinfect
wheat (C and D). (E) Scanning electron micrograph of uredium and uredospores of wheat stem rust.
The dikaryotic mycelium thus developed, then forms another type of structures – aecia on the
lower surface of leaves. The aecia form in groups and protrude considerably beyond the surface
of the barberry plant. Aecia are yellow, cup-shaped receptacles enclosed by peridium. Each
aecial cup contains chains of aeciospores. The aeciospores are yellow, verrucose and with six
germ pores. Aeciospores are released in late spring and are carried by wind to nearby wheat
plants (not barberry) on which they germinate and infect only wheat stems, leaves, or sheaths
through stomata. After the mycelium grows intercellularly for a while, it then grows more
profusely below the surface of the wheat tissue and forms a mat of mycelium just below the
epidermis. Many short sporophores and uredospores are produced that exert pressure on the
epidermis, which is pushed outward and forms a uredial pustule. Finally, the epidermis is broken
irregularly, revealing several hundred thousand rust-colored uredospores, which give a powdery
appearance to the uredium.
Disease cycle of stem rust of wheat caused by Puccinia graminis tritici.
The uredospores are easily blown away by air currents, sometimes for many kilometers, even
hundreds of kilometers, from the point of their origin. The uredospores can re-infect wheat plants
in the presence of dew, a film of water, or relative humidities near the saturation point. Their
germ tubes enter the plant through stomata. Within 8 to 10 days from inoculation the mycelium
produces a new uredium and more uredospores. Uredospores cause new infections on wheat
plants up to the time the plant reaches maturity. Most of the damage caused to wheat growth and
yield results from such uredospore infections, which may literally cover the stem, leaf, leaf
sheaths, and glumes with uredia. The disease cycle may be completed with the urediniospores
only.
Control Methods: The most effective, and the only practical, means of control of wheat stem
rust is through the use of wheat varieties resistant to infection by the pathogen. A tremendous
amount of work has been and is being done on the development of wheat varieties resistant to
existing races of the fungus. The best varieties of wheat that combine rust resistance and
desirable agronomic characteristics are recommended annually by the agricultural experiment
stations and change periodically in order to evade the existing rust races. Much effort is now
directed toward the development of varieties with general or partial resistance and toward the
development of multiline cultivars.
Eradication of barberry has reduced losses from stem rust by eliminating the early season
infections on wheat in areas where uredospores cannot overwinter, and by reducing the
opportunity for the development of new races of the stem rust fungus through genetic
recombination on barberry. This provides for greater stability in the race population of the
pathogen and contributes to the success of breeding of resistant varieties.
Several fungicides can effectively control the stem rust of wheat. In most cases, however, 4 to 10
applications per season are required for complete control of the rust; because of the low income
return per acre of wheat, such a control program is not economically practical. Two applications
of some fungicides, coordinated with forecasts of weather conditions favoring rust epidemics,
may reduce damage from stem rust by as much as 75%. These chemicals, which have both
protective and eradicative properties, and therefore even two sprays, one at trace to 5% rust
prevalence and the second 10 to 14 days later, can give an economically rewarding control of
rust.
Certain systemic fungicides also control stem rust when applied as one or two sprays 1-3 weeks
apart during the early stages of disease development. Seed treatments with some systemic
chemicals inhibit early but not late season infections. Damage by the stem rust fungus is usually
lower in fields in which heavy fertilization with nitrate forms of nitrogen and dense seeding have
been avoided.
b. Yellow or Stripe Rust of Wheat

This rust is usually more destructive than the stem rust or black rust. In plains this rust appears
during winter season. The losses are mainly due to destruction of foliage. Sometimes spikelets
become sterile and grains badly shriveled.
Symptoms: This rust appears earlier than black rust or stem rust before the grains are formed.
Uredinia are mainly confined to leaves, but under severe attack, they may also appear on leaf-
sheath, and even the glumes. Due to attack green colour of leaves fades in long streaks on which
rows of small uredinia appear. In each row a series of oval, lemon-yellow sori are arranged end
to end. Each sorus is distict from another one above and below. The minuteness of sori, their
arrangement in linear fasion forming stripes and their lemon yellow colour are the chief
distinguishing macroscopic features of this rust. Telia appear later as dull black patches or spots
chiefly on the lower surface of leaves. They are also usually arranged in rows. They do not burst
through the epidermis as do those of black rust, thus remaining covered by the epidermis as a flat
black crust.
Causal organism (Pathogen): Yellow or stripe rust of wheat is caused by Puccinia striiformis
tritici.
Disease cycle: The urediniospores are nearly round and not oval as in black rust, stalked, one-
celled, 23-25 × 20-25 µm, epispore finely echinulate with 6-10 germ pores scattered on surface.
The urediniospores propagate the disease in the field under favorable conditions. Telia develop
on the lower surface of leaves or on stems, in long, narrow rows. Telia do not rupture host
epidermis and each sorus, besides teliospores, may also have sterile paraphyses which actually
surrounded the sorus or divide the sorus into smaller groups or chambers. Teliospores are dark
brown, oblong to cuneiform (flat at apex), apex less thick, 35-63 × 12-20 µm. The rust is
heteroecious, but alternate hosts unknown. This rust also appears to survive as urediniospores on
collateral hosts at high altitude on hills. The role of collateral hosts is less clear in annual
recurrence. In the absence of a functional alternate host, the perpetuation of the pathogen is
accomplished by repeated cycles of urediniospores.
c. Brown or Orange or Leaf Rust of Wheat

This rust is usually appears on leaves in winter season when the crop was between five to six
weeks old. The rust also causes much damage, mainly due to destruction of foliage.
Symptoms: As a rule the uredinia are confined only to leaves, rarely on sheath and stem. They
are never in rows or stripes. Uredinia are round to slightly oblong, orange, and irregularly
scattered or in clusters on the leaf blades. The sori burst early and shed the spores. Telia
sometimes may not develop. When present, they are like those of yellow rust, i.e. on lower
surface of leaf, small oval or linear dull black and covered by epidermis.
Causal organism (Pathogen): Leaf rust or orange rust or brown rust of wheat is caused by
Puccinia recondita tritici (=Puccinia triticina).
Disease cycle: Urediniospores are brown, spherical, 16-28 µmin diameter, with finely echinulate
epispores and with 3-4 germ pores scattered on the surface. They propagate the disease under
favorable conditions.
Teliospores are similar to those of yellow rust. They are two-celled, smooth, and brown in
colour. Paraphyses divide the sorus into more chambers so that in each chamber relatively less
teliospores are present. Pycnial and aecial stages are found on Thalictrum spp which are present
only in hills. Many collateral hosts occur in hills as well as the plains. An aecial stage found on
Thalictrum javanicum in India is that of puccinia persistens and therefore does not infect wheat.
A few species of Aegilops also become infected with Puccinia recondita tritici.
2.2.6.2.Coffee Leaf Rust
This is the most destructive disease of coffee and is known to occur over more than two dozens
of countries in Asia and Africa. It damages trees and reduces yields by causing premature drop
of infected leaves. Infected trees produce small yields of poor quality and repeated infections and
defoliations result in the death of trees. It attacks all species of coffee but is most severe on
Coffea arabica.
Symptoms: The disease is usually restricted to leaves although tender shoots and berries are also
occasionally attacked. Initially, there appear small, circular spots, 2-5 mm in diameter on lower
side of leaves. In early stage the spots are yellowish becoming orange when they often coalesce
to form large patches. The yellowish-orange pustules developing on the underside of leaf are the
uredinia of the fungus. On the upper surface of leaf, just opposite the pustules, the area turns
brownish. The central parts of the spot eventually become dry and in severe attack leaves
become dry and fall off prematurely.
Causal organism (Pathogen): The disease is caused by two species of Hemileia, namely
Hemileia vastatrix and Hemileia coffeicola. Of these the former is the most common, whereas
the later occurs only in west and central Africa causing a minor disease of Arabica coffee and
becoming serious only occasionally under very wet conditions.
Disease cycle: The pathogen, Hemileia vastatrix exists primarily as mycelium, uredinia and
urediniospores in infected leaves they continuously and successively infect. Teliospores are
occasionally produced, which on germination produce basidiospores; but these do not infect
coffee or any other host and no alternate host is so far known. Spermogonial and aecial stages of
the fungus are not known.
Disease cycle of coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix
The hyphae inside the leaves are intercellular with globose haustoria. The uredinia are present on
the underside of leaf, densely scattered and give a powdery appearance on yellowish-orange
rounded blotches on the leaf. Each uredinium consists of numerous narrow, interwoven feeder
hyphae and rounded cells below the stomata, bearing clavate filaments emerging through the
stomata. The tips of these filaments bear numerous pedicels on which the urediniospores are
borne. The urediniospores are cuniform and measure 28-36 × 18-28 (26-40 × 20-30) µm in size.
One side of the spore is flat, whereas the other one convex. The surface of convex, humped side
is ornamented with spines or warts. Hemileia means “half-moon”. Teliospores are formed in
the same sori, mixed with urediniospores, and arise from a basal cell like the urediniospores.
They are one-celled, pedicellate, round and turnip-shaped and measure 18-28 ×14-22 µm.
Basidiospores produced by germinated teliospores are not known to infect coffee or any other
plant.
The pathogens exist all the time in the infected tissues of coffee plants as mycelium and
urediniospores. The plant becomes repeatedly infected by urediniospres which are produced by
the mycelium in successive uredinial cycles. Urediniospores are easily carried by wind, rain and
perhaps insects. The germ tube produced by germinating urediniospore enters through stomata
inside the leaves. The mycelium develops and then grows inside the leaf. Young leaves are more
susceptible to attack than the older leaves. New leaves are produced during growth following the
beginning of the rainy season. The rate of infection is high during the mid to late rainy season.
With the one set of dry weather, the growth of plants slows down; infection also ceases, but there
is increasing defoliation, particularly the diseased leaves.
The disease incidence increases after flowering during the early monsoon period, and later at the
end of the rainy season it decreases as heavy leaf fall removes the leaves. The disease is favoured
by high moisture and high temperature. If dry weather preceding the monsoon is short, and there
are rains in winter and much dew or mist during the dry months one should expect the outbreak
of the disease. The carry – over of the inoculums between rainy seasons is critical; in areas of
unimodal annual seasons, the longer dry season would reduce the survival of the fungus.
Disease Management (Control methods): Control of this disease is difficult. Field sanitation,
sufficient tree pruning and good site selection help minimize the losses from the disease.
Satisfactory control can be obtained with fungicides. The most commonly used are the copper
compounds, Bordeaux mixture, copper oxychlorides and cuprous oxide. Sources of resistance
have also been identified in Coffee canephora and a natural cross between this and Coffee
arabica did not show high level of resistance against all races of the rust fungus.
2.2.7. Smuts
Smuts, caused by classBasidiomycetes & order Ustilaginales, occur throughout the world.
Among Basidiomycotina, the smut fungi are another important group of plant pathogenic fungi.
The name smut fungi comes from the characteristic dark brown to almost black soot or charcoal
like powdery mass of their teliospores produced in sori on the affected plant parts, mostly the
ovaries. Whereas rust fungi are capable of parasitising a wide range of vascular plants, ferns to
angiosperms, smut fungi are confined only to angiosperms. There are over 1000 species of smut
fungi parasitic on flowering plants of about 75 families, especially Gramineae and Cyperaceae.
They are an important group of cereal parasites. Since most smut fungi attack the floral parts of
their host plants, they are very destructive and cause considerable damage to the plant yield.
At the time of spore formation, major proportion or almost entire mycelium becomes converted
into teliospores, which are produced in definite sori. Teliospores are chiefly means of survival of
the fungus in the absence of the host plants. In addition to the various cereals, smuts also affect
sugarcane, onions, and some ornamentals such as carnation. The most common smut fungi and
the diseases they cause are the following.
Examples:
Loose smut of wheat is caused by Ustilago tritici
Covered smut or Bunt of wheat is caused by Tilletia caries (Tilletia tritici)
Kernel bunt of wheat is caused by Tilletia indica
Flag smut of wheat is caused by Urocystis tritici
Loose smut of barley is caused by Ustilago nuda
Covered smut of barley is caused by Ustilago hordei
Corn smut (smut of maize) is caused by Ustilago maydis
Loose smut of oats is caused by Ustilago avenae
Covered smut of oats is caused by Ustilago kolleri
Grain smut of Jowar is caused by Sphacelotheca sorghi
Head smut of Jowar is caused by Sphacelotheca reiliana
Smut of bajra is caused by Tolyposporium penicillariae
Whip smut of sugar cane is caused by Ustilago scitaminea
2.2.7.1. Loose Smut of Wheat

Loose smut is a destructive disease of wheat and causes heavy losses when susceptible varieties
with infected seed are continuously green in an area. Besides wheat, the pathogen also attacks
barley and other grasses and thereafter also called loose smut of cereals. The disease is
worldwide in distribution but is more abundant and serious in humid and semi-humid regions
than dry areas.
Symptoms: The disease is very destructive in the sense that every head of the attacked plants is
converted into a black powdery mass of spores and no grains are formed. The disease is
recognized in the field only when the plant produces ears. Smutted plants developing from the
seeds infected internally by the dormant mycelium of the fungus generally head earlier than
healthy ones, and smutted heads often project over those of healthy ones.
Wheat infected with loose smut
Causal organism: Loose smut of wheat is caused by Ustilago tritici

Disease cycle: The mycelium is hyaline during growth in plant but changes to brown near
maturity. The hyphal cells are transformed into teliospores. They are olivaceous brown, lighter
on one side, spherical or oval and 5-9 µm in diameter. The epispore (spore wall) has fine spines,
especially on the lighter side. Teliospores are brown away by wind after the membrane of spore
mass ruptures in the field.
Disease cycle of loose smuts of barley and wheat caused by Ustilago nuda and U. tritici
The membranes burst open soon after maturation of the teliospores, and the spores are released
and blown off by air currents to nearby healthy plants. Spore release coincides with the opening
of the flowers of healthy plants. Teliospores landing on flowers germinate through formation of a
basidium on which the haploid hyphae are produced. After fusion of sexually compatible haploid
hyphae, the resulting dikaryotic mycelium penetrates the flower through the stigma or through
the young ovary walls and becomes established in the pericarp and in the tissues of the embryo
before the kernels become mature. The mycelium then becomes inactive and remains dormant,
primarily in the scutellum, until the infected kernel germinates.
Disease management: Loose smut is now controlled by treating infected seeds with carboxin
and its carboxanilide derivatives before planting. These chemicals are absorbed and act
systemically in the seed or in the growing plant. Although some barley and wheat varieties are
quite resistant to loose smut, most of the commercial varieties are very susceptible to it.
The best means of controlling loose smut is through the use of certified smut-free seed. Until the
discovery of systemic fungicides, when seed was known to be infected with loose smut
mycelium, the best way of disinfecting it was by treating it with hot water. Usually small lots of
seed are treated with hot water and planted in isolated fields to produce smut-free seed to be used
during the next season. The hot-water treatment consists of soaking the seed, contained in half-
filled burlap bags, in 20°C water for five hours, draining it for one minute, dipping it in 49°C
water for about one minute and then in 52°C water for exactly 11 minutes, and immediately
afterward placing it in cold water for the seed to cool off. The seed is then allowed to dry so that
It can be sown. Because some of the seed may be killed by the hot-water treatment, a higher
seeding rate may be employed to offset the reduced germinability of the treated seed.
2.2.7.2. Covered Smut (Bunt) of Wheat
Basically a covered smut, the disease is also known as common bunt, stinking smut or hill bunt
of wheat. Covered smut, or bunt, or stinking smut of wheat occurs in all wheat-growing areas of
the world. Covered smut or bunt destroys the contents of infected kernels and replaces them with
the spores of the fungus. Bunt also causes slight to severe stunting of infected plants, depending
on the species of bunt fungus involved. Infected plants are usually more susceptible than healthy
plants to certain other diseases and to winter injury. In addition, bunt causes market losses by
reducing the quality, and the price, of wheat contaminated with smutted kernels or smut spores.
Such wheat is discolored, has a foul odor, and is suitable for feed uses only. Bunt, moreover,
results in explosions in combines and elevators during threshing or handling of smutted wheat
because of the extreme combustibility of the oily smut spores in the presence of sparks from
machinery.
Symptoms: Plants infected with the common bunt fungi are usually a few to several centimeters
shorter than healthy plants and sometimes be only half as tall. The overall height of the plants
may be affected. The infected plants may become stunted and markedly shorter than the healthy
plants. Plants infected with the dwarf bunt fungus may be only one fourth as tall as healthy plants
and may show an increase in the number of tillers. Infected plants may appear slightly bluish
green to grayish green in color, but this is not easily distinguishable.
Distinct bunt symptoms, however, are shown by the heads of infected plants. Infected heads are
slimmer and are usually bluish green rather than the normal yellowish green, and their glumes
seem to spread apart and form a greater angle with the main axis. Infected kernels are shorter and
thicker than healthy ones and are grayish brown rather than the normal golden yellow or red.
When mature kernels are broken, they are found to be full of a sooty, black, powdery mass of
fungus spores that give off a distinctive odor resembling that of decaying fish. During the harvest
of infected fields, large clouds of spores may be released in the air.
Covered smut infected kernel
Causal organism: The common bunt of wheat is caused by two smut fungi, Tilletia caries (=
Tilletia tritici) and Tilletia laevis (= T. foetida). The pathogens produce teliospores with different
sets of wall markings.
Disease cycle: The pathogens of common bunt overwinter as teliospores on contaminated wheat
kernels and less frequently in the soil. Teliospores of the common bunt fungi are short lived in
wet areas, losing viability within two years, whereas those of the dwarf bunt and Karnal bunt
fungi may remain viable in any soil for at least three years and often for as long as 10 years.
When contaminated seed or healthy seed is sown in bunt-infested fields, approximately the same
conditions that favor the germination of seeds favor the germination of common bunt teliospores.
Teliospores of the common bunt fungi germinate readily, and as the young seedling emerges
from the kernel, the teliospore on the kernel or near the seedling also germinates through the
production of the basidium, primary sporidia, and secondary sporidia. The secondary sporidia
then germinate, and the dikaryotic mycelium they produce infects the young seedling.
Disease cycle of covered smut or bunt of wheat caused by Telletia sp.
Teliospores of the dwarf bunt fungus, however, germinate slowly even under optimum
conditions of temperature (3–8°C) and moisture, requiring from 3 to 10 weeks for maximum
germination. Dwarf bunt infections apparently originate from teliospores germinating at or near
the soil surface from December through early April. Germinating secondary sporidia penetrate
the tiller initials of wheat seedlings after seedling emergence. The more tiller initials formed
during the infection period, the greater the incidence of bunted plants and of bunted heads per
plant. Germinating seedlings and older tillers apparently are not susceptible to infection by the
dwarf bunt fungus.
After penetration, the mycelium grows intercellularly and invades the developing leaves and the
meristematic tissue at the growing point of the plant. The mycelium remains dormant in the
seedling during the winter; however, when the seedling begins to grow again in the spring, the
mycelium resumes its growth and grows with the growing point. When the plant forms the head
of the grain, the mycelium invades all parts of it even before the head emerges. As the head fills
and becomes mature, the mycelial threads increase in number and soon take over and consume
the contents of the kernel cells. The mycelium, however, does not affect the tissues of the
pericarp of the kernel, which form a rather sturdy covering for the smutted mass they contain. At
the same time, most hyphal cells are transformed into teliospores.
Smutted kernels are usually kept intact while on the plant, but break and release their spores on
harvest or threshing. The liberated spores contaminate the healthy kernels and are also blown
away by air currents, thus contaminating the soil.
Disease management: Common bunt can be controlled by using smut-free seed of a resistant
variety treated with an appropriate fungicide. Contaminated seed should be cleaned to remove
any unbroken, infected kernels and as many of the smut spores on the seed as possible. The seed
is then treated with appropriate fungicides. In dwarf bunt, Karnal bunt, and in common bunt in
drier areas, the spores survive in the soil for long periods and can cause infection of seedlings. In
such cases, the most effective control is through the use of resistant cultivars, whereas seed
treatments with certain systemic fungicides are moderately effective.
d. Sugar cane (whip) smut (Ustilago scitaminea)

Economic importance
It is considered as an important disease and is common throughout the world.
Symptoms
The affected plants are stunted and the central shoot is converted into a long whip-like, dusty
black structure. The length of the whip varies from few inches to several feet. In early stages,
this structure is covered by a thin, white papery membrane. The whip may be straight or slightly
curved. On maturity it ruptures and millions of tiny black smut spores (teliospores) are liberated
and disseminated by wind. All the shoots arising from the diseased clump produce whip like
structures. The smutted clumps also produce mummified arrows in which lower portion consists
of normal inflorescence with typical flowers and the upper portion of the rachis is converted into
a typical smutted whip. Occasionally smut sori may develop on the leaves and stem. The ratoon
crops are severely affected.
Symptom smut of sugarcane
Pathogen
The fungal hyphae are primarily intercellular and produce tiny black teliospores. The thin
membrane which covers the smut whip represents the host epidermis. The smut spores are light
brown in colour, spherical and echinulate. Smut spores germinate to produce 3-4 celled, hyaline
promycelium and produce 3-4 sporidia which are hyaline and oval shaped with pointed ends.
Disease cycle
Teliospores may survive in the soil for long periods, upto 10 years. The spores and sporidia are
also present in the infected plant debris in the soil. The smut spores and dormant mycelium also
present in or on the infected setts. The primary spread of the disease is through diseased seed-
pieces (setts). In addition, sporidia and spores present in the soil also spread through rain and
irrigation water and cause soil-borne infection. The secondary spread in the field is mainly
through the smut spores developed in the whips, aided by air currents. The fungus also survives
on collateral hosts like Saccharum spontaneum, S. robustum, Sorghum vulgare, Imperata
arundinacea and Cyperus dilatatus.
Mono-culturing of sugarcane, continuous ratooning and dry weather during tillering stage favors
the disease.
Management
 Plant healthy setts taken from disease free area.
 Remove and destroy the smutted clump (Collect the whips in a thick cloth bag/polythene
bag and immerse in boiling water for 1 hr to kill the spores).
 Discourage ratooning of the diseased crops having more than 10 per cent infection.
 Follow crop rotation with green manure crops or dry fallowing.
 Grow red gram as a companion crop between 2 rows of sugarcane.

 Treat the setts in hot water at 500C for 2 hours.
 Grow resistant varieties
2.2.8. Blight diseases
Blight represents general and rapid browning of infected plant parts primarily and then its rapid
and extensive death. The dead tissues soon disintegrate and give a burnt appearance. The dead
part usually turns brown or black and soon disintegrates. There is sudden death of plant parts as
leaves, blossoms, twigs or even entire plant.
Examples,
Early blight of potato is caused by Alternaria solani
Early blight of tomato is caused by Alternaria solani
Late blight of potato is caused by Phytophthora infestans
Late blight of tomato is caused by Phytophthora infestans.
Leaf blight of wheat is caused by Alternaria triticina (Alternaria alternata)
Bacteria blight of bean is caused by Xanthomonas compestris pv. phaseoli
Bacterial blight of rice is caused by Xanthomonas compestris pv. oryzae
Bacterial blight or angular leaf spot or black arm of cotton caused by Xanthomonas malvacearum
Ascochyta blight of gram is caused by Aschochyta rabiei (Phyllosticta rabiei or Phoma rabiei)
Blight of pigeon pea is caused by Phytophthora drechsleri f.sp. cajani
Sheath blight of rice is caused by Rhizoctonia solani
1. Early blight of potato

This disease is called “early blight” because of its appearance on potatoes in the earlier part of
the growing season. The disease is very common and destructive in all potato growing areas of
the world, including Ethiopia. It is also referred as “target spot” in Australia.
Symptoms: The disease appears on about three week-old plants of potato. Initially the disease
appears as small, isolated, scattered pale brown spots on leaflets. These spots later turn to deep
greenish blue colour due to mycelia growth. Lower leaves are attacked first and the disease then
progresses upwards. The spots are irregular, brown to dark brown, usually coalescing forming
larger patches that result in blight and with concentric ridges in side. There is a narrow chlorotic
zone around the spots. Though the fungus is mostly confined to the leaves, sometimes it may
affect the tubers near the soil surface causing brown discolouration and dry rot. In dry weather
the leaves show curling. In severe cases the spots may extend to petioles and even stems of the
host.
Causal organism: The disease is caused by Alternaria solani. The pathogen is mostly air-borne,
the disease is soil-borne. The mycelium and conidia both are considered to survive in the soil on
diseased plant debris during the summer. However, the collateral hosts such as tomato play an
important role in the perpetuation.
Disease cycle: The mycelium consists of septate, branched, light, brown hyphae which become
darker with age. Hyphae first are intercellular later becoming intracellular. After maturity, the
mycelia produce conidiophores; the latter are septate, light brown in color, and generally knee-
shaped. Conidiophores slightly or in small groups, emerge through the stomata from the dead
centre of the spot. Each conidiophore develops conidia apically either singly or in chain. The
conidia, usually single or in chains, are beaked, muriform, pale or mid pale golden or olivaceous
brown, smooth, overall length usually 150-300 µm, 15-20 µm thick with 9-11 transverse and few
longitudinal or oblique septa.
Fig.1. Early blight symptoms on potato leaves, symptoms on potato tuber, Alternaria solani conidia, germinating
conidia and direct penetration respectively.
In moist weather the conidia germinate readily and 5-10 germ tubes develop from single
conidium. After the penetration period is over and the favorable conditions are on cards, the
mycelia and or conidia, if brought onto the leaves of growing potato plants by air, germinate and
cause infection on the leaves. In this way they work as the source of primary inoculums and
establish primary infection on the crop. Soon after the primary infection is established and the
spots appear on leaves, the fungus producing large number of conidia. These conidia, produced
as result of the primary infection, are the source of secondary inoculums. These conidia are
disseminated by air, fall on healthy leaves, and cause secondary infection. Infection occurs, as a
rule, through stomata but direct penetration of the host epidermis by the germ tube of conidia
may also take place.
The disease becomes serious when the season begins with abundant moisture or frequent rains
followed by warm and dry weather. These conditions are favorable for the pathogen and help
disease development rapidly.
Control measures:
 Since the disease is soil-borne, crop rotation and field sanitation are essential for an
effective control.
 Dead haulms should be raked together and burnt.
 Fungicides sprays preferably with copper-fungicides, Zineb, Dithane M-45 given at 15
day intervals effectively control the disease. However, other fungicides that have been
recommended for spray include Blitox-50 (0.25%), Difolatan, Daconil, Anthracol,
Captan.
2. Late blight of potato (Phytophthora infestans )

