REPORT 1: Public Accountability
LOCAL GOVERNMENT AND DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
The Local Government
• Local government unit is defined as institutional units with
fiscal, legislative and executive authority extends over the
smallest geographical areas distinguished for
administrative and political purposes.
• Article X Section 3 of 1987 Philippine Constitution states that:
o Local government code
o Instituted through a system of decentralization
Local Autonomy
• Freedom of self-determination or self-governance according
to their own circumstances and rules.
• However, the constitutional grant of local autonomy is not
absolute. LGUs are not little kingdoms that they can do
whatever they please within their territorial jurisdictions.
• Sec. 2. Declaration of Policy. (a) It is hereby declared the
policy of the State that the territorial and political
subdivisions of the State shall enjoy genuine and meaningful
local autonomy to enable them to attain their fullest
development as self-reliant communities and make them
more effective partners in the attainment of national goals.
Fiscal Autonomy
• Fiscal decentralization emanates from the Constitution. The
constitutional authority for each LGU to create its sources of
income and revenue and its entitlement to the just share in
the national taxes has been formalized through the Local
Government Code (LGC) of 1991
• Fiscal decentralization is the power granted to the LGUs to
create their own sources of revenues and their share in the
national taxes and the power to allocate such funds
according to their jurisdiction ' s priority, thereby
strengthening independence.
• Section 21. Sources of Revenue
a. Income tax;
b. Estate and donor’s taxes;
c. VAT;
d. Other percentage taxes;
e. Excise taxes;
f. DST; and
g. Such other taxes as are or hereafter may be imposed
and collected by the BIR
• SEC 16. GENERAL WELFARE: Every local government unit
shall exercise the powers expressly granted, those
necessarily implied there from, as well as powers necessary,
appropriate, or incidental for its efficient and effective
governance, and those which are essential to the promotion
of the general welfare.
• Inclusive Growth and Poverty Reduction
• Sustainable Development-Oriented Local Government
• Business-Friendly and Competitive LGUs
• Socially-Protective and Safe LGUs
• Accountable, Transparent, Participative and Effective Local
Governance
Concepts and Actual Practices in Local Governance and
Development Management: 1991 Local Government Code
• SECTION 6. AUTHORITY TO CREATE LOCAL
GOVERNMENT UNITS
1) CREATED
2) DIVIDED
3) MERGED
4) ABOLISHED
5) ALTER BOUNDARIES
o CONGRESS: PROVINCE, CITY & MUNICIPALITY
o SANGGUNIAN: BARANGAYS
• SECTION 7. CREATION AND CONVERSION
1) INCOME
2) POPULATION
3) LAND AREA
• SECTION 8. DIVISION AND MERGER
o Shall not reduce the income, population, or land area of
the local government unit or units concerned to less
than the minimum requirements
• SECTION 9. ABOLITION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS
o Income, population, or land area has been irreversibly
reduced to less than the minimum standards
o THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS:
A. Barangay
• At least 2,000 inhabitants except for those in
Metro Manila and in HUCs, which should be at
least 5,000 inhabitants.
B. Municipality
• Income: annual average income of at least
2.5M for the last two consecutive years
• Population: at least 25,000 inhabitants
• Land Area: at least 50 square kilometers
C. City
• Income: annual average income of at least
20M for the last two consecutive years
• Population: at least 150k
• Land Area: at least 100 square kilometers
D. Province
• Income: annual average income of at least
20M
• Population: at least 250k
• Land Area: at least 200 square kilometers
• SECTION 10. PLEBISCITE REQUIREMENT
1) Creation, Division, and Merger: subject to the approval
by a majority of the votes cast in a plebiscite called for
the purpose of the political unit or units directly affected.
 o Example: 2021 Palawan division plebiscite
• SECTION 11. SELECTION AND TRANSFER OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT SITE, OFFICES AND FACILITIES
1. Geographical centrality
2. Accessibility
3. Transportation and communication facilities
4. Drainage and sanitation Development and economic
progress
o Old Site - disposed by sale or lease or converted to other
use
development of the national wealth and resources
within their respective territorial jurisdictions
o to acquire, develop, lease, encumber, alienate, or
otherwise dispose of real or personal property
• SECTION 19. EMINENT DOMAIN
o Eminent domain for public use, or purpose, or welfare
for the benefit of the poor and the landless, upon
payment of just compensation
o Example: need for road expansion, Water supply and
irrigation projects

• SECTION 12. GOVERNMENT CENTERS • SECTION 20. RECLASSIFICATION OF LANDS SECTION

o This is where offices, agencies, or branches of the (ONLY IF!)
national government, local government units, or
government-owned or - controlled corporations may, o Ceases to be economically feasible and sound for
as far as practicable, be located agricultural purposes as determined by the
Department of Agriculture
• SECTION 13. NAMING OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS o Shall have substantially greater economic value for
AND PUBLIC PLACES, STREETS AND STRUCTURES residential, commercial, or industrial purposes, as
o Sanggunians will always coordinate with the Philippine determined by the Sanggunian concerned
Historical Commission regarding this.