The late blight (since the “blight” occurs severely late in the season, it is called “late blight”) of
potatoes occurs in all regions of the world wherever potatoes are grown. Late blight is also very
destructive to tomatoes and some other members of the family Solanaceae. Late blight damages
plants by killing their leaves and stems at any time during the growing season. It is also attacks
potato tubers which rot either in the field or while in storage, transit and market. This disease
cause, may however, total destruction of all potato plants in the field within a week or two when
weather conditions are favorable and when no control measures are applied.
Symptoms:
Foliage (Leaf) symptoms: Symptoms on foliar parts of the potato starts appearing usually in the
winter. It appears, at first, as circular or irregular water-soaked spots, usually at the tip or edges
of the lower leaves. In moist weather the spots enlarge rapidly and form brown, blighted areas
with indefinite borders. Soon the entire leaves are infected, die, and become limp. If dry weather
follows the appearance of the lesions, the infection advances slowly and the affected areas turn
black, curl and shrivel. On return of the moist weather the fungus resumes its activities and the
disease once again develops rapidly.
Tuber symptoms: Affected tubers, at first, show more or less irregular, purplish-black or
brownish areas with a metallic dark, dull color. Such areas may cover the entire surface of the
tuber; the infection generally confines to surface region and does not spread deeper into the
tissues of the tuber. When cut open, the infected tissue of tuber appear water-soaked, dark,
somewhat reddish-brown and the infection extends only up to 5 to 15 mm into the flesh of the
tuber. Later the affected areas become firm and dry and somewhat sunken.
Fig. Late blight symptoms on potato leaf, Late blight symptoms on potato tubers, Sporangiophore and sporangia of
the pathogen (Phytophthora infestans)
Causal organism: Late blight of potato is caused by Phytophthora infestans. The mycelium
produces branched sporangiophores of indeterminate (unlimited) growth. Lemon-shaped,
papilate sporangia are produced at the tip of sporangiophore branches but as the tip continue
growing the sporangia are pushed aside and later fall off. One point that deserves mentions is
that the sporangiophores from ‘swellings’ at the places where sporangia are produced; formation
of swellings are characteristic for this fungal pathogen. Sporangia germinate almost entirely by
releasing three to eight zoospores at temperatures up to 12 or 15°C, whereas above 15°C
sporangia may germinate directly by producing a germ tube. In this way, the germination of
sporangia is governed by the environmental conditions present in the field at that time. However,
the zoospores come to rest, encyst and germinate producing germ tubes which cause infection.
Disease cycle: When the infected tubers in which the fungal mycelium remains dormant inside
are taken as seeds and are sown in the field, the potato plants grown from such seeds get
infected. What happens actually is that the mycelium grows simultaneously with the growing
seedling and moves upward inside systemically. When few leaves develop on the growing plant,
the lower leaves first show symptom of the disease. Further spread of the pathogen from infected
leaves to other leaves of the same plant or leaves of other plants takes place by means of
secondary mode of infection.
Figure 3. Disease cycle of late blight of potato and tomato caused by Phytophthora infestans.
Secondary infection takes place from the spores produced on primary infected parts. Fields
which contain no primary infection become infected by spores (zoospores, or sporangia behaving
as conidia) from neighboring fields since the spores are spread by wind, water and leaf-eating
insects. The zoospores produced by sporangia are washed down into the soil where they infect
the healthy tubers. Contact of healthy tubers with diseased leaves at the harvesting time is
another mode of tuber –infection. It has been observed that the sporangia are abundantly
produced when the relative humidity remains 100% in and around the field. When the
temperature is below 150C, the sporangia produce large number of zoospores resulting in the
widespread of severe infection causing great damage to the crop.
Control Measures
 All the suspicious tubers to be rejected.
 The plants to be allowed to dry completely before harvesting. This would kill the
pathogen present on the infected part and would considerably reduce harvested-tuber
infection.
 The tubers be given a 90 minutes dip in 1:1000 HgCl 2 (mercuric chloride solution).
 Bordeaux mixture is the most popular and effective fungicide to control this disease.
 Copper-lime dust having 12.5 pound monohydrated copper sulphate and 50 pounds
hydrated lime may be employed.
2.2.9. Plant diseases caused by viruses
A virus is a nucleoprotein that multiplies only in living cells and has the ability to cause disease.
It is too small to be seen individually with a light microscope. All viruses parasitize cells and
cause a multitude of diseases in all forms of living organisms. Some viruses attack humans,
animals, or both and cause such diseases as influenza, polio, rabies, smallpox, acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and warts; others attack higher plants; and still others attack
microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria.
Adolf Meyer, a Dutch agricultural chemist in 1886 observed a mottling disease in leaves of
tobacco plants and named it Mosaikkrankhet i.e. mosaic. D. Iwanowski, a Russian in 1892 in
fact was the first to discover a viral disease in plants in the sense that he could demonstrate for
the first time that tobacco mosaic could be transmitted to healthy plants through the sap from
diseased plants. The total number of viruses known to date exceeds 2,000, and new viruses are
discovered and described. Nearly half of all known viruses attack and cause diseases in plants.
One virus may infect one or dozens of different species of plants and each species of plant is
usually attacked by many different kinds of viruses.
Although viruses behave like microorganisms in that they have genetic functions, are able to
reproduce, and cause disease, they also behave as chemical molecules. At their simplest, viruses
consist of nucleic acid and protein, with the protein forming a protective coat around the nucleic
acid. Although viruses can take any of several forms, they are mostly rod shaped, polyhedral or
variants of these two basic structures. In each virus, there is always only RNA or only DNA and,
in most plant viruses, there is only one kind of protein. Some viruses, however, may have two or
more different proteins.
General characteristics of plant viruses

 All viruses are obligate parasites.
 They multiply only within host cells and remain inert outside the host cells. They are
ultramicroscopic and can only be viewed within electron microscope.
 Viruses are nucleoproteins. The proteinaceous coat (capsid) surrounds the nucleic acid
which forms the central core of the virus.
 The viral genetic material, the nucleic acid, may be either DNA or RNA. The two nucleic
acids are never present in one virus particle.
 Viruses are can be easily be crystallized.
 Viruses are considered to be host specific and represent the obligate parasitism even at
genetic level.
 Since the viruses have no metabolic activities of their own and utilize host metabolism,
antibiotics have no effect on them.
Detection
Mere presence of a virus in the infected cell does not mean that it cause a disease. When, from
the symptoms exhibited by the plant, a plant disease appears to be caused by a virus, individual
virus particles are too small to be seen with the light microscope. Some viruses may be seen in
sections of cells or crude sap from infected part under electron microscope. Frequently, however,
young leaf cells of virus-infected plants contain inclusion bodies of fairly distinctive shapes and
sizes. Such inclusion bodies consist of virus aggregates that can be seen with the light
microscope and can be used to detect and identify the genus of the virus. Examination of cell
sections or of crude sap from virus-infected plants under the electron microscope may reveal
details of virus arrangement in the inclusion bodies and also independently occurring virus-like
particles.
Morphology
Plant viruses come in different shapes and sizes. Nearly half of them are elongate (rigid rods or
flexuous threads), and almost as many are spherical (isometric or polyhedral), with the remaining
being cylindrical bacillus-like rods. Some elongated viruses are rigid rods about 15 by 300
nanometers, but most appear as long, thin, flexible threads that are usually 10 to 13 nanometers
wide and range in length from 480 to 2,000 nanometers. Rhabdoviruses are short, bacillus-like,
cylindrical rods, approximately three to five times as long as they are wide (52–75 by 300–
380nm). Most spherical viruses are actually polyhedral, ranging in diameter from about 17
nanometers (tobacco necrosis satellite virus) to 60 nanometers (wound tumor virus). Tomato
spotted wilt virus is surrounded by a membrane and has a flexible, spherical shape about 100
nanometers in diameter.
Transmission of Plant Viruses

Plant viruses are transmitted from plant to plant in a number of ways. Modes of transmission
include vegetative propagation, mechanically through sap, through seed, pollen, dodder, and by
specific insects, mites, nematodes, and fungi.
General Symptoms Caused By Plant Viruses

Almost all viral diseases seem to cause some degree of dwarfing or stunting of the entire plant
and reduction in total yield. Viruses usually shorten the length of life of virus-infected plants,
although they rarely kill plants on infection. These effects may be severe and striking in
appearance or they may be very slight and easily overlooked.
The most obvious symptoms of virus-infected plants are usually those appearing on the leaves,
but some viruses may cause striking symptoms on the stem, fruit, and roots while they may or
may not cause any symptom development on the leaves. In almost all virus diseases of plants
occurring in the field, the virus is present throughout the plant (systemic infection) and induces
the formation of systemic symptoms. In many plants inoculated artificially with certain viruses,
the virus causes the formation of small, chlorotic or necrotic lesions only at the points of entry
(local infections), and the symptoms are called local lesions. However, many viruses infect
certain hosts without causing development of visible symptoms on them. Such viruses are
usually called latent viruses, and the hosts are called symptomless carriers.
The most common types of plant symptoms produced by systemic virus infections are mosaics
and ring spots. Mosaics are characterized by light-green, yellow, or white areas intermingled
with the normal green of the leaves or fruit or of lighter–colored areas intermingled with areas of
the normal color of flowers or fruit. Depending on the intensity or pattern of discolorations,
mosaic-type symptoms may be described as mottling, streak, ring pattern, line pattern,
veinclearing, veinbanding, or chlorotic spotting. Ring spots are characterized by the
appearance of chlorotic or necrotic rings on the leaves and sometimes also on the fruit and stem.
In many ring spot diseases the symptoms, but not the virus, tend to disappear later on.
Chlorotic symptoms occur frequently in viral diseases. Variety of chlorotic symptoms, however,
is evident in disease caused by viruses; Mosaic: Irregular intermingling of normal green with
light green, yellow, or white chlorotic areas impairing a mosaic-like pattern (tomato mosaic);
Mottle: This chlorotic symptom is closely related to mosaic and is applied when the discoloured
areas are around (peanut mottle disease); Vein-chlorosis and Vein-clearing: The former
represents chlorosis restricted to veins while the latter represents the translucence of veins; Vein-
banding: Vein-banding represents the symptoms in which the chlorotic areas occur along the
veins in a regular manner interrupted with green-coloured (non-chlorotic) bands.
Figure 1. Types of systemic symptoms caused by viruses and viroids in plants.
A large number of other, less common virus symptoms have been described and include stunt
(e.g., tomato bushy stunt), dwarf (barley yellow dwarf), leaf roll (potato leafroll), yellows (beet
yellows), streak (tobacco streak), pox (plum pox), enation (pea enation mosaic), tumors (wound
tumor), pitting of stem (apple stem pitting), pitting of fruit (pear stony pit), and flattening and
distortion of stem (apple flat limb). These symptoms may be accompanied by other symptoms on
other parts of the same plant.
Important viral diseases

Tobacco mosaic disease is caused by Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
Mosaic of tomato is caused by Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)

Potato leaf-roll disease is caused by Potato Leafroll Virus (PLRV)
Yellow leaf curl of tomato is caused by a Geminivirus, Tomato Yellow Leafcurl Virus (TMLCV)
Tomato mottle disease caused by Geminivirus, Tomato Mottle Virus (TMoV)
Yellow mosaic of beans is caused by Bean Common Mosaic Virus (BCMV)
Leaf curl of papaya is caused by Tobacco Leafcurl Virus (TLV)
Papaya ring-spot is caused by Papaya Ring-spot Virus (PRSV)
Bunchy top of banana is caused by Banana Bunchy Top Virus (BBTV)
Mosaic disease of Tobacco and Tomato

These diseases are worldwide in distribution affecting more than 150 genera of primarily
herbaceous dicotyledonous plants. However, tobacco mosaic causes serious losses on tobacco,
tomato wherever these plants are grown. Here, tobacco mosaic disease is being discussed with
specific reference to tobacco and tomato. In tobacco, the disease reduces the quality as well as
quantity of crop plants by up to 50% and up to 30% respectively. In tobacco, the yield reduces up
to 25% and the quality becomes poor.
Symptoms: On tobacco, the common symptom is the appearance of mottled dark-green and
light-green areas on leaves separated by sharp line of demarcation. The dark-green areas are
often raised as blisters and look usually darker-green than healthy tissues. These symptoms
develop in young leaves and later on stunting of young plant occurs commonly frequently
accompanied with a slight downward curling and distortion of the leaves.
On tomato, the common symptom is a chlorotic mottle in which areas of light-green to yellow
and green occur in a diffuse pattern in the leaves. The boundaries between areas of different
colours are not sharp as they are in tobacco plants. Leaflets become long and pointed and
sometimes, shoestring-like. When tomatoes are simultaneously infected by TMV and potato-
mottle virus, the two viruses being synergetic in tomato, the symptoms are much more severe
than those produced in singly infected plants. The combined attack, however, generally leads to
severe necrosis on tomato.
Causal agent: The causal agent is Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) belonging to tobamovirus
group. It is rod –shaped helical virus consisting of centrally located single-stranded RNA (5.6%)
enveloped by a protein coat (94.4%). TMV is one of the most heat-stable (thermostable) viruses
known; the heat inactivation point of the virus in crude juice extracted from infected plants being
90-930C for 10 minutes. The virus remains its infectiveness in dried mosaic-infected plant debris
even at the temperature of 1210C for 30 minutes.
Mosaic symptom on tobacco Mosaic symptoms on tomato Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
Disease cycle: Tobacco mosaic viruses perennate in dried, infected plants debris in soil, on the
surface of contaminated tobacco seeds, and manufactured plant products like cigarettes, cigars,
snuff etc.
TMV is sap-transmitted and is most commonly transmitted by man through contact during
cultivation. No insect working as natural vector for TMV is yet known, though they occasionally
transmit these viruses by their contaminated jaws and feet.
The primary infection is usually initiated when transplants are handled by workers whose hands
have been contaminated by the virus. What happens is that the transplants usually get injured
while being handled and the viruses enter inside the host cells through the wounds. The viruses
replicate therein, invade cell after cell via systemic movement, spread throughout the plant, and
result in disease.
The secondary infection occurs after transmission during the “suckering” of tobacco and tomato
plants and during other cultural practices. The initial secondary infections take place by the
inoculums from primary infected plants and the subsequent infections during the growing season
may occur from any infected plant. The secondary infections in the field continue throughout the
season resulting in severe infection of crop in the field.
Control measures
 Infected crop plants and other hosts that harbor the virus early in the growing season
must be removed.
 The field workers should be asked not to chew or smoke tobacco during cultural
practices. Workers using tobacco products, however, should be asked to wash their hands
using phosphate detergent or soap before handling the plants.
 Plants should not be set in soil containing crop residues that might harbor the virus. The
field on which no diseased plants have grown for two or three years is probably safe.
2.2.10. Plant diseases caused by nematodes
Nematodes are worm-like in appearance but quite distinct taxonomically from true worms. The
females of some nematode species (Meloidogyne and Heterodera) become swollen at maturity
and have pear-shaped or spheroid bodies. Nematodes, sometimes called ‘eel worms’, are the
organisms which belonging to animal kingdom. Mostly they live freely everywhere, in fresh
water, salt water, or in soil usually feeding on microorganisms and microscopic plants and
animals. Several hundred of species are known to feed on living plants obtaining their food with
stylets and cause a variety of plant diseases world over. They are responsible for significant
annual worldwide losses in the yield of important crops – cereals, fruits and vegetables,
relatively more in developing Asain and African countries.
Plant parasitic nematodes are small, 300-1000 µm, with some up to 4 mm long and 15-35 µm
wide. They are mostly invisible to naked eye but can be easily observed under a compound light
microscope. The body of the nematodes is more or less transparent, and is covered by a
colourless cuticle usually possessing striations or other markings. They lack legs or other
appendages, and move from one place to another with the help of muscles. They move very
slowly. The overall distance travelled by a nematode in soil probably does not exceed a meter
per season. However, all plant parasitic nematodes posses a hollow stylet or spear in their mouth
region and use it to puncture plant cells.
Fig. 1. Morphology and main characteristics of typical male and female plant parasitic nematodes.
Nematodes occur in great number in 0-5 cm deep soil layer. In cultivated soil, however, their
distribution is irregular and is greatest in or around the roots of susceptible plants. Nematodes
infect roots as well as above-ground parts of the plants and the diseases concerned are
manifested by symptoms appearing thereupon. Roots symptoms generally appear as root knots or
root galls, root lesions, excessive root branching, injured root tips, and root rots more specifically
when nematode infections are accompanied by plant pathogenic or saprophytic bacteria and
fungi. The root symptoms are generally accompanied with reduced growth of plant, yellowing of
leaves, and excessive wilting of plant in hot or dry weather, reduced yield, and poor quality of
products. Above ground symptoms, however, appear as galls, necrotic lesions and rots, twisting
and distortion of stems and leaves, and abnormal development of floral parts.
Fig. 2. Morphology and related sizes of some of the most important plant parasitic nematodes.
Nematode diseases of plants are controlled employing generally four types of devices, (i) cultural
practices, (ii) biological control, (iii) use of resistant varieties, and (iv) physical agents such as
heat and chemicals.
Important nematode diseases

Root knot galls caused by Meloidogyne spp.
Ear cockle of wheat is caused by Anguina triticin
Molya disease of wheat, maize and barley is caused by Heterodera avenae
Sugar beet cyst nematode is caused by Heterodera schachtii
Potato rot caused by Ditylenchus destructor
Root Knot Disease

Root knot disease manifests on more than 2000 plant species, including almost all cultivated
ones, throughout the world but occurs excessively in warm or hot climate areas experiencing
short or mild winters. This disease appears in a variety of plants species, particularly causing
considerable damage to vegetable crops such as cucurbits, potato, tomato, brinjal, chillies, radish,
carrot, and so on.
Symptoms: The most characteristic symptoms usually appear on underground parts of infected
plants, particularly on roots. Infected roots swell at the point of penetration and develop into
typical root knot galls. The latter are two to three times more in diameter than the healthy roots.
Several infections occur along the same roots resulting in numerous root knot galls which impart
root a rough, club-shaped appearance. Roots infected by certain species of the pathogen develop,
in addition to galls, several short root branches arising from the upper part of the galls. This
gives a dense, bushy appearance to the roots. Infected roots show rotting particularly towards the
end of the growing season. Besides on roots, however, symptoms may appear on tubers or other
fleshy underground organs of the plant. They show small swelling over their surface which,
finally, may cause distortion or cracking.
Symptoms also appear sometimes on above-ground parts of the infected plants. The leaves are
fewer, small, pale green or yellowish, and tend to wilt in warm weather; the fruits either fail to
develop or are dwarfed and of poor quality, and; the plants may show reduced growth.
Fig.3. Root-knot nematode on tomato Root-knot on carrots Root-knot on potato
Root-knot on peanuts Root-knot on yam Root-knot on dogwood tree
Causal organism: The disease is caused by nematodes and beginning since 1879, the causal
organism of the disease has been known by various names for a long time. The present day name
Meloidogyne to the causal organism was given by E.A. Goeldi in 1887 who presented an account
of root-gall disease of coffee in Brazil, caused by Meloidogyne exigua. He derived the generic
name Meloidogyne from the Greek Melon (meaning, apple or gourd) + oeides, oid (meaning,
like) + gyne (meaning, female) i.e. “gourd-like female”. Four species of the genus Meloidogyne,
Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne arenaria and Meloidogyne hapla
attack vegetables commonly in various parts of the world.
Disease cycle: A large number of the female nematodes occur in infected parts of the plants.
These parts generally are left in soil as plant debris and the females present in them survive in
adverse conditions. Sometimes the eggs also remain viable in unfavourable conditions and hatch
when favourable conditions return.
Fig 4. Disease cycle of root knot caused by nematodes of the genus Meloidogyne.
Primary infection in a growing season is caused on healthy plants by second-stage larvae which
are produced after molting of first-stage larvae developed inside each egg. The second-stage
larvae released into the soil moves until it finds a susceptible root, enters the root usually behind
the root tip, and becomes established inside. The larva feeds on the cells around its head by
inserting its stylet and secreting saliva into these cells. The saliva stimulates cell enlargement.
Two or three days after the larva has become established, some of the cells around its head begin
to enlarge (hypertrophy) giving rise to giant cells. Usually 3-6 such giant cells constitute a gall
up to 2-3 weeks but, during the later stages the cell enlargement is a accompanied by rapid cell-
divisions (hyperplasia). In this way, large numbers of root knot galls develop at the point of entry
of the second-stage larvae into the susceptible roots. However, as described earlier, the second-
stage larvae enters in its further course of life and the females so produced lay eggs in usual
manner.
The second-stage larvae resulted in by the hatching of eggs laid by females developed during
primary infection move in soil and cause new infections either in the same root or other roots of
the same plant during the same growing season.
Sandy light soils and the soils with light textures help rapid development of disease as they
favour movement of second-stage larvae best. In general, however, temperature of 25-28 0C are
considered best for infection, rapid multiplication, and development of bi-size root knots. For
instance, a life cycle is completed in about 25 days at 270C temperature but it takes much longer
at lower and higher temperatures.
Control Measures:
 Soil fumigation with chemicals such as methyl bromide plus chloropicrin, metam
sodium, or methyl isothiocyanate provides the best control of root knot.
 The soil must be deep ploughed during summer and allowed to dry so that the
perennating pathogens or their parts die.
 Biological control of this disease also underway. Nematode infected soils show reduced
disease incidence when supplimeted with spores of Bacillus penetrans, Trichoderma
harzianum, spores of Dactylella oviparasitica, and so on.
2. INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR ECONOMIC

IMPORTANCE (12HRS)
2.1. GENERAL SEEDLING INSECT PESTS
2.1.1 Crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus); Orthoptera: Gryllidae
Description:
 Crickets are insects in the order Orthoptera that comprise the ensiferan family Gryllidae.
Some authors regard them as the superfamily Grylloidae with four families:
 Myrmecophilidae, Gryllotalpidae, Mogoplistidae, and Gryllidae. The group dates
from the Triassic Period and today includes 3,726 known living species and 43
extinct ones, 22 extant (still in existence) subfamilies and 7 extinct ones, 528
extant genera and 27 extinct ones. Most extant subfamilies are distributed
worldwide.
 Crickets all have long thread-like antennae, two slender tactual abdominal cerci, three
tarsal segments, and some bulbous sensory setae basally on the insides of the cerci.
 No other insects share all these features; the last is closest to a single defining trait,
shared by only certain Stenopelmatidae (Jerusalem crickets with four tarsal segments).
 Different cricket groups vary from having slender, fragile, whitish or greenish bodies
with virtually transparent forewings.
 Crickets live in virtually all terrestrial habitats from treetops to a meter or more beneath
the ground.
 Members of multiple subfamilies live in or near treetops and in bushes, grasses, and other
herbaceous plants, on the soil surface, in caves, and in shallow or deep burrows.
 Some excavate burrows in logs or standing trees. Some beach-dwelling species run and
jump readily on water.
 Females of different groups lay eggs in stems or twigs, in wood, under bark, in the
ground, or in burrows. Apparently all females in the widely distributed burrowing
subfamilies and are parental toward their eggs and also toward their juveniles.
Pest Damage
 Many crickets are omnivorous scavengers which feed on organic materials, including
decaying plant material, fungi, and some seedling plants and even kill and eat other
insects. Several species frequent human dwellings and refuse heaps.
 Subterranean species feed mostly on roots and can be injurious when abundant in crops,
gardens, grass/pasture, and newly reseeded forest seedlings. Crickets eat their own dead
when there are no other sources of food available, and exhibit predatorial behavior upon
weakened, crippled crickets. Crickets have relatively powerful jaws, and several species
have been known to bite humans.
Cricket Management
 Use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies to address cricket problems. There is
no single, perfect solution for the control of crickets. Often some combination of the
following suggestions will work: Cultural, Mechanical, Biological and Chemical
strategies.
 Begin with the least toxic strategies at the top of the list and only move down the list
when necessary. The further down the list you go, the greater the environmental impact.
First determine if there has been enough cricket damage to warrant control. Only you can
decide how many crickets are too many.
For chemical control;
 seed dressing- the seeds mixes with insecticides protect the seedling from being attacked
by pest/crickets from the very start
o the chemical will be translocated
o the chemical will defuse around the rhizosphere
2.1.2 Grasshoppers (Aiolopus simulatrix), Orthopetra:Acrididae
 There are two families of grasshoppers, the short‐horned grasshoppers (Acrididae),

and the long‐horned grasshoppers (Tettigonidae). Adult grasshoppers have short,
thread-like antennae; chewing mouthparts; enlarged hind legs that are specialized for
jumping; narrow front wings; and broad, fan-like hind wings.
 Newly hatched clear-winged grasshopper nymphs are black in color with a distinctive
white band around the thorax (body section right behind head). Adults are yellowish to
brownish in colour, about 21 to 32 mm long, with clear wings mottled with rounded
brown spots. They have two stripes beginning at the thorax and converging at the tip of
the wings.
 Migratory grasshopper nymphs have black bands on the top of their thorax. Adults are
grayish to reddish-brown on top, yellow beneath, and a little larger than clear-winged
adults. The front wings have no stripes but have small black square patches rather than
the rounded brown spots of clear-winged adults. The thorax has a pale stripe along each
upper edge and black bands on the sides.
 Two-striped grasshopper nymphs are green to yellowish-brown in color. Adults are much
larger than the preceding species (up to 40 mm long), and are distinguished by having
two pale stripes extending back from the eyes to the tip of the wings.
Life Cycle
 Most grass hoppers will mate and live in the same area during the year. Some species
may have such a large increase in their population that they are forced to leave the
breeding area. Females lay eggs in the soil inelongated1to3 inch masses in late-summer
and fall.
 Eggs are usually deposited in grain stubble, fence rows, ditch banks, roadsides and
meadows. The egg is the overwintering stage. Hatching occurs in the spring as early as
late February. Young nymphs (immatures) search for food in the immediate area. The
grasshoppers are forced to migrate to other food sources as they become larger and
deplete their host plants in the area.
 Grasshoppers mature into adults in 40 to 60 days.
 Mating takes place and the females begin laying eggs. Oviposition (egg-laying) continues
for nearly three months due to the differences in hatching time and developmental rate. A
single female may lay from 200 to 400 eggs over a period of several weeks. After
oviposition, adults continue to feed until cold weather kills them. Some Species may have
more than one generation a year.
 Variations in population levels of grasshoppers are influenced by environment. High
mortality would follow a season such as this: warm spring weather causing premature
hatching of eggs, followed by cooler growth); a brief period of normal hot weather
(favorable for grasshopper diseases); and a cool summer and early fall to delay maturity
and to reduce the time needed to lay eggs. A series of warm, dry seasons favor
grasshopper outbreaks.
Nature of Damage
 Damage to cereal crops is generally concentrated near field margins and is caused when
hatching grasshoppers move out of egg beds into field edges; damage to grasslands tends
to be more evenly distributed. Damage to cereals includes leaf notching and stripping but
is most costly when stems are severed just below the heads of maturing or mature crops.
 When grasshopper numbers are extremely high and natural plant hosts in short supply,
grasshoppers will consume or attempt to consume any plants or plant products that they
come upon during their migrations in search of food.
 Grasshoppers may at times become serious pests on ornamentals, vegetable and field
crops. Grasses and plants are the most common food for these pests, but after those hosts
are consumed the grass hoppers often turn to feeding on field Crops, vegetables or on
leaves and even tender bark of shrubs and trees.
 Many species of grass hoppers, both green and brown in color, can cause severe local
damage to seedlings. In Ethiopia the pest occurs in lowlands of Showoa, Harer, Wello,
Gondor and Sidamo. It damages seedlings of many cereals like wheat, barley and
specially teff. They spend the dry season as adult grasshoppers living in cracks of soil and
oviposition takes place during the rainy season. The 1st generation attacks the seedling
stage and the 2nd generation attacks milky grains at the beginning of dry season.
Pest Management
 Grasshoppers should be controlled when they are so numerous that the cost of controlling
them is less than or equal to the expected value of the crop or forage losses. Therefore it
is important to assess the condition (quality and quantity) of the plant stand as part of
deciding whether or not it is economic to apply a chemical or other treatment.
 Under hot, dry conditions and poor plant growth, fewer hoppers will cause economic
losses compared to conditions that favor plant growth. However if the forage is worth
little, chemical control may not be justified because the cost is greater than the value of
the crop saved.
 Various options are available to manage grasshopper populations and minimize crop
losses. Use of any one or combination of options (integrated pest management) is
dependent on compatibility with the crop and production system.
1) Natural control
Weather plays a major role in grasshopper population increases and decreases. There is little one
can do to influence the weather; however knowledge of its relationship to grasshopper
populations is useful in anticipating potential changes in grasshopper abundance. Grasshoppers
are attacked by a number of natural enemies such as other insects and several disease organisms,
as well as many birds and rodents.
Next to weather, natural enemies probably have the greatest influence on localized grasshopper
abundance. Two diseases, Nosema locustae and Entomophaga grylli, are commonly observed
disease outbreaks. Dead Nosema-infected grasshoppers turn brown and are fed upon by other
grasshoppers, helping to spread the disease. Grasshoppers killed by Entomophaga are easily seen
clinging to the stems of grasses and other plants.
2) Cultural control
Cultural control methods involve the application of crop management practices that discourage
or delay the development of grasshopper populations or facilitate the chemical control of
outbreaks. Cultural methods used to control grasshoppers in cultivated crops include seeding as
early as possible (crop gets a jump on the hoppers), crop rotation (seeding less favored crops in
infested fields), tillage (eliminate food plants in spring and fall) and seeding traps strips
(concentrate hoppers for more economical chemical control).
3) Chemical control
When natural and cultural controls fail to prevent outbreaks, the only option left to protect crops
is to apply an appropriate chemical control product when and where necessary. Areas requiring
treatment can be identified and treated in a timely fashion.
Before applying any chemicals, it is important to read carefully the label for mixing and
application instructions, and any precautions such as interval before grazing or harvesting.
2.1.3 Termites (Isoptera: termitidae)