• SECTION 21. CLOSURE AND OPENING OF ROADS
• SECTION 14. BEGINNING OF CORPORATE EXISTENCE o permanently or temporarily close or open any local
o Creation of LGU + election of its leaders = Corporate road, alley, park, or square falling within its jurisdiction
existence o no national or local road, alley, park, or square shall set
temporarily closed for athletic, cultural, or civic
• SECTION 15. POLITICAL AND CORPORATE NATURE OF activities not officially sponsored, recognized, or
LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS approved by the local government unit concerned.
o LGUs are both a political body and a corporate entity
representing their inhabitants. • SECTION 22. CORPORATE POWERS
o To have continuous succession in its corporate name
• SECTION 16. GENERAL WELFARE o To sue and be sued
o Culture o To have and use a corporate seal
o Health and Safety o To acquire and convey real or personal property
o right of the people to a o To enter into contracts
o balanced ecology o Example: Buy lots for public use, enter into public-
o development of appropriate private partnerships
o and self-reliant scientific
o and technological • SECTION 23. AUTHORITY TO NEGOTIATE AND SECURE
o capabilities GRANTS
o public morals o Local chief executives may, upon authority of the
o economic prosperity and Sanggunian, negotiate and secure financial grants or
o social justice donations in kind, in support of the basic services.
o Employment o Example: to support a program or to finance relied in
o Peace and order times of crisis
o Comfort and convenience
• SECTION 24. LIABILITY FOR DAMAGES
• SECTION 17. BASIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES o LGU and its officials have no immunity from liability for
o Some of the Services and Facilities that LGU should death or injury to persons or damage to property
provide are the following (but not limited): o Example: injury or death from a defective road
1) Agricultural Centers
2) Health Centers REPORT 2:
3) Educational facilities THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT
4) Transportation Facilities
5) Employment Facilities Bureaucratic Management Theory
• Weber, in his pursuit of understanding why capitalism works
• SECTION 18. POWER TO GENERATE AND APPLY in some countries and not in others, identified that authority
RESOURCES stemmed from either charisma or tradition in the past.
o implementation of their development plans, program • However, in Western capitalist society, Weber identified that
objectives and priorities this was not the case. Instead, authority was rational, as
o create their own sources of revenue and to levy taxes leaders recognized and obeyed the values of logic, efficiency,
o to have a just share in national taxes to have an and reason.
equitable share in the proceeds from the utilization and • From this, Weber coined what is now known as the
bureaucracy.
• Core Principles:
 1) Hierarchical: Positions are ranked in order of
precedence, with the highest in the ladder having the
greatest authority in the organization.
2) Specialized Labor: A systematic division of labor based
on the competencies and functional specializations of
individuals.
3) Qualification Based: Employees are selected based on
technical skills and competencies.
4) Formal Rules and Regulations: Every rational
organization must be governed by general, formal,
explicit, exhaustive, and largely stable rules to ensure
consistency and efficiency.
5) Separation of Personal and Professional: Relationships
among employees and between managers and
employees must be impersonal and only of a
professional nature.
6) Career Orientation: Every employee has a unique set of
skills, and it is the employer’s responsibility to ensure
that jobs best suit their skills.
• Theory Application:
o Strengths:
▪ The theory establishes standards that are based on
rationality and logic.
▪ The theory mitigates nepotism.
▪ The theory promotes efficiency through expertise.
o Weaknesses:
▪ Hinders innovation and adaptation
▪ Bureaucratic Red Tape
▪ Ignores the human and social aspects of an
organization
Human Relations Theory
• In response to the dominant theories of his time, Elton Mayo
conducted a series of “Hawthorne experiments” looking into
how the value of People’s Perceptions, Attitudes, And
Expectations Play A Critical Role In Their Workplace
Performance.
• It suggests that humane treatment is crucial for successful
management. This means that employers should prioritize
employee well-being within and beyond the workplace.
• Key Takeaways:
o Humans Are Multifaceted
o Group Dynamics Influence Job Performance
o Unique Needs of Employees
o Motivation Beyond Compensation
o Openness to Change
• Theory Application:
o The humanistic and interpersonal approach of Human
Relations Theory lends itself indispensable to those that
seek to manage developmental projects of any scale. It
underscores the importance of proper communication
and flexibility to accommodate and understand the
varying needs of the community.
o Likewise, ensuring that those involved in developmental
projects are compensated and motivated – not just by
monetary value– will ensure commitment to the various
community improvement projects, which are often,
undertaken by non-profit organizations.
o Finally, conflicting ideas and attitudes regarding various
projects are unavoidable; as such, Human Relations
Theory allows those involved to handle conflicts with
empathy, maturity, and sensitivity.
o Strengths:
▪ Recognizes the psychological and emotional needs
of employees
▪ Promotes positive workplace relationships
▪ Encourages employee participation
o Weaknesses:
▪ Neglects Technical and Structural Aspects of
Organizations
▪ Overemphasizes the Human and Social Factors
▪ Assumes that all employees are inherently good
and cooperative
Behavioral Management Theory
• Follett’s theory focuses on coordination and employee
engagement, believing management is “the art of getting
things done through people.”