Termites are ubiquitous (= existing everywhere) insects in tropical and subtropical regions and
play an important role in ecosystems (Wood & Sands 1978). Their diversity and abundance
become less prominent as the latitude increases. Many studies have documented their abundance
and diversity in tropical regions (Wood & Sands 1978). However, there is much to be learned
and understood about the termite fauna and their abundance in subtropical and warm temperate
areas.
Termites are a group of insects (Isoptera) consisting of 2,500 species of which 300 are
considered pests. Termites are one of the most damaging pests in the tropics and can cause
considerable problems in agriculture, forestry and housing. They live underground, form mounds
above ground, or live in dry word.
The ground- nesting termites occur in almost every part of the world, and are responsible for
most of the damage to crops and buildings. They do not habitually live in wood but attack it
under the favorable conditions. Their body is soft which easily gets desiccated. They, therefore,
need moist environment which is maintained by occupying moist soil and by travelling to food
sources through protected passages, such as the earthen tubes. They, in fact, avoid light to
prevent exposure to dehydrating air (Harcharan Singh, 1984).
The termites have highly organized social order with well developed casts system. Besides the
king and queen, whose sole function is reproduction, there are soldiers who provide food to all
the members. There are also reproductive castes which, however, do not reproduce till the queen
keeps on reproducing. In this content, the perplexing problem is how so many types of
individuals are produced from one kind of eggs. We meet the some problem in ants and bees and
undoubtedly, there is significance in the fact that in both cases the food is "processed /artificial";
it is food prepared by workers and whose composition can be varied, probably they administer
different kinds of food to the larger for producing different kinds of individuals (Harcharan
Singh, 1984).
There are several families and sub-families. Some have nests underground (Microtemes spp:
subterranean), others in wood (Macrotermes spp.: dry wood type), for example hollow trees, soil
feeding, surface foraging and some build mounds. Subterranean termites are social insects that
live in nests or colonies in the soil, hence their name “subterranean.” These colonies of termite
contain three forms or castes: reproductives, workers and soldiers.
Before control methods can be adopted a basic identification of the pest species or family is
needed. This can be done by observing pest behavior and the damage pattern on the tree or crop.
i. Macrotermes spp: dry wood type or bark eating termites

Polyphagous general feeders that collect foliage and bark to take back to the nest to cultivate
fungus. They are nest or mound builders living above ground. The large mounds interface the
practice of agriculture by virtue of their size and hardness. Macrotermes is a tropical genus and
Macrobellicousus occurs in Africa.
ii. Microtemes spp: subterranean

These are subterranean and don’t build mounds. They are specialists in that they attack wood
and grasses. Some species prefer young plants as food and destroy seedlings. These species
are very important hence they destroy the roots of the seedlings under the soil.
Nature of damage
 The most troublesome type of termites in agriculture is the fungus-growing termites.
They feed on dead organic material such as crop residues, mulches and soil organic
matter (humus). However when this type of food is not available they will eat live plant
material including crops such as groundnuts, millets and maize.
 Harvester termites are found in dry and semi-desert areas. They build underground nests
which can be difficult to locate. They collect live green plant material and cause damage
to living grasses, crops and seedlings. They will attack weak plants that are wilting or
damaged.
 Roots are eaten away to form a point below the root collar or the plant is ring barked.
Dead trees and brush are the original food source of subterranean termites.
 When land is cleared of this material and houses are built on these sites, termites attack
the structures. Termites can enter buildings through wood in direct contact with the soil,
by building shelter tubes over or through foundations, or by entering directly through

cracks or joints in and under foundations.
 Any material in direct contact with the soil such as trees, vines or plumbing fixtures
serves as an avenue of infestation. Subterranean termite swarmers may also be blown into
or on structures and then start a new colony.
 Depending upon the type of termite species, some form mounds, while others live by
forming only subterranean galleries. As cited by Abdurahman (1991), Darlington (1982)
reported that the foraging galleries of some termite species (Macrotermes michoelsensis)
extend up to 50m from their nest and their nest systems cover an area of about 8000m 2
which contains 6kms of subterranean galleries and 72,000 food storage pits.
 Concerning the foraging activity of some of the predominant termites in Western
Ethiopia, Microtermes species usually forage more significantly during the wet season
than the dry season.
 The foraging activity of pseudocanthotermes was significantly greater during the dry
season while Macrotermes subhyalinus was observed foraging throughout the year, but it
was more active during the dry season (Abdurahman, 1991).
 In Ethiopia most damage to crops, forest trees, range land and wooden buildings in rural
areas is caused by several species of Macrotermitinae.
 The most important are the mound building Macroterms (Macroterms subhyalinus),
Microterms, Ancisrtroterms and pseudocanthoterms. Macrotermes, Odontotermes and
pseudocanthoterms have large nests with long galleries running just below the surface for
distance up to 50m. They cause damage to plants just below or at the soil surface.
 Microtermes and ancistrotermes have small, diffuse subterranean nest with numerous
galleries extending towards the soil surface. They cause damage to plants by penetrating
the larger roots and excavating up wards within the stem (Wood 1988).
 There are consistent reports of termites’ damage to plant just below or at the soil surface.
 Crops damaged includes maize, sorghum, ground nuts, cotton, etc. In addition trees are
damaged. Termites also can damage buildings, bridges and poles.
Benefits provided by termites?

 Although usually considered as pests, termites can also provide many benefits. Therefore
before control measures are used an assessment should be made of the following benefits
against the loss of termites from the ecosystem.
Benefits include:
 Aeration of the soil due to termite burrowing activities.
 The breakdown and release of organic matter as termites eat and digest soil.
 Improved soil fertility when termite mounds, which are rich in minerals, are crushed
down and incorporated into the soil.
 A source of minerals for cattle that lick the mounds.
 A source of protein rich food for many organisms including ants, guinea fowl and other
mammals including humans.
Pest Management:
a) Organic control methods
There are a number of alternatives to using chemical pesticides for termite control. These
methods work within the natural system and help promote natural pest control mechanisms.
 Organic control methods do not pollute the environment and are not harmful to beneficial
insects and animals, or to the people using them.
 Organic methods aim to use locally available materials and do not rely on importing
expensive materials from elsewhere.
 Organic methods are cheap and easy to use.
 Organic methods preserve genetic diversity within the farming system which helps
provide resistance to termite pests.
 Organic methods regulate termite numbers rather than eliminate them so that the benefits
provided by termites are not lost.
Adding organic material to the soil

 Fungus-growing termites prefer to eat dead plant material. Their attacks are thought to be
related to soils with low organic matter content. This is because such soils do not contain
enough food for termites to live and they resort to feeding on living plant material.
Adding compost or well-rotted manure to the soil and sowing green manures helps to
increase the organic matter in the soil.
b) Encouraging predators
 Termites have many predators because they provide a source of protein. Insects that eat
termites include spiders, beetles, flies, wasps and especially ants.
 Other predators including frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals such as aardvarks,
pangolins, bats, monkeys and humans. Encouraging this kind of wildlife will help to
reduce the number of termites.
 Bushes and trees are a home for many of these useful creatures. These areas of natural
habitat can be left around fields where crops are grown. If these areas are destroyed then
there is an imbalance between the populations of predator and pest.
c) Substitute food sources
 Damage from termites which feed on dead plant material can be reduced by adding
organic material to the soil. The farmer should avoid having bare, dry soil around crops.
However, there is also a short term solution which involves providing termites with an
alternative source of food. This can be done by using mulch around the base of plants.
 Mulching with items such as hay, manure, wood shavings, wood ash or threshed maize
cobs has been shown (in South Africa and Uganda), to dramatically decrease termite
attacks. Termites are attracted to the mulch rather than the crop.
 Vetiver grass leaf mulch has been shown to prevent termite attack around the base of
trees. However, offering substitute food may also attract termites to the area and increase
the overall damage done to trees and crops. Each case is likely to be different and
dependent on termite species and tree/crop species.
d) Crop rotation
 Planting the same crop on the same land year after year reduces soil fertility and
structure. Crops growing in such conditions will be weaker and susceptible to termites.
 Crop rotation can play an important role in reducing termite attack. Crop rotation means
that crops are grown on a different piece of land each year. This can prevent pest and
disease build up and also help the soil to recover nutrients.
e) Healthy plants for transplanting

 Plants which are suffering from disease or lack of water are generally more susceptible to
termites than healthy plants. It is therefore important that plants are kept healthy and
watered.
 In dry areas it is recommended that seeds should be sown at the beginning of the wet
season to give the plants a chance to establish themselves and remain healthy in the field.
 Only healthy plants should be transplanted into the field. Great care should be taken
during transplanting and pruning (leaves and roots) as termites may enter plants through
scar tissues.
 If there is a bag around the root of a tree seedling, it is recommended that it should not
be completely removed when transplanting as it can act as a barrier against termites.
However it is important that the bag does not prevent the plant/roots from growing. It
should still allow the plants roots to grow into the soil. Banana fiber pots are very
ineffective as termites will eat them.
 Adding organic composts and manure to the planting area is recommended as this will
produce healthier trees and crops. Whereas, inorganic fertilizers encourage fast growing
soft tissue which is more likely to be attacked by termites.
f) Breaking up mounds and queen removal
 On deep cracking soils, the regular disturbance through cracking prevents termites from
building extensive mounds.
 On other soils artificial breaking up of mounds and galleries can have the same effect.
Repeated digging and ploughing of the soil may reduce termite damage. Manual and
explosive destruction of nests followed by the removal of the queen is also effective.
g) Physical barriers
 Building barriers around buildings and nurseries can prevent attack from subterranean
species.
 Barriers should be partially above and below ground and should be composed of a
material that is impenetrable to termites such as basalt, sand or crushed volcanic cinders.
 Particle size of the material is critical, they should not be too large for the termites to
carry away, and not so small that termites can pack the particles to create a continuous
passage through which they can move.
h) Plants with termite resistance

 Crops
 There is little knowledge about crop resistance to termite attack. However, in general
indigenous crops are more resistant to termites than exotic crops. For instance, in Africa,
sorghum and millet are more resistant to termites than maize and cowpea, and bambara
nuts are not attacked while groundnuts suffer serious damage.
 Annual crops are attacked towards harvest time while perennial crops are attacked most
destructively during dry seasons or in early stages of growth. It may be advisable to
establish small plantations in the field prior to larger scale plantations in order to discover
if the crop or tree is resistant to local termites in local conditions.
 Trees
 The degree of resistance depends on the tree species, the origin of the tree seed, the age
and condition of the tree, the termite species and where the tree is growing
(region/country). However as with crops, indigenous species are more resistant than
exotics.
 There are many other species with termicidal properties including: Acacia catechu
(catechu, khair), Acacia mearnsii (black wattle), Acacia melanoxylon (Australian
blackwood), Albizia saman (saman), Afzelia cuanzensis (pod mahogany), Balanites
aegyptiaca (desert date), Bridelia micrantha (mitserie), Cassia brewsteeri (Brewsters
cassia), Casuarina cunninghammiana (river she-oak), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (red
gum), Gliricidia sepium (mother of cocoa), Grevillea glauca (East African mahogany),
Leucaena leucocephala (ipil ipil).
i) Plant preparations
 Plant parts and plant extracts can be used effectively. These can be removed from the
plant and used as a natural insecticide by grinding up the relevant parts, placing in boiling
water, stirring and leaving to soak. The mixture is then sprayed onto the pest infested
crop. Alternatively the plant part, such as toxic fruit juices, pulps or shavings can be
applied directly.
j) Chemical control
The generally accepted method of termite control over the years has been chemical pesticides.
However chemicals are expensive and have many harmful effects.
 Colony poisoning/use of insecticide- direct application of the chemicals to the

mound: take care not to apply prohibited (long, persistent & polluting chemicals).
 Seed dressing
 Treating the planting hole/plant using polythene tubes
General recommendation to reduce seedling losses:

 Plant extra seedlings
 Use containers of polythene
 Use healthy and vigorous planting
 Give nursery stock enough water just before planting
 Farrow treatment
 Destruction of termite mounds-laborious and impractical
 Crop rotation
 Using termite control plants- Aloe, Neam, tobaco
 Traps
o Baits
o Corn comb trap
o Cattle dung trap
o Spear grass trap
2.1.4. Cut Worms

Description:
 Cutworm is chiefly a pest of seedling. Cutworms are the larvae (caterpillars) of night
flying moths. The adult moths are nectar feeders or do not feed at all. The damage is
caused in the larval stage only.
 There are many species of cutworms and each differs somewhat in appearance. Many of
the more common species are stout, soft bodied, smooth and cylindrical larvae. The color
ranges from brown to gray to black.
 Cutworms may be either spotted or striped, or may have no particular markings at all.
The adult moths are robust, dull-colored moths, sometimes called millers, which fly only
at night.
Life History:
 Some cutworms overwinter as partly grown larvae, although a few overwinter as pupae.
They find shelter in the soil, under clumps of grass, or under piles of debris. In spring as
the warm weather arrives, the cutworms begin feeding.
 In early summer, the mature cutworm hollows out a chamber in the soil and transforms to
the pupal or resting stage.
 For the species that overwinter as pupae, the adult moths emerge in early spring and the
egg laying begins at that time. Pupae change to moths and the moths crawl out of the
soil. Another generation begins as the females start to lay eggs in late summer on the
stems of plants or the soil surface.
 One female is capable of laying from a few hundred to 1500 eggs. Eggs hatch after a few
days to two weeks and the larvae feed until cold weather arrives.
 Densely growing plants relatively low to the ground and fine-textured plant derbis in
untilled fields are preferred oviposition sites. Damp, low-lying areas within untilled fields
are particularly attractive for egg deposition and larval survival.
 Egg placement varies with the pest and plant species but the common cutworm species
(A. ipsylon) may place on the petioles, lower leaf surface, or stem.
 The eggs hatch in a few days (3-6) and the larvae move in to the soil where they remain
during the day. Larvae move to surface at night and feed on young plants.
 The larval development varies from 3-4 weeks and influenced by the temperature and
adequacy of light.
 Pupation occurs in the soil at a depth of 2.0cm to 10cm and the pupal stage lasts about
two weeks.
 There may be several generations a year, but the generation at the beginning of the rainy
season (Belg and at the beginning of Kiremt) is usually the most damaging because of the
young vulnerable plants are available at this time. When mature, this early season
generation may stay in the same area, depositing eggs on weeds and grasses in crop
fields, pastures, fence rows, vegetable fields, gardens, etc.
 Depending on geographical location, the mature early season generation may move
farther to the direction of the prevailing low-level wind jets. The succeeding generations’
adults (at the end of kiremt and afterwards) will deposit eggs on weeds, and grasses in
habitats similar to those of the previous generations.
 The eggs of cutworm (A. ipsylon) are ribbed about 0.45mm and whitish yellow in color,
becoming darker as hatching approaches.
 The general body color of the larvae is usually uniform above the spiracles and varies
from light gray to black without distinct strips or makings. The sub-ventral and ventral
areas are lighter in color, with numerous pale flecks.
 The spiracles are black. Fully matured instars may be as big as 35-45mm. The diagnostic
characteristics of these larvae are the heterogonous, convex granules and relatively large
tubercle. Pupae are dark brown and approximately 17-25 mm in length and 5-6 mm in
width.
 Pupae appear almost black in color just before the moth emerges. Adults have forewings
that are long and narrow, darker than the hind wings and marked with black dashes or
‘daggers’. The basal two-thirds of the forewings are dark, with outer third pale gray to
brown. There is zigzag line of scales on a dark background in the sub-terminal area.
 The males antennae are plumose (feathered), and the female antennae are filiform. The
wingspread is approximately 35-50 mm.
Damage:
 Symptoms of cutworm damage are easily recognized. Early instar cutworm larvae can
create ‘shotholes’ while feeding on tender leaves of seedling plants.
 The later instars’ damage is usually observed as cutting of young seedlings, often causing
death of cut seedlings.
 Sometimes wilting is observed because of partial cutting. Larvae destructive out of
proportion to the actual plant material they consume because several plants may be cut by
a single. Larvae will often cut one plant and quickly move on to other plants and continue
cutting. Relatively small populations of cutworms are capable of destroying entire stands
of some crops such as maize (or makes it patchy), and seedbed in a nursery.
 When seedlings are too large to be cut, foliar feeding may reduce plant vigor and
subsequent yield or growth (in case of tree seedlings).
 Difficulty in assessing cutworm injury is due to their habitat of tunneling under the soil in
the daytime and feeding at night. This characteristic makes determination of damaging
larval populations difficult, and a great deal of damage can occur in a relatively short
period before an infestation is suspected.
 Cutworms feed on a great variety of plants. In the home garden they may cause severe
damage in one of the following ways:
(1) Surface cutworms eat off plants near the soil surface,
(2) Climbing cutworms climb plants and eat leaves, fruit, etc,
(3) Army cutworms occur in great numbers and consume nearly all the foliage of the
plants, or
(4) Subterranean cutworms remain in the soil to feed upon roots and underground stems.
 Cutworms feed at night and hide in the soil or under piles of debris during the day.
 Out breaks of cutworms frequently occur on wet soils or on ground that has been recently
flooded. Bottomlands or low areas in fields are often very susceptible to cutworm
infestations.
 Cutworms are extremely polyphagous and attack plants that belong in very diverse
families such as Fabacea, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Brassicacaea,
Convolvulacaea, Cuperassaceae, etc.
 Damage by this pest to seedling maize and other cereals, and many vegetables are
economically significant in Ethiopia. The pest affects plants at seedling, and vegetative
growing stages.
 Cutworm may affect often whole-plant, leaves, stems and fruits/pods. The sudden
appearance of cutworms, especially Agrotis ipsylon and its seasonal disappearance has
long caused this pest to be recognized as a migrant.
 In many parts of the world migration assisted by wind, has been suggested as the source
of cutworm moth populations ovipositing on crops early in the season and studies
conducted supported the same.
Pest Management:
 Cutworms are among the insects that continue to challenge the best efforts at pest
management. The following practices may prove advantageous to manage this pest:
 If possible, avoid planting susceptible crops in fields with a known history of
cutworm problems.
 Plough the field after harvest and avoid the growth of grasses & weeds during the dry
season to keep down cutworm population buildup. This is done as far as the
conservation practices allow
 Deep ploughing of the field in the off-season to expose the cut worms to desiccation
by the sun and /or expose to different natural enemies( eg. Vertebrate predators).
 Watch vigilantly cutworm populations ( on weeds and grasses in the field during the
dry season by conducting regular monitoring or scouting and implement disruptive
measures when the number of cutworm exceeds acceptable threshold (fore example,
5-6cutting). Monitoring is done fore instance, on maize until the crop is four to five
leaf stage, after which damage is significant.
 Seed dressing
 Crop rotation including small cereals like teff.
 Cutworms may be discouraged from feeding on garden plants by placing a paper collar
around the stem extending for some distances above and below the ground level.
 Eliminate weeds and grasses from your garden as the cutworm moths lay their eggs on
such plants.
 If cutworms are present when you work your garden, you may want to apply an
insecticide before planting. If the garden is planned before you find any cutworms, a
foliar application or bait insecticide may be applied.
 If cutworms are found after the garden is planted, baits offer a useful control. Bait is
available for home garden use for beans, beets, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, carrots,
cabbage, cauliflower, cucumbers, endive, head lettuce, melons, peppers, rutabagas,
radish, spinach, squash and sweet corn. Read the label for additional crops.
 Baits and foliar sprays are useful for cutworms that feed above the ground. Baits should
be spread in late afternoon so that they will be fresh when the cutworms come out of the
ground to feed. If the garden is already planted, scatter some of the bait along the rows or
around the newly set plants. Baits should be applied only to the soil!
2.1.5 Gojam Red Ants (Dorylus spp.); Hymenoptera: Formicidae

 Red ants up to 4mm, eat soft parts of taproot and bark at the ground level.
 They are problematic pests on higher altitude vegetable crops, especially those with a tap
root system. Sometimes they are beneficial acting as predators.
 They are often found in areas of compost and manure and on irrigated lands.
 They make young plants wilting Rounded pits are observed on the taproot.
Pest management
 Digging a trench and spraying insecticides in it.
2.1.6 White Grubs (Schizonicha spp.);Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
 White grubs, the larval stage of June beetles, are common lawn pests in Nova Scotia. They
can be up to 4 centimeters (1.5 inches) long, with an off-white body and three pairs of legs
close to a light-brown head. While at rest, grubs curl up in the soil close to the surface.
 Adult June beetles have shiny, brown bodies that are about 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length, with
long, spiny legs.
Life cycle
 White Grubs have a three-year lifecycle and cause most damage in the second year. In June,
the adult lays eggs in the soil and within two weeks the white grubs emerge.
 The grubs feed on grass roots during the warm summer months, and then move deep into the
soil for the winter. The grubs continue feeding the second summer, and then transform into
the adult beetle during the third year.
 The larvae are collectively referred to as chafer grubs or white grubs. Pupation takes place in
an earthen cell in the soil.
 They are very important especially when grasslands are first shifted to cultivated area.
 They have got a patch effect, because the adult lays the eggs in a group (one spot) and hence
the distribution is not uniform. One can observe the insect by digging the affected areas.
Nature of Damage
 White grubs live in the soil and feed on the roots of grass, farm and garden crops, and potato
tubers. Adults damage foliage and flowers (defoliators) of many different crops where as the
larvae (oligopod,c-shaped, scarabaeiform) live in the soil & eat roots.
 They are generally polphagous but most damaging to pasture sugarcane, cereals (maize,
wheat, and sorghum), groundnut, sunflower, cotton, etc. In case of ground nuts the pods are
damaged. In lawns (grass land) white grub feeding shows thin, dry-looking patches of grass.
 These areas are often invaded by broadleaf weeds such as plantains and dandelions.
 The adult June beetle feeds on flowers. When June beetles are plentiful, white grubs can
cause extensive damage during its two year larval stage.
 In severe infestations, you can pull up the lawn in the affected area like a piece of sod.
Foraging animals such as skunks, raccoons, and crows can cause even more damage by
digging to find the insects.
Pest Management
i. Cultural methods
 A healthy lawn is the best protection against white grubs. Adult June beetles prefer to lay
their eggs in thin grass. Keep your lawn properly watered, fertilized, and aerated to
encourage good root growth. Healthy grass can withstand some level of feeding damage
from white grubs and will discourage adult beetles.
 Moist soil is critical for eggs to hatch and grubs to survive. Frequent irrigation during
adult flights may attract egg laying females, especially if surrounding areas are dry. But,
proper irrigation and fertility may help plants tolerate or outgrow moderate infestations.
This latter strategy is risky, though, because animals may dig up the turf or watering
restrictions may occur.
ii. Biological methods

Natural Enemies
 Several predators (e.g., ground beetles and ants) and parasitoids (e.g., Tiphia spp. or
scoliids) attack white grubs. Parasitic wasp larvae usually feed externally on the grub, kill
it, and then spin a fuzzy, brown cocoon in the soil.
Insect Parasitic Nematodes

 Commercial preparations of insect parasitic nematodes (Steinernema and Heterorhabditis
species) can suppress white grub populations. Nematodes work better under moist soil
conditions than in dry soils. Some nematodes may work synergistically with
neonicotinoid insecticides (e.g., imidacloprid or Merit) to provide greater grub control.
 Try using tiny nematodes, a type of microscopic, roundworm parasite that loves feeding
on white grubs. You can buy products containing nematodes at garden centers. Mix the
product with water and spray it on the lawn. You should water the treatment area before
applying the mix because nematodes move by swimming through water within the soil.
iii. Chemical methods
 If physical and biological control methods aren’t doing the job, you might have to use a
chemical pesticide. Check the label to find one for domestic use against white grubs that
has minimal effect on both you and the environment. Follow all directions carefully. Ask
a garden centre expert or hire a certified lawn care professional.
2.2. INSECT PESTS OF CEREAL CROPS

2.2.1 Maize and Sorghum Insect Pests
2.2.1.1 Maize/Sorghum Stem borers
 The African stem borer, Busseola fusca Fuller (Lepidopteran: Noctuidae), is among the
most injurious pests of sorghum in sub-Saharan Africa and is responsible for >15%
sorghum grain yield losses. Sorghum from India with records of stem borer invasion
could provide supplementary and novel resources of tolerance to this pest.
 Utilization of tolerant varieties in combination with other methods of control is likely to
offer a sustainable strategy for Busseola fusca management in sorghum production.
Biology and Lifecycle

 In late fall, the adult moths deposit their eggs on grasses and dried leaves of corn plants.
The newly hatched larvae enter the nearest suitable host in May.
 Usually, grasses are the first plants attacked, but the borers soon move to young corn
plants.
 The borers may enter the corn stalks at the base and work their way up through the stalk
or climb up the stalk to feed on the rolled leaves at the top.
 Corn plants are usually attacked when they are between two inches and two feet high.
The larvae have a dark-brown head and a purplish body with white stripes. A purple-
brown band circles the middle.
 Two of the economically important cereal stem borers in Africa are introduced species:
Chilo. partellus and Chilo sacchariphagus. Chilo partellus is an Asian species that
invaded Africa sometime before 1930 when it was first recorded in Malawi, but it was
not reported again until some 20 years later in Tanzania.
 The distribution of Chilo partellus now includes Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Malawi, and Botswana.
Diapause
 Diapause is a form of developmental arrest in insects that is much like hibernation in
higher animals. It enables insects and related arthropods to circumvent adverse seasons.
Winter is most commonly avoided in temperate zones, but diapauses is also used to avoid
hot, dry summers and periods of food shortage in the tropics.
 Many cereal stem borers have a resting period toward the end of the cropping season,
which they spend as fully grown larvae in dry crop residues in the fields.
 In West Africa, Busseola fusca enters diapause during the dry season, and it takes up to
six months to complete development. With the initiation of the rains, the larvae pupate
within the stems, and 10–12 days later adult moths emerge.
 Similar observations were made on Chilo ignefusalis, which has a facultative diapause in
dry millet stems.
 In southern Africa, Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus pass winter in diapause, which is
the cold dry season (April–September), in the lower parts of the dry stalks, where they
are well protected from natural enemies and adverse climatic conditions. Busseola fusca
diapauses throughout its distribution in Africa.
Damage
 Stem borers reduce grain yield through leaf feeding, dead heart formation and stem
damage. The larvae of Busseola fusca infest sorghum at the seedling stage and thrive till
maturity, resulting in substantial loss in grain yield.
 The larvae remain protected inside the stems, and thus, are less vulnerable to insecticides
and natural enemies. Busseola fusca reduce grain yield by more than 15% depending on
the pest population density at the time of attack, crop age, and variety.
 Generally, studies on insect resistance have lagged behind disease resistance due to the
extensive use of pesticides and the complex nature of insect-host plant resistance
interactions.
 Feeding and stem tunneling by borer larvae on plants results in crop losses as a
consequence of destruction of the growing point, early leaf senescence, interference with
translocation of metabolites, and nutrients that result in malformation of the grain, stem
breakage, plant stunting, lodging, and direct damage to ears. I
 nfestations by stem borers increase the incidence and severity of stalk rots.
 In South Africa, estimated yield losses from Busseola fusca damage ranges between 10%
and total loss. Yield loss in maize by Busseola fusca was significantly correlated with
leaf damage, but a higher correlation was observed with stem-boring damage. The
estimated yield losses due to Chilo partellus in maize and sorghum exceed 50%.
 In Ethiopia movement of Busseola fusca larvae into the base of the sorghum head
resulted in undersized heads and grain loss of 15%. Natural infestations by E. saccharina
decreased maize yields by 16%, 15%, and 28% in the dry season and first and second
rainy seasons, respectively.
Pest Management
 Research on management of Busseola fusca in sorghum has mainly focused on cultural
control, predominantly intercropping, fertilizer use, and recently, genetic engineering.
Other Busseola fusca management components are host plant resistance, biological
control, synthetic pheromones, and chemical insecticides.
 A major component of integrated pest management strategy in cereals is the use of host
plant resistance. Host plant resistance is an effective, economical and environmentally
friendly approach to manage insect pests and diseases.
a. Cultural Control
 Various methods of cultural control of stem borers in Africa have been reviewed. It is the
most relevant and economic method of stem borer control available for resource-poor
farmers in Africa.
 Other control options are often not relevant because pesticides are too expensive or not
available, resistant cultivars are not widely available, and biological control of stem
borers is only partially successful.
 Cultural control is among the oldest traditional practices and normally cannot be used as
a tactical means of control.
 Cultural control is considered the first line of defense against pests and includes
techniques such as destruction of crop residues, intercropping, crop rotation,
manipulation of planting dates, and tillage methods. The latter three agronomic practices
can directly affect crop yield.
 Many cultural control practices are labor intensive, but they have little adverse effects on
the environment and are readily available without extra investment in equipment.
However, an understanding of stem borers’ behavior and the relationships with their
respective crops are important for the development of efficient management strategies.
 Although cultural control options for stem borer management appear promising, most
African farmers have not adopted them.
 Cultural control is severely constrained by the lack of management capabilities of
farmers, especially in areas where farming communities lack the support of an adequate
extension service.
b. Intercropping and Habitat Management
 Intercropping or mixed cropping has been widely practiced for centuries by small scale
farmers in Africa to reduce risk of crop failure, attain higher yields, and improve soil
fertility. Although some of these practices also lead to suppression of cereal stem borer
populations, no studies have shown that farmers grow specific intercrops to exploit this
effect.
 Many field studies have been conducted in Africa during the past two decades in an effort
to identify the best crop combinations for reducing stem borer populations on cereal
crops.
 Intercropping cowpea with maize and sorghum and on theways in which the developed
systems could be adopted by small-scale farmers in eastern Africa. Most concluded that
intercropping reduced the incidence of stem borers.
 In West Africa, maize, millet, and sorghum intercropping were studied.

Maize/cassavaintercropping systems in Nigeria reduced by half larval numbers of E.
saccharina, B. fusca, and S. calamistis populations.
 Another useful diversionary tactic for stem borer control is planting an outer encircling
row of some highly preferred host to act as a trap plant. Napier grass, Pennisetum
purpureum, and Sudan grass, Sorghum vulgare sudanense, common fodder plants in
Africa, were reported from Kenya to provide natural control to stem borers by acting as
trap plants.
 Planting Napier grass around maize fields significantly increases crop yields by reducing
the stem borer population in maize. Sudan grass, also a fodder grass, provided natural
control of stem borersby acting as a trap plant and as a reservoir for its natural enemies.
 In field trials conducted in Kenya, planting Sudan grass around maize fields decreased
stem borer infestation on maize and thus increased crop yield.
 Planting Sudan grass around maize field also increased efficiency of natural enemies.
 For the control of stem borers in resource-poor, maize farming systems in eastern Africa,
novel habitat-management strategies have been developed using “push-pull” or stimulo
deterrent diversionary tactics. These strategies involve combined use of intercropping and
trap crop systems. Stem borers are trapped on highly susceptible trap plants (pull) and are
driven away from the maize crop by repellent intercrops (push).
 The plants, which are used as trap or repellent plants in a push-pull strategy, are Napier
grass, Sudan grass, molasses grass, and silverleaf desmodium, Desmodium uncinatum.
Napier grass and Sudan grass are used as trap plants, whereas molasses grass and
silverleaf desmodium repel ovipositing stem borers.
 Molasses grass, when intercropped with maize, not only reduced infestation of the maize
by stem borers but also increased stem borer parasitism by a natural enemy, C. sesamiae
(98). All four plants are of economic importance to farmers in eastern Africa as livestock
fodder.
c. Management of Crop Residues
 Crop residues are important for carrying over stem borer larval populations from one
growing season to the next. In Nigeria, larvae of B. fusca, E. saccharina, and S.
calamistis were found in crop residues below the soil surface, and higher incidences of
these borers were observed in no-tillage plots. In Kenya, C. orichalcociliellus, C.

partellus, E. saccharina, and S. calamistis were observed in stalks after harvest.
 In Ethiopia, a considerable proportion of B. fusca larvae survive in stubble. In Uganda,
untreated crop residues were often used to mulch the next crop. Under these conditions,
borers from the old stalks constantly infested the newly planted crops.
 An effective control option would be to reduce the first generation of adult population by
destroying the larvae in old stalks. Ploughing in order to bury maize stubble was an
effective control measure used early in the twentieth century in South Africa to control B.
fusca. In Zimbabwe, it was observed that B. fusca moths emerging through 5 cm of soil
were crippled and that deeper burial of the stalks under 10–15 cm of soil ensured that no
adult moths emerged.
 Tillage practices are viable options for B. fusca and C. partellus control in South Africa,
where large areas of maize or sorghum are planted and between 90,000 and 226,000
larvae overwinter per hectare.
 Slashing maize and sorghum stubble destroyed 70% of C. partellus and B. fusca
populations, and additional ploughing and disking destroyed a further 24% of the pest
population in sorghum and 19% in maize.
 Tillage may reduce borer populations through mechanical damage either by burying them
deeply into the soil or by breaking the stems and exposing the larvae to adverse weather
conditions, as well as birds, rodents, ants, spiders, and other natural enemies. For these
cultural control measures to be effective, the cooperation of farmers in a region is
required because moths emerging from untreated fields can infest adjacent crops.
 Currently this system is not widely practiced in South Africa because of the advent of
minimum tillage and the importance of winter grazing of maize to beef farmers. Control
of B. fusca and C. partellus by burning old stalks and other crop residues immediately
after harvest has been recommended.
d. Manipulation of Sowing Dates and Densities
 Growing crops when the pest is least abundant ensures that the most susceptible stage of
crop growth does not coincide with periods of peak moth activity.
 In Kenya, an attempt to legislate this principle was made in order to control B. fusca on
maize during the 1920s and 1930s with the objective to restrict planting maize to the
February–May period, when infestation is normally low.
 There is no available information on the effectiveness of these measures, and the last
implementation of this legislation was in 1937–1938.
e. Host Plant Resistance
 Host plant resistance as an approach to pest management in gramineous crops confers
many advantages. Resistant crop varieties provide an inherent control that involves no
environmental problems, and they are generally compatible with other insect-control
methods.
 The cultivation of resistant crop plants is not subject to the vagaries of weather as are
chemical-control measures, and in certain circumstances it is the only effective means of
control.
 Resistant varieties control even a low pest density, whereas insecticide use is justifiable
only when the density reaches the economic injury level. Efforts are underway in Africa
to identify sources of stem borer resistance in cereal crops, but high levels of resistance
have not been found.
f. Biological Control
 Over the past 60 years, there have been numerous attempts to introduce exotic parasitoids
into Africa and the Indian Ocean Islands for biological control of exotic and native stem
borers, but only a few species have established. On the mainland, only C. flavipes has
established.
g. Utilization of Synthetic Sex Pheromones
 Pheromone-baited traps are useful devices for monitoring moth population levels of stem
borers. Trap catches of male moths can provide useful information for the timing of
insecticide applications.
2.2.1.2 Maize/Sorghum Aphids

Description:
 Aphids (Order: Homoptera) are major insect pests of the world’s agriculture which
damage crops by removing photo assimilates and vectoring numerous devastating plant
viruses. Many pest aphid species, along with several hundred other insect pests, are
resistant to insecticides. Every year the yield potential of many crops is reduced because
of these insects.
 Aphid’s population was increased for the last few years on many crops including wheat,
maize sorghum and barely, and attained the status of pest. They often form large colonies
on leaves and stems. About 4500 species of Aphidiodea have been described, mostly
belonging to family Aphididae.
 In the tropics, only about 30 species are pests. Many species have been as major vectors
of plant virus diseases, but damage by sap depletion, saliva toxicity and sooty mould
growth can also be serious.
 Their short life cycle allows them to exploit herbaceous plants very efficiently. Most are
very host specific and have both apterous (lacking wings) and alate females, which
reproduce asexually by vivipary except when unfavorable conditions (such as long dry
season in Ethiopia) may trigger sexual reproduction, sometimes associated with
migration to a woody/perennial host.
 Some of the important aphid pests in Ethiopia include Aphis craccivora (ground nut
aphid), Aphis gossypi (otton aphid), Myzus persicae (green peach aphid), Duraphis
noxius (Russian wheat aphid), Brevicorne brassicae (cabbage aphid), Cinara
cupressivora (Cypress aphid), Aphis fabae (bean aphid), Toxoptera aurantii (black citrus
aphid), Rhopalosiphum spp, (R. maidis-maize aphid) and Macrosiphum spp.(M.
euphorbiae- potato aphid).
Nature of Damage
 Many species have been implicated as major vectors of plant virus diseases. Majority of
aphids suck sap of the leaves and young shoots causing distortion, stunting, saliva
toxicity, sap depletion, and sometime premature leaves fall.
 The excreta of aphid (honey dew) serve as a substrate for growth of sooty mould, which
hinders the photosynthetic activity of plants. Their short life cycle allows them to exploit
herbaceous plants very efficiently.
 Most are host specific and have both apterous and alate females, which reproduce
asexually by vivipary except when unfavorable conditions (such as the long dry season in
Ethiopia) may trigger sexual reproduction, sometimes associated with migration to a
woody/perennial host.
 The sorghum aphid is light yellow in color, and the maize aphid is dark green to bluish-
green in color.
 These aphids are often found sucking on ear heads or on the underside of leaves. They
produce large quantities of honeydew, which enable black sooty moulds to grow.
Attacked plants sometimes are stunted, leaves dry up and yield is reduced. Young plants
suffering from drought stress may be killed.
 Aphids can be a problem during dry periods. Heavy aphid infestations on sorghum at the
booting and heading stages seriously reduce both grain quality and yield. The maize
aphid transmits the maize dwarf mosaic virus to sorghum. Adults are small, 1-4 mm
long, soft-bodied insects.
Pest Management
 The control methods developed for aphids depend on the species of aphid pest and the
type of crop it attacks.
 Aphids have been controlled effectively by chemical (including botanical insecticides),
cultural, biological (Parasitic wasps and predatory insects, including lady bird beetles,
damsel bugs, lacewings, and hover fly larvae are important in natural control of aphids),
host plant resistance and integrated methods.
 Most major groups of insecticides have been used against aphid pests, including
chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates, carbamates and pyrethroids.
 The persistence and effectiveness of insecticides on the plants is an important factor.
Systemic insecticides with satisfactory persistence through the susceptible growth stage
of crop are preferred. Dimethoate, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid are some of
systematic insecticides registered for aphid control in Ethiopia.
 The high cost of systemic to farmers in the developing world such as Ethiopia
emphasizes the need for early warning and forecast systems.
 Systemics will kill aphids effectively, but they may still have time to feed and transmit
virus before dying for those aphid pests that are virus vectors. In such circumstances it
may be more effective to control aphids on wild hosts on which they feed before
dispersing to crops.
 Coccinellids, Syrphids and parasitoids as natural control agents, sowing date and
cropping systems as cultural control and varietal resistance as major component of
integrated aphid management contribute significantly towards effective aphid

management.
 Close monitoring of aphid population and their natural enemies in the field is
indispensible in integrated aphid management. Based on the monitoring of aphid
population, appropriate actions must be taken to manage the pests before they actually
cause economic damage.
 Integrated aphid management practices must be implemented right from choosing the
appropriate sowing time and designing the appropriate cropping system through all
susceptible growth stages of the crop.
 The thresholds of aphid population at which control measures are initiated vary with the
type of aphid and species, crop growth stage and species, and the particular time in the
season plus the environment.
 Life cycle: Eggs are spherical, 0.5 mm in diameter, yellow turning brown; hatching takes
2-4 days. Each female moth may lay 1000 or more eggs. The larvae are stout, greenish or
brown, but variable in coloration. Body bears long dark pale bands; fully-grown larvae
are 40mm long.
 There are six larval instars and the total period lasts 14-24 days, but 51 days at 17 oC.
Therefore the duration is variable depending on the environmental conditions.
 Population takes place in the soil; the shiny brown pupae are about 16mm long; pupal
development takes 10-14 days in tropical environment.
 The adult is a stout bodied, brown nocturnal moth of wingspan about 40mm. the
complete life cycle can be as short as about 28 days and there are several generations
each season.
Nature of Damage
 African boll worm (ABW) is sporadically very serious pest of cotton and beans in many
parts of Africa. In Ethiopia it attacks maize, sorghum, cotton beans, tobacco, tomato,
many legumes, some vegetables (eg. pepper) and other plants. It extremely polyphagous
and a minor pest on many cultivated fruits.
 ABW damage is recognized by clean circular holes, which are bored in flower buds,
cotton bolls of all size and some fruits (e.g. tomato).
 It causes damage to sorghum by eating the seeds. Damage is particular serious on
compact headed sorghums. The caterpillars appear on the ear heads when the grains are
in the milk ripe stage. These caterpillars also feed on whorl leaves. A heavy infestation
can cause an almost complete loss of yield.
Pest Management
 In case of maize control the pest during tasseling period, and flowering legumes are
attractive to this species and will divert egg-laying females from cotton (since the damage
is more pronounced on cotton).
 For chemical control, apply recommended insecticides when caterpillars are small. Since
African bollworm is known for showing resistance too many insecticides, mixtures of
insecticides with different mode of action are used.
 The best control of African bollworm is on eggs scouting. Spraying at red egg stage or
newly hatched larvae gives excellent control of bollworm.
 Inspect field once or twice a week after sorghum begins to bloom. Check for presence of
caterpillars by shaking heads over a bucket or sweep net·
 Good spray coverage is very important, particularly in partially opened heads or in
varieties that have tight heads where young caterpillars are well protected.
 Using resistant varieties of crops is one of the preferred ways of controlling the African
bollworm. Trap crops like pigeon pea, bean, maize and sunflower attract and divert
significantly high African bollworm populations from susceptible crops like cotton. As
far as natural enemies of ABW is concerned, there are Hymenopterous and Dipterous
parasitoids recorded so far and exert a certain level of control.
2.2.1.4 Plusia worm (Plusa acuta); Lepidoptera: Noctiudae

 Very heavy out breaks of pluisa species occur in the high lands in certain years on a wide
range of crops.
 The fully grown larva is 4cm long. They are green or brown in color.
 They have only 3 pairs of prologs (semi-loopers). Because of this they walk with a
looping movement of the body.
Damage
 The nature of damage is restricted to foliage part and it is the larval stage which causes
the damage.
Pest Management
 Plusia worm have been controlled effectively by chemical/insecticides.
 Some of chemical insecticides registered for pluisa worm control in Ethiopia are
Carbaril 85% WP 1.5 kg/ha and malathion 50% EC 2lit/ha.
 Large caterpillars are very difficult to kill. Spray if possible when the caterpillars are
small before serious damage of the crop occurs.
2.2.1.5 Sorghum Midge (Contarinia sorghicola); Diptera: Cecidomyiidae
 The fully grown larvae are dark orange as also is the female in life. The pupa is either
naked or cocoon.
 Diagnosis: confirmed by the orange colored larvae or pupae.
 Hosts: Sorghum both cultivated and wild species. It occurs commonly in Africa
sometimes infestation are serious (sporadic).
Damage
 The larvae feed on the developing seeds of sorghum.
 The larvae move down in to the ovary and lie their feeding on the nutrient which would
normally nourish the embryo.
 The grain head is flattened with tiny shrunken seeds.
Pest management
i. Cultural control
a. Sowing date- plant as soon as possible
b. Try to plant the whole crop in a given area at the same time.
c. Use resistant varieties
ii. Chemical control

Frequent application of chemicals like carbaryl is fairly effective, but chemical
residues in the crop become excessive.
2.2.1.6 Sorghum chafer, Shoot fly and Cluster buges
i. Sorghum chafer (Pachnoda interrupta); Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae
Description and biology
 It is major insect pest in North eastern Ethiopia bordering in the Afar region.
 It is recorded in some parts of Shoa, Harar and Wollo.
 The pest is black with red or yellow spots.
 They are up to 1.5cm long.
 Breeding takes place in the cattle barns where cow dung is available.
 There is now evidence that it breeds in farm areas and riversides.
Damage
 Large beetles present on sorghum heads eating grain at the milky stage. The grubs do not
feed on sorghum.
Pest management
 Sorghum chaffers have been controlled effectively by chemical/insecticides.
 Some of chemical insecticides registered for Sorghum chaffer control are Carbaryl
5% dust 15 kg/ha, Carbatyl %85 WP 1.5 kg/ha.
 Use of poisoned bait with beverage by-products or fruits like Guava is effective.
ii. Sorghum Shoot fly(Atherigona soccata); Diptera: Musscidae
Description
 The adult fly is about 3-4.5 mm long with gray yellow and black markings. Host plant is
sorghum (main), (Millet, Finger millet, rice, wheat and others grasses are alternatives).
Life history
 Eggs - are laid down on the underside of the leaves, often single egg per leaf, sometimes
three, hatching takes 2-3 days.
 Larvae - development takes place 7-12 days, immediately attacks and penetrates the
central shoot causing dead heart.
 Pupa - Pupation takes place in the bases of the necrotic shoot, rarely in the soil.
- It takes about 8-12 days
- Under favorable condition the pupa may aestivate (remains dormant)
- In irrigated areas where cereals and other grasses are available there could be
many generations.
 The adults look like small housefly. The whole life cycle takes 17-21 days.
Nature of damage:
 The larvae infest the shoots of young sorghum and wheat.
 Eggs are laid on the plant at ground level on the underside of the leaves of young
sorghum. Often a single egg is found at the underside of the leaves of young sorghum.
But up to three eggs have been recorded:
 The larvae are typical maggots (Apodous)
 The larvae are found on wild grasses, barley and wheat but not in maize.
 The larvae bore in to the central shoot of sorghum. The maggot feed on the growing
point causing a typical dipterous dead heart. The central shoots wilts and it can be
easily pulled.
 Only a single larva is found per attacked shoot. Damage occurs while the plant is
young (7 – 8 days).
 Sorghum is however, able to produce new tillers or subsidiary shoots at the ground
level to replace the one damaged and it compensates for the loss caused by the insect.
In sever attacks the tillers in turn may be attacked.
 Plants which have suffered from shoot fly attack can flower and ripen at different times
and vary considerably in size and may cause difficulties for combine harvesting.
Pest management
i. Cultural control:
 Time of sowing- early planting; for escaping shoot fly damage
 Observe closed season (do not allow growth of the same plant during dry season).This
reduces the population of the insect.
ii. Chemical control- use of insecticides:
It is not easy and economical as the treatment has to be repeated several times at intervals of
few days to obtain satisfactory results (2-4 times intervals of 7-10 days).
 Dust the base of plants with starting soon after germination and applying weekly until the
plants are a foot high (late planted sorghum)
 Endosulfan (Thiodan) was found to be effective in trails in Tanzania. EC 0.1 % a.i
 Trichlorophon (Dipterx) EC 0.12% a.i., WP (35% 1.5kg/ha)
 Disyston 5% granular 20 kg/ha- apply by drilling or broadcast at planting or after
emergence
 Fenithion, phrate- Fenitrothion EC 0.1% a.i.
iii. Cluster bugs /Shield Bug (Agonoscelis pubscens); Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Description
 It is sporadically important and is minor pests of sorghum and sesame in Western
Ethiopia.
 It is sometimes found on milky heads of sorghum except for black spiracles.
 Upper side of head, pronotum , scutellum and anterior part of hemelytra is straw
yellow to reddish brown. Antenna consists of five segments.
 Adult bug is shield shaped and about 11-13long and 6-7 mm wide.
 Underside is yellowish-brown to ocheous except for black spiracles.
 Upper side of head, pronotum scutellum and anterior part of hemelytra is straw
yellow to reddish brown.
 Antenna consists of five segments.
Distribution: In a number of African countries South of Sahara (Sudan, Uganda, Kenya,

Tanzania, Somali, Malawi, and Ethiopia).
Life History
 The adults’ shelter during dry season in clusters which may consists of many thousands
on stems, branches of trees and bushes for period of 9 months.
 They leave the tree early in August and migrate to herbaceous plants that grow up after
the first shower. If the rain is late many of them will die.
Egg:- Laid in clusters of about 30 on leaves and inflorescence and other parts.
- One female can lay hundreds of eggs.
Nymphs:-After 3-5 days they hatch out.