• In contrast to the hierarchical nature of other management
theories, such as Weber’s Bureaucracy, Follett emphasizes
the importance of employee-employer relationships to
promote responsibility, collaboration, and communication.
• Core Principles:
1) Constructive Conflict
• Conflict is a sign of progress where varying desires
interact
• Follett suggests a non-destructive method for
conflict resolution.
• Integration: A conflict resolution method in which
both sides' desires are integrated with one another.
In this method, neither party doesn't need to
sacrifice or compromise their desires; instead, they
are both accounted for
2) Power, Authority, and Control
• According to Follet, power can be distinguished as
“Power Over” and “Power With” , with the latter
being “Coactive Power” , and the former being
Coercive Power”
o This promotes a better understanding
o Reduces friction and conflict
o Participative decision making
o Encourages cooperation
• Functional Unity
o Each person has his or her function and should
have the authority and responsibility that go
with that function.
o Authority stems from the task being
performed and is derived from the situation,
not from the status or position of the person.
o Power is not delegated or handed out, but is
the result of knowledge and ability.
o Leadership goes to the person who has the
knowledge and the technique to control the
situation, regardless of rank or personality.
o Control is self-control, based on the facts of
each situation and the coordination of all
factors involved.
• Depersonalisation of Orders
o In giving orders, Follet recognizes that the
manner orders are given can influence how
tasks are done.To simplify, how one uses
language– or the manner in which one gives
their orders– in combination with the emotions,
beliefs, and prejudices of the receiver, will
influence the outcome of orders.
o Treating men without regard to their feelings
and self-respect would arouse wrong
behavioral patterns resulting in strikes.
o To avoid conflict, orders should be
depersonalised, where individuals do not
receive orders from one another; instead, they
receive orders from the circumstances or
 situations. By understanding the “law of the
situation“.
3) Coordination
• The harmonious ordering of parts and the
reciprocal relating of all factors in a situation.
• Coordination by direct contact, in the early stages,
and as a continuing process:
1) coordination by direct contact
2) coordination in the early stages of planning
and policy formulation
3) coordination as a continuing process
4) coordination as the reciprocal relating of all
factors in a situation
4) Leadership
• Leadership is the ability to see the whole
situation,to relate allfactors to each other,to initiate
change, and to energize the group.
• Types of Leadership: leadership of position,
personality, and function.
• Functions of leadership: coordination, definition of
purpose, and anticipation
• Principles of Leadership:
1) coordination as the reciprocal relating of all
factors in a situation
2) coordination by direct contact
3) coordination in the early stages
4) coordination as a continuing process
Scientific Management Theory
• Also known as the Classical Management Theory, was
formulated by Frederick Taylor in response to the
inefficiencies prevalent in industrial settings during his time.
• The theory was designed to enhance workforce efficiency
through the application of scientific methods to evaluate
work processes.
• Core Principles:
1) Emphasis on Science
2) System of Selection and Training
3) Cooperation, Not Individualism
4) Mental Revolution
5) Optimum Output
• Incorporation of the Scientific Method
1) Time & Motion Studies
2) Standardization of Tasks
3) Piece-rate System
4) Systematic Training and Development
• Theory Applied:
o Strengths: The theory promotes decision-making based
on scientific data rather than subjective judgments. This
objectivity can lead to more informed and rational
decisions, particularly in areas such as employee
performance evaluation and task allocation.
o Weaknesses: The theory originated in an era dominated
by manual labor. Critics argue that it is less applicable
to knowledge-based work where creativity, problem-
solving, and collaboration are essential components.
Decision Theory of Management
• Founded by Herbert Simon, the theory argues that decision
making is the heart of administration. The language and
framework for describing administration must be based on
the logic and psychology of human choice.
• Simon introduced the concept of "bounded rationality, "
suggesting that individuals, especially those in public service,
face limitations in their ability to make perfectly informed
and optimal decisions
• Types of Decisions:
1) Programmed Decisions: These decisions often have
predetermined solutions, and managers can use
standard procedures to reach conclusions.
2) Non-Programmed Decisions: They arise in novel and
unique situations where there are no specific rules or
guidelines to follow.