-Moult 5 times (3-4 weeks) and become adults
-In Sudan only 1 generation per year.
Young adults- migrate from weeds to the crop. The month of milky grain stage is the sensitive
time. After this stage they leave the crop and return to the shady trees on which the dry period is
spent.
Nature of Damage:-
 It attacks a number of crops in the adult and nymphal stages. Crops such as Alfalfa
(Medicago sativa), Sunflower, Wheat, and Sesame and Vernonia gamalenisis are
attacked.
 Sorghum is infested during the milky stage mainly only by the adults.
 The bugs feed on the developing grains which became atrophied.
 Twenty or more bugs per head may destroy all the grains so that the entire become
sterile. Heavy outbreaks can therefore, result in complete destruction of the yield in
particular areas.
Pest Management
 Removal and destruction of herbaceous plants around the field
 Swarms of bugs on trees and bushes should be treated just before the sorghum reaches
the milk stage.
 Use insecticides- trees can be treated with dusts and sprays of malathion & carbaryl.
Natural enemies:
 Predators- Birds, Spiders, Ants, etc.
 Parasites- Hymenopterous insects
 Egg parasites- destroy more than 70% of the eggs.
iv. Sorghum Aphid

 The wingless adult aphids are about 2mm long and entirely light yellow.
 In contrast to other aphids this species prefers older leaves as source of food but young
leaves are also attacked.
 Produce Honey + salty mold development
Damage- This causes stunted growth of plants. Drying up of leaves and reduction of yields.
Pest Management:
Systemic insecticides
 Dimethoate EC
 Dimecoon EC
 Fenitrothion EC
 Matasystox EC
 Endosulfan EC
2.2.2 Insect pests of Barley and Wheat

2.2.2.1 Barley Fly (Delia arambourgi);Diptera: Anthomyiidae
 Host: Barley (main host plant) and also teff.

 Alternate host: Maize, wheat, millet and grass
 Like any other cereal, barely too is susceptible to many insect pests. These causes
damage ranging from moderate to heavy depending on the variety, methods of cultivation
and agro-climatic condition.
 There is thus an obvious need to take up effective plant protection measures to ward of
any losses yield and quality due to this pest.
Nature of damage
Pest management
2.2.2.2 Army worm
Description and Life Cycle

 Armyworms are immature moths that feed on turf grass leaves and stems.
 Armyworms can be found all over the world, with at least three species. These insects
belong to a large group of night-flying moths in the family Noctuidae. Although not new
pests to turf grass, armyworms are often ignored, and plant health decline is confused
with drought stress, fungal disease, or other insects.
 These caterpillars chew off young plants just above the ground and can be highly
destructive.
 Golf courses are especially attractive places for females to lay eggs, and for the
caterpillars to feed.
 Proper irrigation and fertilization will help minimize the appearance of feeding damage to
turf grass.
There are several kinds of armyworms infesting cereal crops and turf grass in the world, but the
most common species is the true armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta.
 True armyworm larvae are yellow or grey with black stripes, and sometimes the body can
have a pink tint.
 Adults are reddish-brown in color and have a wingspan of 38 mm.
 True armyworms can have more than five generations per year.
 Mated females can lay thousands of eggs, where sticky egg masses are laid on various
parts of turf grass blades.
 Eggs hatch into larvae that feed for 3-4 weeks until they reach about 35 mm in length.
Larvae will pupate within the soil and emerge as adults in 2-3 weeks. The entire life cycle
takes about 60 days.
Nature of Damage:-
 Larvae are the only developmental stage of the armyworm to cause crop damage. They
feed on a variety of crops and weeds.
 Maize, sorghum, millet, rapeseed, mustard, alfalfa, lamb's quarters and related plants are
preferred host plants. It will also feed on a range of secondary hosts including flax, peas
and potato.
 The degree of crop damage varies with the crop, the plant's growth stage, the growth
stage of the larvae and the number of larvae present.
 Significant crop damage usually occurs within a three-week period depending on the
season and crop location.
 Small larvae feed on the undersides of the leaves, chewing irregularly-shaped holes in the
leaves. They usually cause little damage at this stage, even when population levels are
high.
 Crop damage occurs rapidly once the larvae moult to the second-last stage. These larvae
are about 1.3 cm (1/2 inch) in length. Larvae in the last two larval stages eat about 80 to
90 % of the plant material consumed during the life of the larvae.
 If the plants, especially canola, drop their leaves before the larvae are mature, the
developing larvae will feed directly on the seed pods.
 Seed pods may be "debarked," but more commonly, the larvae chew holes in the pods
and eat the seeds. At high numbers, the entire seed pod may be consumed. Even if the
pods are only stripped of their outer green layer and not eaten entirely, crop losses may
still occur because of premature shattering.
 In flax, the larvae eat the flowers and developing bolls. Once the flax bolls are full-size
and start to ripen, larvae usually feed on the calyx below the boll. Occasionally, larvae
will feed on the green stems of ripening bolls, causing them to drop off.
Nature of damage:
 Armyworms caterpillars can be of significant economic concern to several cropping
systems, including field and forage crops, vegetables, and ornamental plants.
 Adults do not cause plant damage, but the caterpillar stage can damage field crops like
barley, millets, teff, and turf grass by eating above ground plant tissue at night. The
caterpillars burrow down into the thatch layer during the day for protection.
 Young armyworms skeletonize turf grass or chew leaf blade margins at night.
 Armyworms are gregarious and prefer cool-season turf grasses, and will often feed and
migrate in large groups. Large masses of caterpillars will cause widespread damage of
irregular brown patches.
 Infested crops and turf grass will eventually look uneven and rough. Birds are attracted to
armyworms often their presence indicates heavy infestations.
Army Worm Pest management

 In most years, armyworms are controlled naturally by biological or environmental
factors.
i. Environmental control
 Environmental conditions have a significant impact on armyworm populations, especially

on the over-wintering pupae. During harsh winters in snow-free fields, most armyworm
pupae die. Armyworm outbreaks appear to be favored by snow accumulation, which
protects pupae from prolonged exposure to temperatures below -10 C.
 The trend toward reduced tillage and stubble conservation results in more snow
accumulation on infested fields and could favor armyworm survival, especially in years
with early snowfall.
 Newly hatched larvae are especially vulnerable to inclement weather and diseases.
ii. Cultural Control

 Armyworm populations can be manipulated to reduce crop loss. Methods include
planting alternative crops, effective weed control, early swathing and fall cultivation.
 Fall cultivation can kill many armyworm pupae by mechanical damage.
 Tillage can also reduce the amount of snow trapped on a field by removing or flattening
stubble and exposing pupae to sub-zero temperatures over the winter. This practice may
be effective for individual fields but is not likely to be effective unless it is adopted by all
producers in an area.
 Adult moths are strong flyers and can easily move to adjacent fields. Fall cultivation
should not be used on light- textured soils susceptible to erosion.
 Effective control of weeds such as lamb's quarters and wild mustard can reduce
armyworm infestations in flax, peas, lentils and sugar beets. Larvae will first feed upon
these weeds and then move onto these crops after the weeds have been destroyed.
 Armyworm damage in turf grass is typically erratic, and therefore preventative
insecticide treatments are unnecessary.
 Scouting and other practical integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can reduce
caterpillar feeding and potential turf grass damage to tolerable levels in most cases.
Implement the following cultural control methods to reduce damage:
 Overly maintained turf grass can be an attractive place for adult females to lay eggs;
keep plants healthy, but be careful not to exceed recommended fertilization and
irrigation schedules.
 Scout for adults moving to turf grass in the early spring and start monitoring for
larvae in the summer with soap flushing.
 Consider “spot treatments” to target caterpillar infestations instead of blanket

applications.
iii.Biological Control
 A number of diseases and parasites attack the armyworm, including:
 a nuclear polyhedrosis virus
 an ichneumonid wasp (Banchus flavescens)
 a tachinid fly (Athrycia cinerea)
 However, these natural enemies often do not destroy larvae until after considerable crop
damage has occurred. They have their greatest impact on armyworms produced a year or two
after the peak of an outbreak. This is probably why severe infestations only last two or three
years.
v. Chemical Control
Chemical control is the producer's last line of defense against the armyworm. For best results,
apply an insecticide as soon as economic thresholds are reached.
A single, well-timed application of any registered insecticide applied with aerial or high
clearance ground equipment is usually effective.
 In certain situations where armyworms are persistent over multiple years, a more
aggressive control program may be needed. Chemical control should be considered when
cultural methods are not effective.
 Consider using “reduced risk” insecticides as an alternative to broad spectrum products
because they preserve natural enemies. Spinosad and Bacillus thuringiensis are reduced
risk products available for armyworm and cutworm control in turf grass. These products
will be most effective against small larvae.
 Entomopathogenic nematodes, such as Steinernema carpocapsae (Biosafe, Biovector,
and Exhibit), provide an alternative to chemical control. Apply nematodes in the early
morning or in the evening to avoid direct heat and sunlight.
2.2.2.3 Plusia Worm

 Very heavy out breaks of pluisa species occur in the high lands in certain years on a wide
range of crops.
 The fully grown larva is 4cm long. They are green or brown in color.
 They have only 3 pairs of prologs (semi-loopers). Because of this they walk with a
looping movement of the body.
Nature of Damage: The nature of damage is restricted to foliage and head part and it is the
larval stage which causes the damage.
Pest Management: Plusia worm have been controlled effectively by chemical/insecticides.
 Some of chemical insecticides registered for pluisa worm control in Ethiopia are Carbaril
85% WP 1.5 kg/ha and malathion 50% EC 2lit/ha.
 Large caterpillars are very difficult to kill. Spray if possible when the caterpillars are
small before serious damage of the crop occurs.
2.2.2.4 Various aphid species
 The aphid life cycle includes eggs, nymphs, and adults. Adults can be either wingless or
winged. Nymphs are small and similar in shape to adults.
 Most female aphids reproduce asexually, giving birth to live young that quickly reach
maturity and then reproduce.
 A short life cycle accounts for rapid increases in populations. Under crowded conditions,
winged forms develop, disperse, and colonize other areas.
 Adults are either winged or wingless. Winged forms invade the plant and establish
colonies at any time during crop growth.
 The aphid can be troublesome during the seedling stage when its feeding may result in
plants being stunted.
 The honeydew produced by the insect and the associated fungal moulds can foul the leaf
and the head of the plant.
Nature of Damage
 Various aphid species nymphs and adults feed by inserting a needle-like structure (stylet)
into the plant and removing plant sap, thus reducing plant growth.
 Aphids typically infest plant terminals and uppermost leaves initially. These soft-bodied
insects have piercing-sucking mouthparts that are used to suck plant juices from leaves
and stems.
 Heavy infestations on the undersides of leaves produce wilting and cause the leaf margins
to curl toward the ground.
 Both aphids and whiteflies excrete a substance with a high sugar content referred to as
honeydew. Heavy infestations of aphids can produce large amounts of honeydew, thereby
coating lower leaves, and giving them a shiny appearance.
 Honeydew may also serve as a substrate for the growth of a sooty mold.
Pest Management
 Treat only when high numbers of aphids are severely infesting plants, populations are
building, and the margins of terminal leaves are drooping. Aphids will cause more
damage when plants are suffering from lack of moisture, and there are few signs of
natural control agents.
 Avoid unnecessary insecticide applications, as subsequent reductions in beneficial
populations can result in damage from bollworm and fall armyworm.
 Aphid has a number of predators such as ladybeetles and lacewings but these are usually
eliminated by insecticide sprays applied to control pests.
 A parasitic wasp and a fungus, Neozygites fresenii, often provide adequate aphid control.
 These insects are generally controlled by naturally occurring beneficial arthropods before
their damage can reduce yields.
2.2.3 Insect Pests of Teff
2.2.3.1 Red Teff Worm (Mentaxya ignicollus); Lepidoptera: Noctuidae
 It is a very important pest of teff grown on black or heavy deeply cracking soils, causing
up to 30 percent loss in yield.
 The reddish or light green larvae are observed on teff plants in the early morning or in the
evening feeding on leaves and developing grains in the milky stage. In the hotter hours of
the day they hide in soil cracks.
 Infestations have been reported from five administrate regions in Ethiopia
Life cycle
 Eggs -laid on teff leaves or stems
-Singly or in batches (from 2 - 300 eggs/batch)
-Sometimes in 2 or 3 layers
 Larvae-Well developed head and the true legs re green
-Fully grown larvae are about 3 - 5 cm
-Upper side (dorsal) of fully grown larvae is red.
 Reddish brown or light green white lines run on each side of the body
 Pupae-Pupation is in the soil, in earthen cell
- 2 to 9 cm deep in the soil
-Most pupae enter in to diapause in the field at the end of the crop season.
 Adults - Greyish or brownish, 3 - 4 cm wing span
- 3 to 4 generations per year have been estimated.
-The generation which appears in September - November up to middle of
December is the most important
(It feeds on teff head)
It occupies longer period because it includes a diapausing pupal stage
(Dec- March).
Feeding
1st Instar - underside of the leaf, leaves the upper leaf epidermis.
 Until 3rd instars feeding is limited mostly to leaves and tender stems,
 Late instars feed on almost every part of teff except old tough stems.
 Feed on milky grain stage
 Feeding largely at night
 Infestation are detected early in the morning or in the evening
Oligophagous - teff is the main host others include Digtaria scaalarum, other wild grasses.
Pest Management
Insecticide – 1st & 2nd instar are more vulnerable
Early ploughing of harvested tef field reduces the population of diapausing pupae
1. Carbaryl 85% WP l.5kg/ha
2. Trichlorofon 95% WP 1kg/ha
3. Cypennethrin 16 gm ai/ha
4. Endosulfan 35%Ec 2 lt/ha
2.2.3.2 Welo Bush Cricket (Decticoides brevipennis)

Order: Orthoptera
Family: Gryllide
 This bush cricket known as locally as Degeza. Feeds on wild grasses it can do serious
damage to the milky grain of tef and other late sown cereals.
Description
 Brown or greenish insects present with short wings (useless for flying) long thin antennae
and hind legs adapted for jumping.
 Body length about 2.5 cm.
 The adult female has an egg laying ovipositor about 2cm long at the tip of the abdomen
which looks like a curved sword.
Pest Management
1. Destroy wild hosts growing near the area
2. Apply carbaryl, malathion
2.2.2.3 Teff Epilachna (Epilachna similis); Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

 Epilachna is conunon on teff and other cereals and sometimes it becomes dangerous
(sporadic). The insect is well distributed in Ethiopia.
 High population densities of the insects were recorded in Southern Ethiopia (Chencha,
Wolayita) and some parts of north Omo Ethiopia.
 Recognition- Hemispherical beetle up to 6mm long, red in color with large black spots.
 The larval stage also feeds voraciously l0mm long, yellow with numerous dark spines.
 The pest skeletonizes the leaves the veins and one epidermis being left intact.
Pest Management
 Destroy wild hosts growing near the area
 Apply carbaryl 85% WP 2kg/ha
 Trichlorophon 95%WP lkg/ha
 Malathion 50 % EC 1 lt/ha
2.2.2.4 Black Tef Beetle (Erlangerius niger); Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

 Black shiny beetle up to 6mm long
 The adult feeds on leaves
 The larvae feed on grains (immature grains.)
 It is a serious pest in Shoa.
 First reported in 1975 around Brerefeta area. (Holleta)
Control
 Clean weeding
 Insecticides
 Carbaryl 85% WP 1.5 kg/ha
 Trichlorofon 95% WP 1 kg/ha
 Malathion 50%EC 1.5lt/ha
 Fenitrothion EC
2.3. COTTON INSECT PEST

2.3.1. Sucking Insects
2.3.1.1 Cotton Aphid (Aphis gossypii Glover); Order Homoptera
Pest description and biology
 This soft-bodied insect usually lives on new shoots, crowns, and undersides of leaves. In
general, aphids are slender and dark green to yellow.
 The aphid life cycle includes eggs, nymphs, and adults. Adults can be either wingless or
winged. Nymphs are small and similar in shape to adults.
 Most female aphids reproduce asexually, giving birth to live young that quickly reach
maturity and then reproduce.
 A short life cycle accounts for rapid increases in populations. Under crowded conditions,
winged forms develop, disperse, and colonize other areas.
 The cotton aphid is 1 to 2 mm long and varies in color from pale to dark green.
 Adults are either winged or wingless. Winged forms invade cotton and establish colonies
at any time during crop growth.
 The aphid can be troublesome during the seedling stage when its feeding may result in
plants being stunted.
 At the boll opening stage the honeydew produced by the insect and the associated fungal
moulds can foul the cotton lint. In addition to lowering quality this later infestation
results in difficulties in harvesting.
 Cotton aphid has a number of predators such as ladybeetles and lacewings but these are
usually eliminated in cotton by insecticide sprays applied to control pests.
Nature of Damage
 Aphid nymphs and adults feed by inserting a needle-like structure (stylet) into the plant
and removing plant sap, thus reducing plant growth.
 Symptoms of aphid damage include curled, twisted and/or stunted leaves, yellowish
spots, and glossy leaves.
 Heavy infestations in seedlings or transplants can cause plants to wilt and/or die. Black
sooty mold (due to a fungus) may develop on leaves due to the presence of sticky
honeydew, which is released by aphids through the cornicles or “tube-like” structures at
the tip of the abdomen.
 The presence of this mold may reduce photosynthesis, make the plant unattractive, and
possibly reduce flowering and yield.
 Some species spread plant viruses. Prevention of aphid vectored viruses is a primary
reason for aphid control in vegetables.
 Aphids typically infest plant terminals and uppermost leaves initially. These soft-bodied
insects have piercing-sucking mouthparts that are used to suck plant juices from leaves
and stems.
 Heavy infestations on the undersides of leaves produce wilting and cause the leaf margins
to curl toward the ground.
 A parasitic wasp and a fungus, Neozygites fresenii, often provide adequate aphid control.
Whiteflies can also damage cotton by sucking plant fluids, but this happens very rarely in
South Carolina.
 These insects are generally controlled by naturally occurring beneficial arthropods before
their damage can reduce yields.
 Both aphids and whiteflies excrete a substance with a high sugar content referred to as
honeydew.
 Heavy infestations of aphids can produce large amounts of honeydew, thereby coating
lower leaves, and giving them a shiny appearance.
 After mature bolls have opened, honeydew may produce sticky lint. Honeydew may also
serve as a substrate for the growth of a sooty mold, which stains lint and reduces color
grade.
Pest Management
 Treat only when high numbers of aphids are severely infesting plants, populations are
building, and the margins of terminal leaves are drooping.
 Aphids will cause more damage when plants are suffering from lack of moisture, and
there are few signs of natural control agents. If there is evidence of widespread parasitism
(dead aphids, tan colored and swollen in appearance) and/or fungal pathogens (diseased
aphid bodies have a grayish-green colored fuzzy appearance) an insecticide should not be
applied.
 Avoid unnecessary insecticide applications to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton in June
or July, as subsequent reductions in beneficial populations can result in damage from
bollworm and fall armyworm.
2.3.1.2 Cotton Jassids

 Jassids form an important group of sap-sacking insects. They feed on plants
belonging to many unrelated groups.
 Life history: The leaf hoppers remain active throughout the year, except during the
cold months when only the adults are mate with. The peak period of their activity is
from July to September. Eleven generation have been recorded.
 The adults vary considerably in size (3-3-5.5 mm in length) and color, but all are
long and narrow. The wings are transparent and usually pale yellow.
 The adult insect survive for 5-7 weeks. During this period the female usually lays
30-35 eggs singly in the leaf veins and stems. These eggs hatch in to nymphs. The
nymph is mostly light green.
 It has a characteristic way of quickly walking diagonally in relation to the
orientation of its body. One generation is completed in 2-6 weeks.
 Both the nymphs and adults are capable of moving in all the directions. They prefer
shady places and, thus are mostly found on the underside of the leaves.
Nature of damage:
Both the adults and nymphs are destructive as they suck sap mostly from the underside of
leaves. The injury by the insect is far more severe than the numbers of the insects on the
plants warrant, and it is suspected that a toxin is injected in to the plant tissues by the insect,
in the course of its feeding, as a result of which the characteristics symptoms develop:
a) The initial damage is noticed by the yellowing of leaf margins. Continuous
excessive infestation results in the development of brown patches (hopper burns),
distortion of leaves and their curling upwards. Defoliation may take place.
Consequently, the fruiting-capacity of the infested plants is badly affected.
b) Some species of Jassids also act as the vectors of diseases. It results in remarkable
reduction in the leaf size, alteration of the leaf shape and texture, shortening of the
internodes and absence of normal fertile flowers;
 The diseased plants become bushy.
 The plants may be affected in all stages of growth.
 The flowers are shed and, in the cases of appearance of the disease after the
formation of the flowers, the fruits seldom set. Thus, in all conditions, the
diseased plants fail to produce frits.
c) The leaf hoppers secrete honey-dew which invites the honey-feeding ants and also
encourages the attack of sooty mould.
Pest Management:
 The pest on the cotton, potato and tomato can be controlled by spraying
recommended insecticides.
 Starting with the appearance of the pest, the sprays should be applied at 15-day
intervals. The treatment must not be given within three weeks of harvest.
2.3.1.3 Cotton Thrips (Order Thysanoptera)

 Cotton thrips and flower thrips are two of the most damaging pests. Other species of
thrips also thrive here.
 Immature and adult thrips are tiny, slender, and vary in color. They live mainly in flowers
and can be seen walking and feeding on leaves and other plant parts.
 Adults are very active and when disturbed move quickly and disperse. Their mouthparts
can be either chewing or piercing-sucking types.
 Hosts: Beans, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, cucumbers, garlic, leeks,
shallots, onions, green peas, and potatoes.
Nature of Damage
 Cotton seedling thrips are the most common of a number of thrips species found on
cotton. Infestations may occur at any stage of the crop but are only important on
seedlings.
 Damage at seedling stage may result in loss of vigour or death of the terminal shoot
followed by unwanted branching of the plant. Such damage is most severe when growth
is slowed down by cold weather or dry conditions, but even then the seedlings rarely die.
 The infestations in seedling cotton result from thrips which have multiplied on numerous
weeds during spring. The insect is readily controlled in cotton by insecticide sprays.
 Damage caused by large numbers of feeding thrips appears silvery in color and plants can
die. Feeding on young fruit may result in scarring and russeting. Thrips are most
damaging in the early stages of a crop; plants might have difficulty recovering.
 Some species can transmit viruses. For example, Western flower thrips, tobacco thrips,
and onion thrips transmit Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV). Onion thrips transmit Iris
Yellow Spot Virus, which was devastating in the early 2000s in the Pacific Northwest.
Pest Management
 Generally a soil insecticide used at planting will protect seedling plants from the severe
stunting that is characteristic of thrips injury. Occasionally, however, conditions will be
unfavorable for proper uptake of systemic insecticides (too cool, dry soil, excessive
moisture, etc.) and plants can be severely damaged.
 Foliar treatments will be most effective when applied to cotton seedlings prior to
unfolding of the second true leaf. At this growth stage a foliar insecticide treatment may
be needed when two or more thrips are found per plant. Shake each plant (randomly
select 25 or more) into a coffee cup or a similar utensil to facilitate counting.
 When most plants have severely damaged growing points and immature thrips are
present, one or more foliar treatments may be needed to allow the plants to resume
normal growth and development. Examine plants 5-7 days after the initial treatment, and
treat again if immatures are still present on most plants.
 When the newly unfolded leaves of infested plants are free of damage, and plants appear
to be growing at a normal rate, further applications of insecticides will have little benefit.
 Treatments applied beyond the four-leaf stage of growth may actually be

counterproductive, as these would likely reduce beneficial populations and result in early
season problems with other pests.
2.3.1.4 Cotton white flies (Order Homoptera)

 Adults are tiny, moth-like insects that inhabit undersurfaces of leaves and cause damage
by penetrating tissue and removing plant sap with piercing-sucking mouthparts.
 In general, whiteflies go through an egg stage, four nymphal stages, and an adult form.
Only the first nymphal stage (crawler) is mobile. Nymphs are flat, elliptical in shape, and
clear or creamy yellowish in color.
 Hosts: Whiteflies are particularly problematic on tomatoes, squash, cucumbers, beans,
and other crops in both field and greenhouse production.
Nature of damage
 Both nymphs and adults feed on leaves and other plant parts. Excess sugar (excrement)
causes accumulation of honeydew and subsequent growth of sooty mold.
 Some species of Cotton White fly transmit diseases such as Tomato Mottle Virus
(ToMoV) or Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus (TYLCV).
 Direct crop damage occurs when whiteflies feed in plant phloem, remove plant sap, and
reduce plant vigor. With high populations, plants may die.
Pest Management
 Treat fruiting cotton when 50% of plant terminals have whiteflies present in heavy
clusters on the undersides of leaves and immatures are present.
 Treat mature cotton when clusters of whiteflies are present in terminals, bolls are
opening, and honeydew is found. Infestations are rare and usually banded-winged
whiteflies. Use higher rates for suppression of difficult-to-control silver leaf whiteflies.
 Chemical control of whiteflies is expensive and difficult.
 Take into account factors such as thorough coverage (most whiteflies are located on the
underside of the leaves), risk of secondary pest outbreaks, risk of whiteflies developing
insecticide resistance, and regulatory restrictions on use of insecticides.
 Many natural enemies, such as parasitic wasps, can provide effective biological control,
especially under greenhouse situations.
2.3.1.5 Red Spider mite

 Infestations of two spotted mites in cotton begin at the base of the main leaf veins and
spread rapidly over the leaf.
 Sucking of the tissues results in leaf mottling and yellowing and in depressed growth of
the plants.
 As the severity of the attack increases the leaves wilt and then die and fall.
 Early infestation results in loss of yield. Infestation when the crop is near maturity may
be an advantage since the resulting defoliation facilitates harvesting.
 The mite problem is often induced by excessive use of insecticides against other cotton
pests since this kills natural enemies of two-spotted mite and thereby allows its numbers
to increase.
 Infestations of mites are often flared by extremely hot and dry weather conditions.
 Applications of insecticides for other pests may also flare infestations of spider mites by
reducing the numbers of beneficial arthropods that prey upon them.
 Initial infestations occur from spider mites moving from wild host plants or other crops
into border rows of cotton. Yellow speckling on the upper surfaces of leaves (in
proximity to petiole attachment) will be the first indication of a mite infestation.
 As mites continue to feed on the undersides of leaves, the upper surfaces will become
reddened. Early recognition of these symptoms, and spot treating infested areas, will
often prevent spider mites from spreading throughout a field.
Pest Management
 Infestations of spider mites usually appear in border rows of a field or sometimes in
isolated spots within a field.
 When mites first appear, treating border rows or spot treating may prevent outbreaks.
2.3.4 Cotton Boll Worm

Nature of Damage
 African bollworms may attack cotton throughout the life of the crop. The most severe
damage occurs when the larva penetrates the green boll. These results in the direct loss of
one or two locules of cotton but, by allowing entry of boll rotting organisms, may also result
in the total loss of the boll.
 When a square or young boll is attacked, the fruit form is invariably shed by the plant. Rough
bollworms also bore into plant terminals and in young seedlings this damage may cause the
death of the plant.
 Later damage to terminals causes the plant to branch and may delay crop maturity.
 Bollworm can be particularly troublesome in cotton planted in recently cleared Bush land
and newly-developed irrigation areas. The reason for this is the abundance of its wild host,
which results in the development of large populations of the pest.
Pest management:
 Considerable reduction in numbers of bollworm can be achieved by cultural methods.
These include:
 destroying natural host plants in and around the crop,
 destroying volunteer cotton plants outside the crop area and
 disposing of crop residues by slashing and ploughing as soon as possible after
harvest.
 To control Bollworms and pink boll worm – Endosulfan 0.07% and Triazophos 0.1%.
2.3.4.2 Pink spotted bollworm (Pectinophora scutigera (Holdaway))

Cotton is the main host and the larvae overwinter in un harvested bolls and crop residues.
Nature of Damage
 The moth flies at night and lays very small, cream-colored eggs which hatch in about 3
days.
 The larvae bore into green bolls and to a lesser extent into squares. They mature and
pupate in the bolls, the life cycle taking 4 to 6 weeks.
Pest management:
 Cultural control methods such as the elimination of ratoon or stand over cotton, the
slashing and burial of crop residues during winter, followed by irrigation, greatly reduce
the numbers of overwintering larvae.
 Careful scouting of green bolls is essential if insecticidal control is to be effective.
2.3.4.3 Sudan boll worm

Biology and Life cycle:
 Bollworm moths have deposited their eggs on cotton plants, and the eggs will begin
hatching in about three days. Eggs are deposited singly, generally on the upper leaf
surfaces in the top six inches of the plant terminals.
 By mid-July or later, moths may deposit a higher percentage of eggs lower on the
plants—on leaves, squares, stems, and even blooms or dried blooms (bloom tags).
Nature of damage:
 Bollworm (corn earworm) is a key insect pest of cotton because it will infest most fields
every year. Infestations are most likely to occur in July, after moths that have emerged
from cornfields begin to deposit eggs on cotton plants.
 Moth flights will usually begin within the period from July, where infestations generally
don’t materialize before the last July.
Pest Management:
 Scouts should check whole plants for bollworm eggs and larvae and examine the
following fruiting forms on each plant: a white bloom, a pink bloom and the two smallest
bolls.
 Remove bloom tags to look for damage on the tips of small bolls where bollworm larvae
often gain entry.
 Treatment thresholds for bollworm in second-generation are currently being re-evaluated,
but the best available options are to consider intervention when egg numbers approach
100 or more per 100 plants for consecutive weeks, when three large (>0.25 inch in
length) larvae are found per 100 plants, or when 5% of bolls are damaged by bollworm.
 After first bloom, insecticide should be applied at 20 or more eggs, 3 small larvae, or 5%
damaged squares per 100 plants.
 Insecticide applications will be triggered when the numbers of eggs, bollworms, or

damage reach economic levels (economic thresholds). Scouting for eggs and hatching
larvae is a responsibility of a cotton scout.
 Cotton fields should be checked at least once a week, from seedling emergence
 More frequent scouting is recommended from early to hatch-out of bollworm larvae.
 Weekly field visits should continue until most plants have reached a stage of maturity
considered relatively safe from insect damage.
 Avoiding consecutive applications of insecticides for bollworm would be one possible
tactic to delay development of resistance.
2.4 .INSECT PESTS OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS

2.4.1 Irish Potato
i. Potato tuber moth (Phthorimeae operculella)
ii. Potato Epilachna (Epilachna hirta)
2.4.1.1 Potato Epilachna beetle (Phtorimeaea operculella)

Family: Cocinellidae
Order: Coleoptera
Host plants:
 Cucurbits, maize,sorghum,finger,millet,wheat,cotton,sesame,lettuce and potato, Soybean,
cowpea and solanaceous weed.
 Hemispherical black spotted red beetles.
 Larvae stage brown and spiny.
Life History
Eggs:- Pale yellow, elongate oval with comb like hexagonal sculpturing
 They are laid in clusters usually on the underside of the leaves and placed vertically each
cluster with 22- 50 eggs and about 12 cluster by one female.
 Incubation takes place 4 - 5 days.
Larvae:- pale yellow covered with delicate spines when first hatched.
-The young larvae start feeding soon after hatching, making rows of small windows in
the leaves
-Fully developed larvae are dark yellow broad with dark heads and strong branched
spines and 6 - 7 mm long. Larvae development takes about 16 days. Larvae disperse from
plant to plant.
Pupa:- Potato Epilachna beetle pupation takes place on the leaves of host plant and pupa is dark
yellow.
Adult:-Looks like the ladybird but have distinction of being the only phytophagous.
-Representative of this family (cocincllidae) they are strong fliers.
-The whole life cycle takes about 30 - 50 days under optimum condition and in Africa
there are five generation per year.
-Adult phytophagous unlike the other ladybirds
Nature of Damage
 Both adults and larvae feed on the leaves of the plant and fruits of cucurbits
 Leaves are skeletonized, the veins and one epidermis being left intact.
 Stems are gnawed and holes are eaten in the fruits.
 Both adults and larvae feed on the leaves and fruits of cucurbits and other crops.
 The leaves are eaten between the veins or the leaves are skeletonized, the veins and
one epidermis being left intact stems are often gnawed and holes are eaten in the
fruits.
Pest Management
 Hosts plants cucurbit, maize, sorghum, finger millet, wheat cotton sesame lettuce and
potato. Soybean and cowpea in North America and Solanaceous weeds. Hemispherical
black spotted red beetles
 Larvae stage brown and spiny.
 Destroy wild hosts growing near the cultivated area.
 Use of insecticides.
 Carbaryl 85% WP 1.5kg/ha.
 Malthion 50% ec 2 1t/ha.

Order Lepidopetra
Family Gelichiidae
 The insect has been spread all over the world wherever Solanum tuberosuni is grown.
The moth is grayish brown with darker patterns on the forewing and a wing span of 1.5
cm.
 The fore wings have dark spots and hind wings are dirty white, the moths are very short
lived.
Hosts: Potato main
 Tomato- it attacks leaves of tomato (mining) and fruits of tomato (tomato fruit
worm
 Tobacco- it mines leaves of tobacco (tobacco leaf miner).
 Other solanceous plants - Beta vulgariscs
Life History: minute, laid singly on the underside of the leaf or in tubers (store or field) near the
eye or sprout,
 Each female lay from 150 to 250 eggs
 Hatching date - 3 to 15 days
 Pupation takes place in a cocoon in the surface litter or just under the surface of the tuber
 One generation takes 3 - 4 weeks
 There can be 12 generations per year.
 The moths are short lived.
Nature of Damage:
 The leaves have silver blotches caused by the young larvae mining in the leaves leaf
veins, petioles and stems are tunneled. The mines increase in size as they approach the
base of the stem. This is followed by wilting of plants. Eventually the tubers are bored by
the larger caterpillars and they often become infected with fungi or bacteria.
 Similar damage is observed tobacco which results in the leaves being completely
unusable. They are also called tobacco leaf miner.
 Caterpillars may feed on the leaves mining between the upper and lower epidermis or
fastening two leaves together and feeding between them.
 When fully grown it is greenish white with a black head about 12mm long.
 Potato Tuber moth wide distribution all over the world.
 Moth, greyish brown with darker patterns.
 Forewings, dirty white hind wing.

 Adults short lived.
Pest Management:
 Cultural control methods especially destroy wild hosts growing near the
cultivated area.
 Use of recommended insecticides at the recommended rate and time.
2.4.2 Sweet Potato insect pests

2.4.2.1 Sweet Potato butter fly (Acraea acerata) (Epelepelet)
Nature of damage
 The larvae feed on the leaves. Complete defoliation may result from severe attacks. Out
breaks usually at the start of the dry season.
Pest management
 Clean un infested planting material should always be used. Handpicking the larvae off the
leaves and destroying their webbed nests is effective if labor is easily available.
 Early planting and harvesting enable the crop to escape severe attacks.
 Ants prey on the larvae, and there are several larval and pupal parasites.
 Inter-cropping sweet potato with onion/or the silver leaf Desmodium uncinatum might reduce
the number of eggs laid.
 Severe outbreaks might warrant the use of contact insecticides.
2.4.2.2 Sweet potato Weevil, Cylas formicarius (Fabricius) (Insecta: Coleoptera: Brentidae
(=Curculionidae)
Life Cycle and Description

 A complete life cycle requires one to two months, with 35 to 40 days being common during
the summer months.
 The generations are indistinct, and the number of generations occurring annually is estimated
to be from five to eight.
 Adults do not undergo a period of diapause in the winter, but seek shelter and remain inactive
until the weather is favorable.
 All stages can be found throughout the year if suitable host material is available.
Egg:
 Eggs are deposited in small cavities created by the female with her mouthparts in the sweet
potato root or stem.
 The female deposits a single egg at a time, and seals the egg within the oviposition cavity
with a plug of fecal material, making it difficult to observe the egg.
 Most eggs tend to be deposited near the juncture of the stem and root (tuber). Sometimes the
adult will crawl down cracks in the soil to access tubers for oviposition, in preference to
depositing eggs in stem tissue.
 Females apparently produce two to four eggs per day, or 75 to 90 eggs during their life span
of about 30 days.
Larva:
 When the egg hatches the larva usually burrows directly into the tuber or stem of the plant.
Those hatching in the stem usually burrow down into the tuber.
 The larva is legless (Fig.1), white in color, and displays three instars.
 Temperature is the principal factor affecting larval development rate, with larval
development (not including the prepupal period) occurring in about 10 and 35 days at 30o
and 24o C, respectively.
 The larva creates winding tunnels packed with fecal material as it feeds and grows.
Pupa:
 The mature larva creates a small pupal chamber in the tuber or stem.
 The pupa is similar to the adult in appearance, although the head and elytra are bent
ventrally.
 The pupa measures about 6.5 mm in length. Initially the pupa is white, but with time this
stage becomes grayish in color with darker eyes and legs.
 Duration of the pupal stage averages 7 to 10 days, but in coolweather it may be extended to
up to 28 days.
Adult:
 Normally the adult emerges from the pupation site by chewing a hole through the exterior of
the plant tissue, but sometimes it remains for a considerable period and feeds within the
tuber.
 The adult is striking in form and color. The body, legs, and head are long and thin, giving it
an ant-like appearance. The head is black, the antennae, thorax and legs orange to reddish
brown, and the abdomen and elytra are metallic blue.
 The snout is slightly curved and about as long as the thorax; the antennae are attached at
about the midpoint on the snout.
 The beetle appears smooth and shiny, but close examination shows a layer of short hairs.
 The adult measures 5.5 to 8.0 mm in length. Under laboratory conditions at 15 C, adults can
live over 200 days if provided with food and about 30 days if starved. In contrast, their
longevity decreases to about three months if held at 30o C with food, and eight days without
food.
 Adults are secretive; often feeding on the lower surface of leaves, and are not readily noticed.
 The adult is quick to feign death if disturbed.
 Adults can fly, but seem to do so rarely and in short, low flights. However, because they are
active mostly at night, their dispersive abilities are probably underestimated.
 Females feed for a day or more before becoming sexually active, but commence oviposition
shortly after mating; the average preoviposition period is seven days. A sex pheromone
produced by females has been identified and synthesized.
Host Plants
 This weevil feeds on plants in the plant family Convolvulaceae. Although it has been
found associated with several genera, its primary hosts are in the genus Ipomoea.
 Among vegetable crops only sweet potato, I. batatas, is a suitable host. Native plants can
be important hosts of sweet potato weevil.
 Railroad vine, Ipomoea pes-caprae, and morning glory, I. panduratea, are among the
suitable wild hosts.
Natural Enemies
 Several natural enemies such as Wasps are known. Among predators, ants (Hymenoptera:
Formicidae) seem to be most important.
 Diseases, especially the fungus Beauveria bassiana, have been observed to inflict high
levels of mortality under conditions of high humidity and high insect density, but field
conditions are rarely conducive for disease epizootics.
Damage
 Sweet potato weevil is often considered to be the most serious pest of sweet potato, with
reports of losses rang in from 5 to 97% in areas where the weevil occurs.
 There is a positive relationship between vine damage or weevil density, and tuber damage.
However, the plants exhibited some compensatory ability, with the relationship between vine
damage and yield non-linear, and sometimes not significant.
 A symptom of infestation by sweet potato weevil is yellowing of the vines, but a heavy
infestation is usually necessary before this is apparent. Thus, incipient problems are easily
overlooked, and damage not apparent until tubers are harvested.
 The principal form of damage to sweet potato is mining of the tubers by larvae. The infested
tuber is often riddled with cavities, spongy in appearance, and dark in color.
 In addition to damage caused directly by tunneling, larvae cause damage indirectly by
facilitating entry of soil-borne pathogens. Even low levels of feeding induce a chemical
reaction that imparts a bitter taste and terpene odor to the tubers.
 Larvae also mine the vine of the plant, causing it to darken, crack, or collapse.
 The adult may feed on the tubers, creating numerous small holes that measure about the
length of its head.
 The adult generally has limited access to the tubers, however, so damage by this stage is less
severe than by larvae. Adult feeding on the foliage seldom is of consequence.
Pest Management
a) Cultural Practices
 Cultural practices are sometimes recommended to alleviate weevil problem.
 Isolation is frequently recommended, and it is advisable to locate new fields away from
previous crops and distant from sweet potato storage facilities, because both can be a source
of new infestations. However, despite the infrequency of flight by adults, dispersal can occur
over considerable distances.
 Dispersal rates of 150 m per day have been observed, with dispersal more rapid in the
absence of suitable hosts.
 Sanitation is particularly important for weevil population management.

 Discarded tubers and un harvested tubers can support large population, and every effort
should be made to remove such host material. Related to this, of course, is the destruction of
alternate hosts; control of Ipomoea weeds is recommended.
b) Biological Control
 Entomopathogenic nematodes seem to be the organisms with the greatest potential for
practical biological suppression of sweetpotato weevil.
 Several strains of Steinernema carpocapsae (Nematoda: Steinernematidae) and
Heterorhabditis bacteriophora (Nematoda: Heterorhabditidae) penetrate the soil and tubers,
killing weevil larvae.
 In some cases nematodes are more effective than insecticides at reducing damage.
c) Chemical/Insecticides
 Planting time and applications of insecticides are commonly made to the soil to prevent
injury to the slips or cuttings.
 Either granular or liquid formulations are used, and systemic insecticides are preferred. Post
plant applications are sometimes made to the foliage for adult control, especially if fields are
likely to be invaded from adjacent areas, but if systemic insecticide is applied some
suppression of larvae developing in the vine may also occur.
 Due to the long duration of the plant growth period, it is not uncommon for pre-plant or
planting time applications to be followed by one or more insecticide applications to the plant
or soil at mid-season.
 Insecticides are also applied to tubers being placed into storage to prevent re-infestation and
inoculation of nearby fields.
2.4.3 Insect Pests of Onion

2.4.3.1 Onion Thrips
 Host Plants: The onion thrips is a major pest of onion and garlic although it also attacks
many wild and cultivated crops, including vegetable crops, such as Brassica and
cucurbitaceous vegetables, peas, tomato and potato.
 Life history: The onion thrips is active throughout the year. It appears on onion and garlic
during November. A long spell of dry weather is favorable for the rapid multiplication of the
pest.
 There is 5-10 generation in a year. The adults (1mm in length) are yellowsh-brown. The
males are wingless and scarce. The females on the other hand, have wings which have long
hair on the hind margins. The longevity of the adult female is 2-4 weeks.
 The females reproduce sexually, but more commonly as the males are scarce.
 The female lays 50-60 eggs singly in lists that are cut in the tissues of the plant with the help
of her ovipositor.
 The eggs hatch to produce nymphs. The nymphs, which in general resemble the adults, are
wingless and slightly smaller.
 They are found in large numbers at the bases of leaves. These pass through a resting-stage
called pupa mostly, in the soil. The adults feed anywhere on the leaf.
 The life-cycle is completed in 2-3 weeks.
Nature of damage
 Both the nymphs and the adults scratch the leaf surface which their mouth parts and feeding
on the oozing parts. The infested leaves develop white patches and streaks (silver blast or
white blight). The damage is of three types:
a) As the injury increases, the leaves curls up get distorted. The vitality of plants is
greatly lowered and, in case of severe infestation, may even wither away.
b) The pest is usually active at the time of flowering. In such cases, both the yield
and viability of the seeds are adversely affected.
c) The thrips also acts as a vector of virus diseases in the case of tomato.
Pest management:
 The pest can be managed by spraying recommended insecticides like, malathion 0.05% as
soon as the pest appeared.
2.4.4 Insect Pests of Cabbage

2.4.4.1 Cabbage aphid
 About half of a dozen species of aphids attack several vegetable and field crops and
ornamental plants both in the winter and summer.
 Special mention may be made of cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, cauliflower, turnip,
radish and other vegetables notably potatoes, peas and cucurbits.
Life history
 The aphids reproduce throughout the year though they are more active from October to
March, when the cruciferous crops are in flowering.
 The aphids are wing less in the winter. The winged forms are produced during the autumn
and particularly in the spring when large scale dispersal takes place. By this time, the
predatory ladybird beetles increase in number to effect substantial reduction the population of
the aphids.
 The climate condition also becomes un favorable. The pest is therefore, usually of little
significance during the summer and most of the autumn.
 The various species of aphids (1-2.5 mm and in the pea aphid even 3-4 mm in length) are
strikingly similar in their structure, biology and habitat.
 The aphids reproduce sexually as well as asexually, the latter being more common. The
wingless forms that are mostly seen on the plants are all females which have the ability to
reproduce young without mating.
 Each insect gives birth up to 140 offspring (at the rate of 2-12offspring per day) which
resembles the adults except the size. They usually become adult within a few days (3-9 days).
The cloudy, moist and cold weather favors their multiplication. Heavy rains, however,
decrease their population.
 The pest is capable of rapidly increasing its population due to:
i. Reproduction by all individuals without mating
ii. Short life cycle
iii. Larger number of generation in a year and,
iv. Normally low mortality during development and growth.
Nature of Damage
 Both the active stages, i.e. nymphs and adults are destructive. They cause damage in a
number of ways:
i. They suck the sap of plants particularly from the leaves, young shoots, inflorescence and
developing-seed pods, with the help of their piercing and sucking type of mouth parts.
The aphid itself makes little contribution by way of sucking, because the liquid is
released by the turgor pressure within the plant. Injection of saliva, sometimes
phytotoxic, may accompany the penetration of the mouth parts. The feeding of aphids,
particularly when they build-up their population quickly on the host plants, lowers the
vitality of the plants which may even wither away. Otherwise, the leaves turn pale and
dry up. The plants remain stunted and the formation of flowers and pods is adversely
affected. The pods that develop may get shriveled and the seeds may not be formed.
ii. They excrete in abundance liquid with a high sugar content (honey dew) on which black
mould develops. The development of fungus not only gives an unpleasant appearance to
the plants, but also retards the manufacture of food by the green leaves in the presence of
sun light. Consequently, it adversely affects the growth of plants.
iii. Aphids as a group are responsible for the transmission of large number of plant virus than
any other single group of insects. Some types of the aphids, e.g. the peach green aphids
cause little damage, owing to their low populations. Even such aphids, however, may be
disastrous for the crop because of their capacity to transmit virus diseases of the plant.
They cause more damage to potato by transmitting virus disease like potato leaf-roll,
potato virus ‘Y’ and potato virus ‘A’ than by sucking sap from the plants. This virus may
cause 10-80% loss in the yield, besides the degeneration of the seed stocks.
iv. The migrating winged aphids get in to the eyes, particularly of the cyclists. They thus,
cause nuisance in the sense of personal discomfort.
v. The presence of aphids on vegetables reduces their acceptable to the customers.
Pest Management
 Many parasitoids and predators attack aphids. Among the parasitoids are minute wasp-
like insects, the larvae of which live in the aphids and kill them. Mainly the predators are
the syrphid-fly larvae, the ladybird beetles and the aphid lions. They devour many aphids,
particularly when the weather is worm. These agents of control, however, do not always
prevent serious damage to the crops.
 Aphids on mustard meant for saag (green leafy vegetables) purposes can be controlled by
giving recommended rate of insecticides like; Malathion. A waiting-period of one week
should be observed after spraying to pluck the saag.
 The mustard aphid also attacks the late-season crops of cabbage and cauliflower. The pest
can be controlled by spraying.
2.4.4.2 Diamnod back moth

Pest description
 Diamondback moth larvae, despite their small size, can be very destructive to cole crops.
Eggs are laid singly or in small groups on the undersides of lower leaves. Eggs are small,
yellowish-white and somewhat football-shaped.
 Larvae are small, yellowish-green, spindle shaped, and have a forked tail. When mature,
larvae are 5/16 inch in length.
 The pupae are found in a gauze-like cocoon attached to leaves or stems of the cabbage
plant.
 The moth has a small, slender, grayish-brown body with folded wings. The wings of the
male form three yellow diamond-shaped spots where they meet.
Nature of damage
 Larvae feed on all plant parts, but prefer to feed around the bud of young plants.
 The young larvae mine between the upper and lower leaf surfaces. Look for young larvae
emerging from small holes in the underside of the leaf.
 Older larvae create irregular shot holes while leaving the upper surface intact. Larvae
often drop from the plant on silk threads as soon as the leaf is disturbed.
Pest Management
 Monitoring should begin when the plants are young. During cupping, larvae that feed on
heart leaves are difficult to find unless the outer leaves are pulled back.
 Heart leaves of pre-heading plants should be examined if feeding damage is present.
Their feeding on the bud may cause malformation of the cabbage head.
2.4.4.3 Cabbage sawfly

Description
 Cabbage sawfly was considered a serious pest of brassicas in the early 20th century but
was thought to have been eradicated until the 1940s when it started to re-appear again as
a pest and to establish itself in central, southern and eastern counties.
 Incidence of this species has, however, been increasing in recent years on vegetable
brassica crops and cases of quite severe crop damage.
 The adults are yellow and black in color, around 7-8 mm in length. Recent adult sawfly
activity in oilseed rape crops is likely to have been favored by the warmer than average
weather as the adults fly only at temperatures above 18 °C.
 Larvae are greenish black in color and they feed gregariously on leaves which can
quickly be skeletonised. The larvae are described as general and potentially severe
feeders on the leaves of brassica plants, including oilseed rape.
Nature of damage
 Further cases of severe damage have been seen on stubble turnips. Earlier, second
generation, damage was seen in some crops of stubble turnips. The presence of such
crops (also mustard and vegetable brassica crops) in an area is likely to have led to
increased risk. A third generation occurs after hot summers and the arrival of the adults in
oilseed rape then coincides with the early stages of crop emergence.
 It is possible that many of the most vigorous crops may be able to compensate for larval
damage. More late crops that emerged slowly from drier seedbeds are potentially at
greater risk of significant defoliation by virtue of their lower green leaf area indices.
 Leaf damage may also be due to slug grazing or caused by cabbage stem flea beetle
adults. Cabbage sawfly larvae are likely to be feeding gregariously and they should
therefore be readily visible on damaged leaves.
Pest Management
 Where severe damage to leaves occurs, a spray with a pyrethroid insecticide (one of the
many with approval for control of cabbage stem flea beetle on oilseed rape) may be
necessary.
2.4.4.4 Cabbage flea beetle

Description
 Flea beetles may take small bites, but they can add up to big problems. Their feeding on
the leaves of solanaceous crops like eggplant, peppers, and tomato can delay the
establishment of seedlings or even kill them. The same is true for brassica crops, like
cabbage and kale, with the additional concern that damage to foliage reduces
marketability, even if it doesn’t affect yield. And, flea beetles don’t just attack leaves; in
their larval stage they feed on roots, too.
 Some species of flea beetles, like the corn flea beetle, will attack many different crops,
but most species prefer a small group of related plants. On vegetable farms one can find
the horseradish flea beetle, potato flea beetle, and spinach flea beetle, to name a few.
Some of the most problematic flea beetles are two that attack or brassicas, or crucifers:
the crucifer flea beetle, which is all black, and the striped flea beetle, which is black with
two light tan stripes on its back.
Life Cycle.
 Flea beetles overwinter as adults under soil and leaf litter in brushy or woody areas
surrounding fields, rather than in grassy areas right next to fields.
 Flea beetles emerge in early spring when temperatures reach about 50 degrees, feeding on
weeds or crops, if available. Females soon lay their eggs in the soil at the base of these
plants.
 Eggs hatch in a week or two and the larvae feed on plants until fully grown. Then they
pupate in the soil for 11 to 13 days before emerging as adults. Delaying the planting dates of
susceptible crops until after the overwintering beetles have emerged is one way to reduce
damage to young plants.
Hosts: On common brassica vegetable crops, such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage,
cauliflower, collards, and kale, the first leaves to emerge on these crops are very attractive to flea
beetles, but as the plants grow and the leaves become waxier it is difficult for beetles to grasp
and feed on them. So, once seedlings have grown beyond the two or three-leaf stage, flea beetles
tend to be less of a threat.
Nature of damage:
 Some brassica crops, especially those of Asian origin, have non-waxy leaves, which are
easier for beetles to get a hold of and feed on. These crops include: cabbage, turnip,
mustards, red and Russian kale.
 Other highly attractive brassicas include radish, daikon and arugula. These crops remain
vulnerable to flea beetle damage at all stages of their growth.
 Trap Cropping:
o Flea beetle preferences can be used against them, by planting a trap crop that is highly
attractive near a less attractive crop.
o To be most effective, the trap crop should be planted completely around a field, rather
than just in single rows. That way the trap crop can ‘intercept’ beetles wherever they
try and enter the field.
o In order to keep the beetles from leaving the trap crop and moving to the adjacent
main crop, they should be controlled with an insecticide soon after their arrival.
o Mustard has worked well as a trap crop. It is best to make multiple sowings, several
days apart, to provide an ample and continuous supply of attractive, young mustard
plants that protect the main crop adequately. Do not let the mustard go to seed, or it
could become a weed in future plantings.
Pest management:
 Scouting:
o Whether you use a trap crop or not, newly planted fields should be scouted for flea
beetles and flea beetle damage every day or two while plants are small and unable to
tolerate much damage. Beetles can move into a field very quickly.
o When scouting, it’s easier to count the beetles if the leaves are not disturbed. If
there’s an average of 2 to 5 beetles per plant, some control is probably needed to
prevent crop loss. The lower number applies to smaller seedlings. Larger plants can
withstand more feeding injury.
 Chemicals:
o For conventional growers, pesticides containing pyrethroids or carbamates (Sevin) are
generally effective.
o On organic farms, rotenone was often used in the past, but it is not ideal because it is
has a relatively high mammalian toxicity and its availability has become limited.
o Other materials often recommended for organic farms include neem or insecticidal
soap but recent research indicates that these are not very effective.
o Other insecticides containing pyrethrins (Pyganic) or kaolin clay (Surround) have
worked well in some studies but not others. Good control has consistently been
obtained with the organic pesticide containing spinosad (Entrust) but this product is
not yet labeled for flea beetle control.
o Insect repellents containing hot pepper or garlic may also provide some control. If
you are an organic grower check with your certifying agent to be sure any material
you use is approved for your use.
o Commercial formulations of entomopathogenic nematodes may be helpful in
reducing flea beetle damage. Applied to the soil, the nematodes attack beetle larvae,
reducing root feeding and helping to prevent the next cycle of adults.
o For beneficial nematodes to be effective, they should be applied when larvae are
present and the soil must not be allowed to dry out.
 Row-Covers. For non-chemical control, floating row covers can be very effective at
preventing beetles from reaching the crop, if it is grown in rotation following a non-
susceptible crop (otherwise, there’s a good chance that the pest will emerge under the row
cover). Row covers must be put in place and sealed immediately after seeding or
transplanting, before beetles have a chance to find the crop, which doesn’t take long.
 Flea beetles are small and persistent, so row covers will only protect crops if there is no way
for them to get in. The covers must be carefully sealed, ideally with a continuous layer of soil
along the edge of the cover. If you use rock or sand-filled plastic bags to hold the edges
down, be sure to place them close enough that they provide a tight seal, even when the wind
is blowing.
 The older row cover gets the more tears it has, so avoid using worn row covers for flea beetle
protection since tears allow entry.
 When you remove the cover for weeding, replace it as soon as possible. If beetles do get
under the covers, control them with insecticide, then re-cover. Don’t forget to go back and
peek.
2.4.5 Tomato
 Tobacco white flies -Bemissia tabaci
 African Bollworm -Helcioverpa armigera
 Potato Tuber moth-Tomato fruit worm

Nature of Damage
 African boll worm is sporadically very serious pest of horticultural crops and beans in many
parts of Africa.
 In Ethiopia it attacks including tomato it attacks, tobacco, many legumes, some vegetables
(eg. pepper) and other plants. It extremely polyphagous and a minor pest on many cultivated
vegetable crops.
 Its damage is recognized by clean circular holes, which are bored in tomato fruits, cotton
bolls of all size and some fruits.
 It causes damage to tomato by eating the fruits. Damage is particular serious on overlapped
standing of tomato plant. The caterpillars appear on the fruit heads when the fruits are in the
ripe stage. These caterpillars also feed on whorl leaves.
Pest Management
 In case of fruits of vegetables control the pest during green pod period, and flowering
legumes are attractive to this species and will divert egg-laying females from tomato (since
the damage is more pronounced on tomato).
 For chemical control, apply recommended insecticides when caterpillars are small.
 Since African bollworm is known for showing resistance to many insecticides, mixtures of
 The best control of African bollworm, as the method of control of the pest on cereal crops,
should be dased on eggs scouting. Spraying at red egg stage or newly hatched larvae gives
excellent control of bollworm.
 As far as natural enemies of ABW is concerned, there are Hymenopterous and Dipterous
parasitoids recorded so far and exert a certain level of control.
2.4.5.2 Tobacco white flies (cotton white flies)

Hemiptera (Homoptera)
Aleyrodidae
Bemisia tabaci
 Hosts: Main hosts- Cotton, Tomato, Tobacco, Sweet potato and cassava
Alternative hosts - a very wide range of wild and cultivated plants

 Tobacco white fly is a minor pest of cotton, but a sporadically serious pest of tomato and
tobacco.
 Attacks are common during the dry seasons but disappear rapidly with onset of rain. It is
important for transmission of virus diseases.
 Recognition: Small white scale like insects present on the underside of leaves. If the
plant is shaken cloud of very small white moth like insects flutter away, but rapidly
resettle.
 Life history: The eggs are about 0.2 mm long and pear shaped it stands upright on the
leaves anchored at the larger end by a tail like appendage inserted into a stoma.
 When the nymphs hatch they only move a very short distance before settling down again
and start to feed.
 Once settled they do not move again. All nymphal instars are greenish white, oval in
outline scale like and somewhat spiny.
 The last instars (the so called pupa) is about 7mm long and the red eyes of the adult can be
seen through its transparent integument. The total nymphal period lasts 2-4 weeks
according to the temperature.
 Adult: is a minute four winged insect about 1 mm long. The whole insect is covered with
a white waxy bloom. The female may lay 100 or more eggs.
Damage
 Sucking leaf sap chlorosis, leaf drying,
 Secreting honey dew development of soothy mold
 Vector for more than 70 viruses
Pest management:
1. Dimethoate 40% EC 1lt/ha
2. Formathion 33% EC 1lt/ha
Note The spray should be directed at the underside of the leaves.
2.4.5.3 Potato tuber moth (Phtorimeaea operculella)

Order Lepidopetra
Family Gelichiidae
Description:
 The insect has been spread all over the world wherever Solanum tuberosuni is grown.
 The moth is grayish brown with darker patterns on the forewing and a wing span of 1.5
cm.
 The fore wings have dark spots and hind wings are dirty white, the moths are very short
lived.
 When fully grown it is greenish white with a black head about 12mm long.
Potato Tuber moth
 wide distribution all over the world
 Moth, greyish brown with darker patterns on
 Forewings, Dirty white hind wing
 Adults short lived
Hosts - Potato is the main host
- Tomato, Tobacco and other solanaceous plants are attached, Beta vulgaris
-Tomato- It attacks leaves of tomato (mining) and fruits of tomato (tomato fruit
worm Tobacco it mines leaves of (tobacco (tobacco leaf miner) and other
solanceous plants
- Beta vulgariscs
Life History: -
 minute, laid singly on the underside of the leaf or in tubers (store or field) near the eye or
sprout,
 Each female lay150 - 250 eggs
 Hatching date - 3 - 15 days
 Pupation takes place in a cocoon in the surface litter or just under the surface of the tuber
 One generation takes 3 - 4 weeks
 There can be 12 generations per year.
 The moths are short lived.
Nature of Damage:
 Caterpillars may feed on the leaves mining between the upper and lower epidermis or
fastening two leaves together and feeding between them.
 The leaves have silver blotches caused by the young larvae mining in the leaves leaf
veins, petioles and stems are tunneled.
 The mines increase in size as they approach the base of the stem. This is followed by
wilting of plants. Eventually the tubers are bored by the larger caterpillars and they often
become infected with fungi or bacteria.
 Similar damage is observed tobacco which results in the leaves being completely
unusable. They are also called tobacco leaf miner.
 Leaf veins, petioles and stems are tunneled
 Tubers are bored by the larger caterpillars become infected with fungi or bacteria and rot.
2.5 PESTS OF GRAIN LEGUMES

Important insect pests of pulses in Ethiopia:
1. Bean aphid Alphis fabae
2. African bollworm. Heliccoverpa armigera (Heliothis armigera)
3. Bean fly Opjiomyia phaseoli
4. Pollen beetles Coryna Spp
5. Flower beetles Mylabris spp
6. Striped blister beetles Epicauta albovitata
2.5.1 African boll worm

Nature of Damage
 African boll worm (ABW) is sporadically very serious pest of cotton and beans in many
parts of Africa. In Ethiopia it attacks maize, sorghum, cotton beans, tobacco, tomato,
many legumes, some vegetables (eg. pepper) and other plants. It extremely polyphagous
and a minor pest on many cultivated fruits.
 Its damage is recognized by clean circular holes, which are bored in flower buds, cotton
bolls of all size and some fruits (e.g. tomato).
 It causes damage to sorghum by eating the seeds. Damage is particular serious on
compact headed sorghums. The caterpillars appear on the ear heads when the grains are
in the milk ripe stage. These caterpillars also feed on whorl leaves. A heavy infestation
can cause an almost complete loss of yield.
Pest Management
 In case of grain legumes control the pest during pod setting period.
 For chemical control, apply recommended insecticides when caterpillars are small. Since
African bollworm is known for showing resistance too many insecticides, mixtures of
 Spraying at red egg stage or newly hatched larvae gives excellent control of bollworm.
 Inspect field at list twice a week after the beans begins to set pods.
 Good spray coverage is very important, particularly doubled pods where young
caterpillars are well protected.
 Using resistant varieties of crops is one of the preferred ways of controlling the African
bollworm.
 Trap crops like pigeon pea, bean, maize and sunflower attract and divert significantly
high African bollworm populations from susceptible crops like beans/grain legumes.
2.5.2 Bean Aphid (Aphis fabcae)

Family - Aphididae
Order - Homoptera
 A sporadically serious pest of beans in many countries, and recorded as a vector of about 30
virus diseases.
 The adults are black and winged or wingless; only females are present and they produce
living
young (viviparous) which are dark greenish gray.
 One generation takes as little as seven days in favorable weather.
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, but absent from Australia Asia, and Indonesia and a large part of S.
America.
Damage
 Damage is mainly direct being loss of sap and injury to the plant tissue during feeding.
 Damage is most serious when a bad infestation develops 3 or 4 weeks after sowing
 Small soft black aphids found in clusters round the stems, under young leaves and on
young shoots.
 The infested leaves are often cupped or otherwise distorted and more or less yellow.
Pest Management:
 The aphids should be controlled before the crop becomes heavily infested.
 The use of systemic insecticides is generally more successful.
 Some of the insecticides recommended are Dimecron, Dimethoate, Diazinon, Dicholros,
Metasystox, Formothion & Malathion.
 Dimethoate - 40% Ec 11t - in 100 - 800 lt/ha water

 Formothion - 33% Ec 11t - in 100 - 800 lt/ha water
2.5.3 Bean fly (French bean fly) Bean Stem Maggot

Ophiomyia phaseoli (Melanagromyza phaseoli)
Family - Agromyzidae
Order - Diptera
Hosts:-Beans of various species include Phaseolus vicia, Glycine.
-Wide ranges of leguminous crops are alternate hosts.
Distribution: Widely distributed in Africa Australia and Asia.
Life History:
 The bean fly is a small fly about 2mm long, shinning black insect.
 Eggs are laid singly in holes on the upper surface of leaves usually near to the petiole end
of the leaf (the first pair of leaf).
 The larvae mine the leaves and petiole and penetrate later in to the stems in which they
pupate. The stems of attacked plants swell and crack near the ground level.
 Pupation takes place near the surface of the stem where the larvae have been feeding.
 The barrel shaped pupae are black or dark brown and about 3mm long.
 The total life history takes 2-3 weeks.
Damage:
 Attacked plants become yellow and stunted.
 Heavily attacked young plants, which are short of water, may dry up.
 Usually worst on the sown beans suffering from water stress.
 Longitudinal cracks of stems at ground level and development of adventitious roots
through the cracks.
Pest Management:
 Plant as soon as possible after the rain begins.
 Try to plant the whole crop in the area at the sometime
 Remove and destroy crop residues and volunteer plants after harvest and before the next
is planted.
 Avoid successive overlapping of beans (closed season).
 Dress the seeds before planting
2.5.4 Pollen beetle (Coryna spp,)

Order - Coleoptera
Family - Meloidae
Host plants- Flowers of pulses, cotton and many flowering plants.
Coryna spp is a wide spread and common pest but not economically serious.
Recognition- adults are elongate 10- 16 mm long. With a black hairy head and thorax, club
shaped antennae, smoothly flexible elytra with three transverse yellow and black strips
Damage:
The adults eat the pollen out of open flowers often destroying the anthers in
the process.
Pest Management:
Apply control measures only if heavy infestations are seen.
Carbaryl 85% WP at the rate of 1.5 kg/ha; safety period - 30 days.
2.5.5 Stripped blister beetle (Epicauta albovittata)

 Family -Meloidae
 Order - Coleoptera
Hosts:- Main hosts- pulse crops, especially ground nut and soybean
- Alterative hosts: Tomato, Potato, Capsicums
Recognition: The adults are black blister beetles 13- 20 mm with large eyes and a pale white
stripe running down to dorsum from the head and thorax and hence round the edge of the
elytra.
Damage:
 It is sporadic pest of pulses. This pest often occurs in very large numbers and may
completely defoliate a crop the beetles feed on the leaves.
 Making large irregular shaped holes in the lamina.
 The larvae are not pests.
 Striped blister beetles is particularly serious on seedlings only a pest below about
1500m.
Life History - Eggs are laid in holes in the soil in clusters of 100 or more the larvae are
predators on the egg pods of grasshoppers.
Pest Management:
a. Cultural - destroy alternative weed hosts.
b. Insecticides- chemical control is difficult because the pest has a high level of natural
2.6 CITRUS PESTS

 Some of the most important citrus insect pests are:
i. Red scale -Aionidilla aurantii
ii. Orange dog -Papilio demodocus
iii. Mediterranean fruit fly -Certitis Capitata
iv. Citrus Psyllids -Trioza erytreae
v. Cottony cushion scale -IceryapPurchasi
2.6.1 The Mediterranean Fruit Fly (Ceratitis Capitata)

Family : Tephritidae
Order : Diptera
Main Hosts- peach and citrus fruits (orange, tangerine grape fruit) It is a serious pest of many
deciduous and subtropical fruits.
Alterative host- Coffee berries, Cocoa, Ficus Mango Guava, Solanum spp. Prunus spp .
Damage-The larvae bore in to the fruit making tunnels; often accompanied by fungi and bacteria
which rot the fruit. Severely attacked fruit usually fall prematurely infested fruits can be
recognized by sunken brown spots (small).
Life History
Eggs are laid in groups in to the pulp of the fruit under the skin with help of ovipostior.
- Incubation 2-3 days

Larvae - whitish yellow maggots, bore through the fruit
- The larval period takes 10 - 14 days.
- In a single fruit 10 - 12 maggots may be found and sometimes there could be more
than 100 maggots.
Pupation - takes place in the soil (coarctate), It takes about 14 days.
The fruit usually falls down by the time the maggot comes to leave the rotted fruit
Adult-Bright decorative fly with red and blue iridescent eyes.
Pest management:
 All fallen fruits and fruits that are still on the plants but that are clearly infested should be
collected and destroyed as soon as possible to kill the maturing maggots inside.
Collection should be twice a week
 Chemical control can be achieved by use of poisoned baits, against adult insects using
trichlorophon or malathion in Protein hydrolysate sprayed on the foliage in large droplet
(blobs)
 the baits also can be hanged in small tins on the trees
 Normal sprays are not usually effective.
 Yeast products or protein hydrolysates can be used as a bait for med fly which is mixed
with Malathion and applied with manual knapsack sprayer with a coarse adjusted nozzle.
 Some baits like SUCCESS BAIT have toxicants inside
2.6.2 Orange dog (Papilio demodocus) (citrus swallow tail Butterfly)

Lemon Butterfly
Family: Papilionidae
Order: Lepidoptera
Hosts: Mainly it attacks citrus species
Distribution - Africa India Asia China and North Australia
Life History
 Eggs - Mostly laid singly on the underside of fresh leaves
- Hatch after about 4 -5 days
 Larva- has five instars

 The first three dark brown with 'white markings and resemble bird droppings
 The fourth and fifth- Pale green with black brown and gray markings
 If disturbed they shoot out a pink Y shaped organ from just behind the head
(osmeterium)
 It gives off a strong smell to repel natural enemies.
 Pupation
 Takes place on small branch
 The posterior end of the pupa touches the branch but the anterior end is about
10mm away from the branch but connected to it by stands of silk.
 Pupae vary in color from yellowish green to brown. .
 Adult brightly colored butterfly, colorful eyespots, wing span of 8cm,
forewings dark gray or blackish with numerous sulfur yellow spots of
different size
Hind wing: - with the some ground color of forewing with yellow transverse sub median band
and a number of yellow spots.
Nature of damage:
 It is usually minor pest of mature trees
 Important in nurseries and on small plants.
 The caterpillars are voracious eaters (defoliators)
 They my strip off all or majority of the leaves.
Natural enemies: The larvae are attacked by an Apanteles spp and several birds spp.
Pest management:
 Hand picking or collection of caterpillars can be carried out in nurseries and or on
individual small citrus trees (Place larvae in a tin with kerosene).
 Those caterpillars with a number of with pupae parasitic sticking to their backs should
be left (Braconid parasitoids).
 Chemical control can be achieved by using foliar spray, applied to run off of malathion,
fenthion and Fenitrothion.
2.6.3 Citrus pyslid (Trioza erytrea)

Farnily Psyllidae
Order Homoptera
Host: main citrus
 very common, usually minor pest of mature citrus
 it is found throughout Africa
 More important in nurseries.
 Growth is checked
 Plants badly distorted (disfigured)
Nature of damage
 Severe on young trees
 The nymphs (small green) settle on underside off the leaves and suck.
 Raised humps (galls) on the upper side by sucking activity
 Cuppea or distorted leaf blades
 Trioza erytrea is a vector of Greening disease (not uniform ripening caused by
mycoplasma like organisms).
Life History:
Egg - laid on the edges or main veins of very young leaves
- Hatch after 5-6 days.
Nymphs - Scale like
- It moves for short distance and then settle down and starts to feed on the
underside of the leaf (young leaf)
- Unless disturbed it doesn't move
Adult -Aphid like with transparent wing almost twice the length of their body.
-First green and turn to brown
Distribution- well distributed in Africa (East, central, North East, South Africa)
Pest management:
1. Dimethoate 10ml of 40% dimethoate EC in 10 lt of water
2. Formthion 10m1 of 33% formthion EC in 10 lt of water.
 Control measure should be applied in period of flush growth.
 Treatment of mature trees is not usually economical
 Dimethoate should not be used on rough lemon trees or on non budded rough
lemon stock.
2.6.4 Red scale (California Red scale)

Aionidella aurantii
Family: Diaspididae
Order: Homoptera
It is major pests of citrus in east Africa
Hosts - main citrus spp
Alternative host- A wide range of fruit trees and shrubs notably rosis
Distribution- Cosmopolitan throughout the tropics & S. tropics
Damage:
 Polyphagous insect
 Infestation is indicated by the presence of numerous small circular reddish- brown scales
on leaves branches and fruits
 Severe infestation may result in branch dieback, fruit and leaf drop
 Female- viviparous after mating with the two winged male
 They produce" crawlers" at the rate of 2-3 days
Pest Management:
 Application of insecticides could be started when 25% of the fruits are infested by one or
two red scales if high quality fruit are being produced.)
 Insecticides recommended
 Diazinon
 Malathion
 White oil
*Using high nozzle pressure
*Repeat spray 2-3 weeks
Natural enemies:
 Larvae & adult of lady bird beetle (pharoscymnus spp)
 Parasitic hymenopterous wasps
2.6.5 Cottony cushion scale (fluted scale) Icerya purchasi

Family: Margarodidae
Order: Homoptera
Hosts- Main citrus

Alternatives Polyphagous attacking many plants especially mango and guava Very widely
distributed throughout the world. It occurs in all citrus growing area.
Life History:
Adult female is a distinctive insect with brown body. The conspicuous part is the large white
Fluted egg sac which is secreted by the female. The egg sac contains more than 100 oblong red
eggs and nymphs.
Damage- leaves and twigs are infested with large white fluted scales.
Infested leaves turn yellow and fall Heavily infested young shoots are killed and the
whole tree
may be killed.
Pest management
1. Naturally controlled by coccinellidae
2. Chemical 1 Azinophos methyl males are produced as a result of un fertilized egg.
2.7 COFFEE PESTS
 The most important insect pests of coffee to be discussed under this topic are:
i. Coffee Antestia or the variegated bug (Anthestiopsis orbitalis)
ii. Coffee leaf miner
7.1. Coffee Antestia

Nature of damage
 The variegated bug (Anthestiopsis orbitalis) can cause severe damage to the crop in Africa.
 They suck young barriers, causing longitudinal, brown, zebra, strips, which are obvious on
washed beans, and occasional empty beans.
 The striped beans, zebra beans, produce a foul odor, which spoils the product if they are not
removed.
 The insect feed on terminal buds in the absence of fruits, so that a fan of stem growth is
formed.
 They also introduce a fungus (Nematospora spp.), which makes beans rot to a white paste;
such beans in processed beans are called ‘posho beans’. While empty beans float and are
separated in the washing, zebra beans are not separated.
Pest Management
 Control of tree habit by pruning to keep the canopy open minimizes attack by antestia; the
bugs prefer a dark enclosed habitat.
 Sample trees are sprayed monthly with insecticides and the number of dead bugs counted.
 If, on average, more than two are found per tree in dry areas or one per tree in wet areas, all
trees should be sprayed with pyrethrum or an organophophorous insecticide to kill the bugs.
 These insects are parasitized by wasps.
2.7.2 Coffee leaf miner

Major damage is caused by Leucoptera myrick in Africa, Leucoptera coffeella, Leucoptera
myricki and Leucoptera caffeine in central and South America.
Nature of Damage
 Damaged leaves have brown irregular blotches on the upper side; if broken across the blotch
by bending, the mine is opened, exposing white caterpillars within.
 The leaves die and fall prematurely. Major defoliation can result, causing severe loss of crop.
Pest Management
 Routine application of insecticides to the trees often results in more severe damage, as
natural enemies are reduced in number.
 Application must be related to month counts and examination of damaged leaves.
 Control has also been established by spreading a granular systematic insecticide to the soil.
This controls insects attacking stems and foliage but does not harm beneficial insects.
 The recommended insecticides are fentrothion, fenthion, parathion, or dicrotophs.
3.8 MANGO INSECT PESTS

3.8.1 Some important Insect pests of Mango
Mango plant is suffered from a number of pests at all stages of development i.e. right from
nursery stage to grown-up plants and even fruits at pre-harvest stages are affected making them
unsuitable for marketing and export (Brown, 1992). In Ethiopia, mango is attacked by many
insect pests. Among the insect pests attacking mango fruit are beetles, fruit flies, seed weevil
and termites. Moreover, a various scale insects, red-banded thrips, fruit flies, cotton scales,
mealy bugs, cicadas, black flies, and mango tip-borer insects also attack the mango fruit
(Jackson et al, 1985).
Mango weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae): small larvae enter the fruits and attack the seeds.
There may be a hard white area in the flesh and fruits may fall early or rot in the storage.
Removing fallen fruits and sanitation helps control the problem.
Mango scale: small flat whitish circular scales which excrete honeydew and sooty mold. Spray
Diazino and white oil or Malathion and white oil.
Fruit fly: causes premature coloring of fruits. The flesh in the affected area becomes liquid.
Shiny white maggots may be seen I the fruits. Spray Fenthion (Levayad, Baytex) and collect and
bury affected fruits.
3.8.2 White Mango Scale

i. Description of White Mango Scale
 This scale appears as a cluster of small white scales. Such clusters are approximately 2 cm in
diameter. They are found on the upper leaf surface, and may be found on the fruit. Eggs are
laid under the females protective scale covering.
 Eggs hatch as crawlers. The opaque white female armor is circular, flat, thin and often
wrinkled. Exuviae is near the margin, and is yellowish-brown, with a median black ridge,
forming a dark distinct median line.
 The female crawlers move across the leaf surface in search of a feeding site. Once settled
they become sedentary and start to secrete a substance which will eventually become the
protective scale cover.
 The females when mature are circular in appearance and have a dark spot to one side which
is the old pupal case.
 Male crawlers settle in groups and secrete white filaments which curl over them, as they
mature. They secrete an almost rectangular protective scale cover with three distinct
longitudinal ridges.
 The adult males have two wings and are capable of flight. Male armors are small, white,
sides nearly parallel and distinctly tricarinate. Crawlers are deep bright brick red. White
Mango Scale as “female scale is circular, whitish, flat, thin and transparent, with dark oval
spot (excuviae).
 Male scale is smaller, rectangular, and white with three raised longitudinal ridges.
Microscopically, the body widest above the anterior spiracles, the posterior spiracles usually
associated with spiracular pores and macroducts absent from thorax and head; pygidium with
well developed median lobes, with submarginal black spot, male, elongate, white, without
this exuvia , black spot,
 The adult female is characteristically shaped with , elongate and somewhat parallel-sided
pygidium.
ii. Life Cycle

 Life cycle of the various scale species differ somewhat, but a generalized life cycle is as
follows. The eggs are laid beneath the wax coverings, ovisacs, or beneath the adult female.
 Eggs generally hatch in 1 to 3 weeks. The newly hatched nymphs (crawlers) move around the
plant until they find a suitable feeding site. Males of many species develop wings as adults
and fly to locate mates. They have 5–6 generations per year. Females lay 80 -200 eggs
depending on temperature.
 After hatching crawlers move to feeding sites setting within 24 hours. Female crawlers settle
randomly, male crawlers settle in groups close to female. Up to 80% of crawlers become
males and life cycles take 35 – 40 days. White mango Scale is present all year round, with
overlapping generations through the year.
 The pest peaks at flowering and during harvest time.
Eggs: The eggs are laid in clusters, ovoid and found under the mature female. White mango
scale eggs are red.
Immature: White mango scale - crawlers are pink or red. Late instars are similar to adults.
Adults: White mango scale - females are red with scale covers that are flat, white and circular
with a black oval shaped caste skin. Size: 1–2 mm. Males are white, rectangular in shape with
two or three distinct ridges. Many males are usually clustered around a single female. Adult
males have wings and are capable of flight. Hierarchy of Categories in the Classification of
White Mango Scale:
 Kingdom – Animalia
 Phylum – Arthropoda
 Super class – Hexapoda
 Class – Insecta
 Order – Homoptera
 Family –Diaspididae
 Genus – Aulacaspis
 Species – Tubercalaris
iii. Behavior and Ecology of White Mango Scale

 The first instars either seek suitable feeding sites on the natal host plant or disperse on the
wind; some crawlers display behaviors that increase their chances of becoming airborne.
 Adult males probably locate their sessile conspecific females using sex pheromones but the
presence of these chemicals has been demonstrated experimentally for very few species.
 Scale insects primarily feed from either the phloem or the parenchyma, and their host
associations range from monophagous to polyphagous.
 Sap removal is the main cause of plant damage, but a few species (especially of armored
scales and mealybugs) also transmit plant pathogens and/or toxins that may further reduce
plant vigor and eventually kill the host.
 Furthermore, most scale insects (except armored scales and a few others) produce honeydew
and are ant attended; associations are usually facultative but a number of obligate ant–
coccoid relationships have been described.
iv. Distribution of White Mango Scale

 White mango scale is distributed to the wide range of mango producing countries like:-
 Afrotropical: Ghana; Kenya; Madagascar; Mauritius; Mozambique; Reunion;

Rodriques Island; South Africa; Tanzania; Uganda; Zanzibar; Zimbabwe.
 Australasian: New Caledonia; Vanuatu (New Hebrides).
 Neotropical: Aruba; Bermuda; Brazil; British Virgin Islands; Colombia; Dominican
Republic; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; Puerto Rico & Vieques Island; Saint
Croix; Trinidad and Tobago, Trinidad; U.S. Virgin Islands; Venezuela.
 Oriental: China (Guangdong) (Kwangtung), Hainan, Sichuan (Szechwan); India,
Karnataka; Indonesia; Malaysia; Pakistan; Philippines; Sri Lanka; Taiwan; Thailand.
 Palaearctic: China; Egypt; Iraq; Israel; Italy; Japan.
v. Nature of damage
 Scales cause damage by sucking the juices from the plants. Heavily infested plants appear
unhealthy and produce little new growth.
 Scales feeding on the undersides of leaves may cause yellow spots to appear on the top sides,
and these spots progressively become larger as the scales continue to feed. If the scales are
not controlled, leaves will drop prematurely, sometimes killing portions of twigs and
branches.
 Scales also feed on trunks and stems of plants (Blackburn and Miller, 1984). Aulacaspis
tubercularis attacks hosts in at least seven plant families, so host range is rated as high.
 In South Africa, A. tubercularis was first recorded on one cultivar of mango in 1947 and has
since become a pest throughout all mango producing areas of South Africa. Only the crawler
stage can move to a new host (adult males can fly but cannot establish a colony), but scale
insects can move to new hosts as a result of wind, birds, and insects.
 Crawlers are capable of moving distances of tens of kilometers on wind currents to infect
clean crops. Because of the proven ability of A. tubercularis to spread through mango
producing regions and its dispersal potential is rated as high. Aulacaspis tubercularis attacks
mango leaves, branches and fruit, where it causes superficial pink or yellow blemishes to
develop, making the fruit unmarketable, although precise economical figures are lacking. In
the absence of evidence, economic impact is rated as medium.
 This insect is mainly a problem as a contaminant on fruit, which can cause rejection in most
fresh fruit markets. It also causes dieback of twigs, premature drop of fruit and leaves, and
deformation of fruit.
 Large populations cause chlorosis and premature drop of leaves, dieback of twigs and
branches, stunting and distortion of the fruit, and premature fruit drop.
 Damage is caused by the adults of crawlers sucking sap from leaves and fruits of mango.
Infested areas on leaves turn pale green to yellow and when infestations are bad enough the
leaf will ultimately die.
 Damage on fruit is seen as pink blemishes. Infestations on the fruit are characterized by the
presence of scales and conspicuous pink blemishes on fruit; these blemishes can downgrade
fruit quality.
 White Mango Scale becomes extremely numerous on mango in many mango producing
countries and White mango scale would be considered as an economic threat to mango.
 When plants are heavily infested with scales, leaves may look wilted, turn yellow, and drop
prematurely. Scales sometimes curl leaves or cause deformed blemishes or discolored halos
in fruit, leaves, or twigs. Bark infested with armored scales may crack and exude gum.
 Certain armored scales also feed on leaves and fruits, but this damage is often just aesthetic.
Soft scales infest leaves and twigs but rarely feed on fruit.
 A major concern with soft scales is their excretion of abundant honeydew, which
contaminates fruit, leaves, and surfaces beneath plants. Honeydew encourages the growth of
black sooty mold and attracts ants, which in turn protect scales from natural enemies. When
numerous, some scale species weaken plants and cause them to grow slowly.
 Branches or other plant parts may die if they remain heavily infested with scales. If plant
parts die quickly, dead brownish leaves may remain on branches, giving them a scorched
appearance. Several years of severe infestations may kill young plants. Certain armored
scales may be more likely to kill plants. Soft scales reduce plant vigor, but seldom kill trees
or shrubs.
vi. Management Practices in controlling White mango scale

 Mango scale is not currently a significant problem in the Northern Territory but it is possible
that as plantations mature they will suffer more damage from this pest.
 Leaves and twigs less than 1 year old should be checked for scales periodically throughout
the year.
 To determine whether scales are alive use a pin to remove the scale covers and pricks the
scale. If body fluid is released the scale is alive, and if the infestation is severe enough then
control measures should be implemented.
 The presence of white mango scale is indicated by a small emergence hole in adult scales.
Soft and armored scales are plant-feeding insects which are often controlled by natural and
released parasites, predators, and pathogens. White Mango scales can be parasitized by a
variety of small wasps.
 In cases when the natural balance of predation has been disrupted, scale populations may
increase to levels requiring treatment. Since scale insects are relatively immobile and at least
one month is required for the egg to reach the adult stage, an infestation builds up slowly (in
comparison to mites or aphids) and may be hard to spot.
 It is also important to verify that the scale insects attached to the plant are alive, as mummies
accumulate on the plant over time.
 Economic thresholds for scale have not been determined. Most effective control is obtained
when the scales are in nymphal stages because egg and adult stages are recalcitrant to
insecticide applications.
 The different methods used to control insect population must be integrated by a strategy
addressed towards greater protection of the cultures with respect to ecological, toxicological
and economic principles.
a) Cultural control methods of White mango Scale

 Cultural control methods Provide plants with good growing conditions and proper cultural
care; especially appropriate irrigation, so they are more resistant to scale damage.
o Prune off heavily infested twigs and branches to eliminate scales when infestations
are on limited parts of the plant helps to minimize the pest infestation and
distribution.
o Pruning to open up tree canopies helps to control black scale, citricola scale, and
possibly other species in areas with hot summers.
o This pruning increases scale mortality as a result of heat exposure.
 When landscaping, choose plants that are relatively pest-free and well adapted to local
conditions. Consider replacing problem prone plants. Most pests are highly host specific.
 Scales that can feed on many different plants usually damage only certain of these plant
species and though present, do not damage other species or cultivars in the same plant genus.
 Inspection and monitoring:
o To minimize scale problems, inspect plants before purchase or installation. If some
scales are found, prune off the infested branches or leaves.
o Destroy any culled or discarded plant material, and thoroughly clean the area where
the infested plants were located.
o Scale insects often thrive in warm, humid environments, so increase air flow or
decrease plant density in the area to make conditions less conducive.
o Monitor fortnightly, inspect leaves and twigs, lift the white transparent covering, and
check for live females, eggs and crawlers. Females change from white to pink as eggs
are laid under the shale.
o Monitor five branches on each of ten trees per hectare. Healthy, live scale colonies
are covered by a white cottony growth.
o It is also important that to avoid over-fertilizing; scale insects often lay more eggs and
survive better on plants receiving a lot of nitrogen.
 Mango Hygiene by Smoking:

o Mango smoking reduces insect population drastically and improves fruit setting.
o Smoke pots with holes in the bottom for air intake, containing wood shavings or
sawdust with a topping of aromatic herbs (lemongrass etc) are hung at strategic places
within the mango tree and the sawdust lit to produce a good amount of smoke which
chases insects away from the tree.
o Another option is to place dry grass on the ground below the tree in a position where
the wind can blow maximum smoke into the top of the tree, cover it with green
aromatic leaves like lantana etc, and lit the grass to produce smoke.
o Smoking of mango trees is reported both by Kenya Institute of Organic Farming
(KIOF) and Meru Herbs Farmers, Kenya to be very effective in insect control.
Smoking also induces flowering in mango trees.
b) Biological Control
 The worst pests for mangoes include fruit flies, cotton scales, mealy bugs, cicadas and black
flies (create honey dew). They can cause a lot of damage. Yet they all have natural enemies,
such as e.g. ladybird larvae, wasps, spiders and parasitic fungi (e.g. with cicadas and black
flies).
 An ecological plantation with a variety of crops and a sufficient amount of vegetation cover
will provide enough natural enemies to combat the pests that measures against them
unnecessary.
 For best control measure it is important to conserve natural enemies. Scales are attacked by a
large range of natural enemies, mainly parasitic wasps and predators (ladybird beetles,
lacewings, etc.). These natural enemies usually control scales.
 Outbreaks are generally caused by the use of broad-spectrum pesticides that kill natural
enemies, and/or to the presence of large number of ants that feed on honeydew produced by
soft scales or other insects (mealy bugs, whiteflies, aphids, black flies).
 Spray if necessary with light mineral oils. However, care should be taken when using mineral
oils, since at high concentrations; they may be harmful to the trees. Oil sprays should be
carried out after picking and not during flowering or during periods of excessive heat or
drought.
 Sprays should target young stages of the scales. To protect natural enemies spray alternate
tree rows each season.
c) Chemical Control
 The introduction of A. tubercularis into the United States could stimulate chemical or
biological control programs. Consequently, the environmental impact was rated high for A.
tubercularis. Control measures against armored scales are often necessary to produce a
marketable crop (Miller et al 1985 & 1990). In China, the following pesticides have been
used to effectively control A. tubercularis and P. ziziphi: omethoate, chlorpyrifos,
methidathion, quinalphos, lambda-cyhalothrin, fenvalerate or cypermethrin.
 Scale insects can be regulated with a 'winter-spraying', i.e. with paraffin oil (white oil)
shortly before the larvae hatch from their eggs.
o The paraffin oil is sprayed on as a 3 % water emulsion. Timing an insecticide

application is important.
o Most contact insecticides cannot penetrate the waxy covering on scale nymphs and
adults, so the crawler stage is usually the best target.
o Monitor the crawler emergence with sticky cards, tape wrapped around a branch, or
by putting an infected shoot or leaf into a baggle and watching for crawler movement.
o Crawler actively often coincides with the flush of new plant growth. However, some
scale species may have overlapping generations with an extended crawler emergence
period.
o If possible, prune infested plant parts off first to allow greater penetration of
insecticides in to the foliage. Spray the plants thoroughly, so the insecticides drip or
“run off” from the upper and under sides of the leaves, twigs, and plant stems.
o Using a sticker-spreader may increase coverage and efficacy. Soil drenches of a
systematic insecticide may also work well. Even when sprays are properly timed,
repeated applications may be needed if crawler activity extends over time, or if
populations are heavy and crawlers hide under old waxy scales.
o In addition, even after armored scales are treated and killed, their waxy outer coating
may remain on the plant material for weeks. There are currently no methods available
to remove the waxy coverings, except by physically rubbing the scales off. When soft
scales die, they often fall off the plants. Dead and living scales can be distinguished
by a simple test. Squeeze some scales- dead scales are dry, but live scales exude body
fluids.
 Apply chemicals only if monitoring shows significant live scale activity. Thorough spray
coverage is especially critical when treating armored scales and oak pit scales, as these scales
are generally less susceptible to pesticides than soft scales.
o Scale insects can be managed by using Systemic Insecticides.
o Systemic insecticides when applied to plants they are absorbed and moved within
plants. If the plant is infested with a scale species susceptible to systemic insecticide,
systemic are particularly useful where it is not practical to spray because plants are
large or spray may drift to unintended areas.
o Depending on the product, systemic insecticide may be applied by spraying foliage,

injection or implantation into trunk vascular tissue, or applying on or into soil beneath
trees and shrubs, where the insecticide is absorbed by roots.
 The different methods used to control insect population must be integrated by a strategy
addressed towards greater protection of the cultures with respect to ecological, toxicological
and economic principles.
 If scales become too numerous, a well-timed and thorough spray using horticultural (narrow-
range) oil applied either during the dormant season or soon after scale crawlers are active in
late winter to early summer should provide good control.
 Complete spray coverage of infested plants (such as the underside of leaves) is needed to
obtain good control. Thorough spray coverage is especially critical when treating armored
scales and oak pit scales, as these scales are generally less susceptible to pesticides than soft
scales.
 Controlling of white mango scale is very effective if it is carried out pre-flowering and after
harvest time. When monitoring checking the upper surface of hardened leaves for scales is
important.
2.9 .STORED PRODUCT PESTS

2.9.1 Maize Weevil (Sitophilus zeamais)
 Maize Weevil was first discovered breeding in rice and, hence, it was so named. It is
commonly found infesting grains in the store.
 Hosts:
o Although it is known as the rice weevil, it feeds on all kinds of cereals and their
product, maize and sorghum. It is a serious pest of wheat. The weevil can start
infestation in the field.
 Life History:
o The pest starts breeding in April and remains active up to November, when it
hibernates as adults in cracks, crevices and other places.
o There are generally 5 generations in a year. A temperature of 26.50C – 300C (80-
860F) and relative humidity of 75-90 percent provide the optimum conditions for the
activity of the pest.
o It is estimated that one pair of the maize weevil under the optimum conditions can
breed in grains containing lees than 10 percent, can continue breeding at as low
temperature as 180C. A temperature of 350C is lethal for the maize weevil.
o The adults (3mm in length) are cylindrical and dark-brown. The head bears a distinct
snout. The thorax is densely pitted with punctures.
o The size of the weevil generally depends on the size of the grain in which it breeds.
The adults breeding in larger grains are usually larger than those breeding in small
grains, such as rize.
 The adults, which emerge during the spring and the summer months, live for 3-5 weeks.
The weevils which emerge in the winter months, on the other hand, live longer even up to
4-5 months.
 The female weevil cuts a hole in a grain and lays one egg in it. The glands associated
with the ovipositor secrete a gelatinous material over the egg. It is, therefore, difficult to
detect an infested grain.
 One female lays 250-400 eggs. The grubs are yellowish white and legless. The tiny grub
after hatching bores into the grain, where it feeds and growth to maturity.
 The full-grown grub (5mm in length) is fleshy and plump. It is white with a yellow-
brown head. It pupates inside the grain into a dirty-white pupa which subsequently turns
dark brown.
 Mostly one grub is found in one grain. Normally the adult remains inside the grain for a
few days before cutting an escape hole through the seed coat for emergence.
 The life cycle is completed about one month in the summer season, but it is greatly
prolonged by the cold winter.
Nature of Damage
 Its attack may be sudden, and may cause considerable damage in a short period. The
greatest amount of damage buys boring one grain after another and feeding on their
contents.
2.9.2 Larger grains borer: Prostephanus truncatus (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

Host:
3. Maize grain is the main host, and also sometimes it attacks beans. It is reported to
breed only in maize and cassava. The adults can, however, live in and damage many
stored products as well as structural wood and wooden utensils.
4. Adults also bore into a wide range of foodstuffs and other materials such as bamboo,
gourds, plastic and soap.
5. In heavy infestations, wooden storage structures may be become damaged and act as
reservoirs of infestation from which the new harvest may be attacked.
Life History:-
 The female lays 30-50 eggs into the produce (maize, cassava). Eggs are laid in tunnels and
chambers bored by the females in the food source. Larvae hatch from the eggs after three to
seven days.
 The larvae are white, fleshy and sparsely covered with hairs and have three pairs of legs.
They develop within the grain or in the flour that accumulates by the feeding action of the
adults. They pupate inside the food source.
 A life cycle can be completed within 44 days for males and 61 days for females. On
emergence, the adults seek out grain in either shelled crop or on cobs.
Nature of Damage
 The larger grain borer is a serious pest of stored maize and dried cassava roots, and will
attack maize on the cob, both before and after harvest.
 Adults bore into the cassava or maize husks, cobs or grain, making neat round holes and
tunneling extensively producing large quantities of grain dust as they tunnel.
 The adults prefer grain on cobs to shelled grain, thus damage on unshelled maize is greater
than on loose, shelled maize.
 The larger grain borer is spread over longer distances almost entirely through the import and
export of infested grain. Local dispersal is through the local movement of infested maize and
dried cassava and by flight activity of the adult beetles.
 The larger grain borer is a primary pest, often attacking maize in the field towards the end of
the season, then continuing in the store.
2.9.3 Angoumois Grain Moth (Sitotroga cerealella )

 The pest receives its name from a province in France where it was first reported (Harcharan
Singh, 1984).
 Hosts:
o The pest attacks various stored grains particularly maize, wheat and other grain. The
moths can start infestation in the field.
Life History:
 The pest remains active from April to October and completes about four generations.
 It over-winters in the caterpillar stage from November till the warming of season in March.
 The moth (having 10-12 mm wing expanse) is yellowish-brown.
 The wings are narrow, pointed and bear prominently long hair on their inner margins.
 In the resting-position, the wings are folded in a slopping manner and the antennae are
directed back-wards.
 The longevity of moths is 4-10 days. The female lays 100-400 eggs singly or in clusters on
grains, walls, surfaces, bags, etc.
 The newly hatched yellowish-white caterpillar soon bores into the grain.
 The full-grown caterpillar (65 mm in length), before pupation, eats out a small escape
channel towards the surface of a grain and makes a weakly fastened flap at the exit by cutting
the shell one-half to three-fourths of the circumstance of a circle.
 The caterpillar then spins a silken cocoon in the cavity and changes to reddish-brown pupa.
Both the caterpillar and the pupal stages are, thus passed in the grain.
 Later on; the moth pushes its way through the flap. The life cycle is completed in 30- 35 days
in the favourable season.
Nature of Damage
 The pest is more harm full in areas where the climate is rather mild, and the maximum
damage is done during the rainy season. It is restricted to the upper layers of grains.
 The caterpillar is the destructive stage:
i. It bores in to the grain, eats its contents and puts its excreta in the cavity. The entire
contents of the grains may be consumed.
ii. The infested material gets unpleasant smell in the case of sever infestation. Such
materials are not fit for consumption.
Insect Pests Management

 The grains left unattended even for a short period are liable to get infested with the stored-
grain pests. It is therefore, necessary to take care of them from the very beginning.
 Serious losses can be considerably reduced, if not entirely prevented, by adopting suitable
safety measures in time.
 A Number of methods are used for the control of stored-grain pests. These methods may be
broadly classified as preventive and remedial measures through some of them may act in
both the ways.
i. Cultural or Traditional Control methods practiced by the Farmers:-
 Cultural control of insect pests is affected by the manipulation of the environment in such a
way as to render it unfavorable for the pest.
 Many of the methods interfere with the pests’ ability to colonize a crop, promoting dispersal,
reducing reproduction or survival.
 It can rarely be used as a tactical means of control except perhaps in stored product systems
where spot check ‘fumigation’ can be achieved by modification of the storage environment.
 Cultural control should be considered as the first-ditch defense around which to build other
control options
 Screening of Grains
 The presence of foreign materials and broken grains such as straw and dust, provide
favorable conditions for the development of non boring insects.
 Sieving the stored grain before storing is one of the preventive methods.
 Mechanical Methods
 It is practices of mechanical control methods purposively used for the control of certain
insects.
 The adults of the insect have natural tendency to cling to the rough surfaces. Farmers
expose the infested stored grains to the sun and put rough cloths and mats & spread over
the heaps of infested grains and then removed and shaken over the rood of earthen soil,
on which animals & others walk over. By repeating this process several times, the
infestation can be reduced.
 Pulse beetle has a tending to come to the heap of grains. It has, therefore been found that
in case a 3-5 cm deep layer of sand, sawdust, or cow-dung ash is spread over the stored
pulses;
 The beetles come to the surface and are not able to go back into the grains for
oviposition. This method has proved effective both as a preventive and as a remedial
measure against this pest, particularly in the case of storage of small quantities of pulses.
 The operation needs no skill and can be performed even by the housewives easily. This
method does not require airtight containers, but it cannot be applied in the case of bag
storage.
 Separate storage of new arrivals
 New grains should preferably be kept separate from the old stock because of the risk of
cross-infestation.
 It is also important to thoroughly clean the stores before their use.
 The sides and walls should be given a smooth plaster of cow-dung and mud.
ii. Chemical Control Methods

 Grain is liable to suffer heavy losses during storage as a result of insect attack.
 Prevent insects by using appropriate pesticides in addition to the various cultural and
traditional methods
 Powder and fumigant pesticides are used to protect stored grain.
2.9.4 Bean bruchids, bruchid, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricus).

 Bruchids are a major and growing problem of stored pest. While crops may be infested in the
field, infestations are often too low to detect at harvest.
 Bruchids are most often not detected until seed has been stored for a reasonable period of
time (eg for longer than 3 months).
 Bruchids breed rapidly in storage and by the time they are detected, the infested grain is
usually unmarketable.
 Historically, bruchid infestations have been worse in many countries.
 The bruchid is responsible for most infestations in store.
Description
 Bean bruchid adults are small (3-mm-long) brown beetles with a tear-shaped body (i.e. taper
towards the head).
 Bean (and other) bruchids do not have the elongated snout of true weevils, which infest
cereal grains.
 Bean bruchids are typically orange-brown with dark markings, but colour can vary and they
are easily confused with other closely related bruchid species.
 The eggs are small and white and, despite being only 0.6 mm long, are readily visible. The
larvae look like short cream-coloured maggots, and are rarely seen as they feed within
mungbean grains.
Nature of damage
 Even an extremely low bruchid population at intake (eg undetectable levels of 2
bruchids/tonne or 0.00001% of grains infested) could result in major damage (100% of
grains damaged) within 4 - 6 months of intake.
 It is because, infestations are often difficult to detect at harvest, carefully check for live
insects and the characteristic grain damage at intake and at regular intervals during
storage.
 Just because live bruchids are not seen at intake does not mean that they aren’t present.
 Bean bruchids have also been reported in chickpea, cowpea, field pea and soybean, and
infrequently in navy bean.
 While chickpea acid usually protects chickpea pods in the field from attack, bruchids can
attack the seed after harvest.
 Obviously there is potential for cross contamination of beans from other infested pulses
in storage.
 Regular checking of both bulk and bagged pulses stored in your premises is a critical
bruchid management strategy.
Bruchid Management
 Because they are a threat at all stages of the bean supply chain (from field to export and
beyond), bruchids should be regarded as a ‘whole of industry problem’. Basically there
are three strategies to counter bruchid damage:
1. Hygiene and Inspection.

2. Treating bruchids in infested seed.
3. Slowing bruchid development in storage.
1. Hygiene and Inspection:

 Hygiene is vital at all stages of the bean supply chain, from on-farm to export. Cleaning
out old seed residues in storage sheds, silos, trucks, elevators, etc., before harvest or
intake will remove potential infestation sources.
 Old planting seed in your shed or from elsewhere poses a major infestation threat.
 Beans should be inspected for insects once a fortnight in summer and once a month in
winter.
 Controlling bruchids in the field is not an effective option and would not guarantee
immunity from storage damage.
 Anything less than 100% in-field control of bruchids could still result in significant
bruchid damage in storage. Also, potential pesticide options are not registered or
compatible with mungbean IPM strategies.
2. Treating infested seed:
 Targeting high-risk bagged and bulk pulses is a more effective strategy to minimize
bruchid damage in storage.
 Carryover bag stocks and bulk pulses stored under warm conditions in un aerated silos
would be considered ‘high risk’. A regular sampling and monitoring program is essential.
 Phosphine fumigation is the only ‘chemical’ approved for cowpea bruchid control in
pulses and should be considered for all ‘at risk’ loads at intake, whether bruchids are
detected or not.
 Correct fumigation is vital for successful bruchid control, with best results achieved in
sealed (pressure-tested gas-tight) silos (<200 tons) or in sealed bag stacks.
 Seed should be fumigated for at least 10 days and phosphine tablets applied at
recommended doses (2 tablets per ton capacity of wheat or 3 tablets per 2 cubic meter).
That is, if your store has the capacity to hold 100 tons of wheat, then you will always use
200 tablets for phosphine fumigation, regardless of how much grain is in the store.
3. Slowing bruchid development in storage:
 Cool Storage: Maintaining low storage temperatures (below 15°C) can significantly slow
down bruchid development and reduce population growth rates. Cold storage inhibits
insect metabolic processes and prolongs developmental periods.
 Dry storage: Ensuring low moisture content in stored grains (below 12%) can inhibit
bruchid reproduction and reduce larval survival rates. Dry conditions discourage mold
growth and secondary infestations, further enhancing storage quality.
 Hermetic Storage: Hermetic storage methods, such as using airtight containers or bags,
create an oxygen-deprived environment that suppresses insect respiration and
reproduction. Hermetic storage is particularly effective for controlling bruchids in small-
scale storage systems.
 Natural Insecticides: Botanical extracts and essential oils derived from plants such as
neem, pyrethrum, and eucalyptus have insecticidal properties that can deter bruchid
infestations and inhibit insect development. These natural insecticides are less harmful to
humans and the environment compared to synthetic chemical pesticides.
Factors affecting Bruchid Development in Storage:

 Temperature: Bruchid development is influenced by temperature, with higher
temperatures accelerating development rates. Lowering storage temperatures can slow
down bruchid development and reduce population growth.
 Humidity: Moisture content in stored grains affects bruchid development, with higher
humidity levels favoring insect reproduction and survival. Proper moisture management
is essential for controlling bruchid infestations.
 Host Plant Species: Different bruchid species exhibit preferences for specific host plant
species. Understanding the host preferences of bruchids can help in selecting resistant
varieties and implementing targeted control measures.
 Storage Conditions: Factors such as grain moisture content, aeration, sanitation, and
storage duration influence bruchid development in storage facilities. Implementing proper
storage practices can help mitigate bruchid infestations.
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PlSc.452 - Management of Crop Diseases and Insect Pests of Economic Importanc-Insect Pests

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Management of Crop Diseases & Insect Pests of Economic Importance (PlSc452)

Wollega University Shambu Campus

2.2.8 Nematodes diseases

3 INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE (16hrs)

3.3.4.2 Pink boll worm

3.8.2 Coffee leaf miner

1) Agrois, G.N. 2005. Plant Pathology 5th ed. Academic press

Why a tropic is favorable place for pest development?

1.2. DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS ASSESSMENT

I. CROP DISEASE ASSESSMENT

A. Disease Incidence Assessment

A disease is assessed either as a percentage of disease incidence or as disease severity. Disease

Disease incidence % = Number of infected plants X 100

B. Disease Severity Assessment

Disease severity is generally calculated as follows:-

D. Area under disease progress curve (audpc)

F. Digital image Analysis

II. INSECT PEST ASSESSMENT

1.3. TYPES OF INSECT PESTS DAMAGE

A. Types of Direct insect damage

B. Indirect effects of insect infestation

Insect pest forecasting:

Development of Pest Situations

1.4. OPTION OF PEST MANAGEMENT

An IPM system is designed around six basic components:

What required in dealing with individual diseases?

Fig.1. Yield levels and crop loss

2.1.2. Symptoms and Signs of Plant Diseases

 Secondary symptom: symptoms which result from indirect or "chain of events"

2.2.MAJOR CROP DISEASE IN ETHIOPIA

Figure 4. Post-emergence damping off seedling of tobacco

The Pathogen (Pythium spp.)

Figure 8. Disease cycle of Rhizoctonia solani (Thanatephorus cucumeris).

2.2.2. Root rots

a. Root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

This disease is severe in many parts of world.

Fig.1. Root rots of disease

Fig 2. Disease cycle of root rots of trees caused by Armillaria mellea.

b. Root rot or stem rot or charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseolina

(Sclerotial stage: Rhizoctonia bataticola)

It is very destructive disease in all sesame growing areas of the world.

c. Root rot/Charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseolina

d. Stem and Root rot or dry root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina) and (Sexual stage: Thanatephorus cucumeris)

Dry root rot

e. Dry root rot: Rhizoctonia bataticola

(Pycnidial stage: Macrophomina phaseolina)

Rhizopus soft rot of fruits and vegetables

The Pathogen: Rhizopus spp.

2.2.3. Vascular Wilts

Caused by ascomycetes and deuteromycetes (mitosporic fungi)

a. Fusarium wilt of tomato (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici)

a. Fusarium (panama) wilt of banana (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense)

b. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum)

Marginal chlorosis & necrosis Browning of vascular bundles

Pinkish discolorations Conidiophore & conidia

d. Sugar cane Wilt (Cephalosporium sacchari)

Wilt and red rot of sugar cane Condiophores and microconidia

Wilted Check pea

2.2.3.2.Bacterial vascular wilts

a. Bacterial Wilt of Cucurbits (Erwinia tracheiphila)

Fig-2. Disease cycle of bacterial wilt of cucurbits caused by Erwinia tracheiphila.