• Theory Applied:
o Strengths: The theory provides a realistic framework
that moves away from idealized notions and focuses on
how decisions are actually made in complex situations
o Weaknesses: The distinction between satisficing and
optimizing has been considered vague by some critics,
questioning whether individuals truly aim for
satisfactory solutions or optimal ones within their
constraints.
Contingency Theory of Management
• Contingency Theory was developed by psychologist
Professor Fred Fiedler in the 1960s.
• The theory emphasizes that the effectiveness of a leader is
contingent upon the interaction between their leadership
style and the characteristics of the situation or environment
in which they are leading.
• Variables determining Situational Favorableness:
o Leader-Member Relations: Focuses on trust within the
team.
o Task Structure: Refers to the clarity of tasks in a project.
o Position Power: Indicates the leader's authority over the
team
• Theory Applied:
o Strengths: The theories acknowledge the impact of
situational factors on leadership effectiveness.
Considering leader-member relations, task structure,
and position power, it provides a nuanced
understanding of how leadership styles may vary in
different circumstances.
o Weaknesses: While the theory considers leader-
member relations, task structure, and position power, it
may oversimplify the complexity of situational factors
that influence leadership effectiveness.
REPORT 3:
INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS: APPROACHES AND
TECHNIQUES
Intergovernmental Relations
• The relationships between different governments within a
single country
• The coming together of different orders of government for
the achievement of common goals
Approaches of Intergovernmental Relations
• Formal and Informal Intergovernmental Relations
• Vertical and Horizontal Intergovernmental Relations
• Sectoral Intergovernmental Relations
What are the Techniques?
• Can be studied from a wide range of perspectives, such as
political, fiscal, legal, and sociological
• Can also be assessed in terms of the conflict and
collaboration involving interactions among governmental
entities
Intergovernmental Relations in the PH
• The Intergovernmental Relations Body (IGRB), created in
2019 under Section 2, Article VI of the Bangsamoro Organic
Law (BOL), seeks to coordinate and resolve
intergovernmental relations issues that arise between the
national government and BARMM. It is done through
meetings and negotiation
Critical Issues, Concepts, and Ideas
• Fiscal Decentralization
o Unequal Resource Allocation: LGUs lack funds due to
fixed national tax shares.
o Limited Fiscal Autonomy: LGUs need approval for
spending, limiting flexibility.
• Functional Overlap and Duplication: Blurred
Responsibility
o Blurred Responsibility: Unclear task division leads to
inefficiencies.
o Uncoordinated Planning: Overlapping duties cause
conflicting policies.
• Weak Institutional Capacity
o Lack of Expertise: LGUs lack skilled staff for policy
implementation.
o Infrastructure Deficits: Poor infrastructure hampers
communication and collaboration.
• Political Interference
o Central Government Influence: National politics affect
LGU decisions.
o Dynastic Politics: Political dynasties disrupt governance
and create imbalances.
• The Bangsamoro Issue:
o BOL Implementation Challenges: Issues include
resource allocation and power clarification.
• Ideas for Improvement:
o Strengthen Fiscal Autonomy
o Clarify Roles
o Capacity Building
o Encourage Collaboration
o Enhance Accountability
Critique: Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths:
o Coordination and collaboration
o Enhanced policies
o Promotion of local autonomy
• Weaknesses:
o Resource allocation
o Fragmentation caused by its multi-stakeholder nature
REPORT 4:
INTER-LOCAL GOVERNMENT RELATIONS: POLITICS AND
ADMINSTRATION
Background of Inter-Local Government Relations
• IGR is broadly defined as the coming together of different
orders of government through formal or informal processes,
for the achievement of common goals.
• The essence of IGR is to facilitate cooperation and
collaboration between the different orders of government.
• Inter-Local Government Relations in the 1987 Constitution:
o Section 13, Article X demonstrates the “Horizontal IGR
mechanism” — this is a mandate for all local
government units to work together for the common
good
o Section 15, Article X is “Vertical IGR. ” This is the
collaboration or cooperation of the different levels of
government at the vertical level: national government
and local government.
Scope of Inter-Local Government Relations
1. Collaboration and Cooperation
• LGUs aligning their policies and initiatives to address
regional or local issues collectively.
• Collaboration enables the sharing of resources,
knowledge, and expertise among LGUs.
2. Regional Development
• LGUs work together to develop regional development
plans that consider the unique needs and opportunities
of the entire area. This helps in achieving sustainable
and inclusive growth.
3. Conflict Resolution
• Inter-local government relations help manage and
resolve boundary disputes between adjacent LGUs,
ensuring that governance responsibilities and resources
are clearly defined
• Resource Allocation: Collaborative efforts can assist in
resolving conflicts related to the allocation of resources,
such as revenue-sharing and equitable distribution of
funds.
4. Inter-LGU Organizations
• Regional Development Councils (RDCs): RDCs serve as
venues for coordination and cooperation among LGUs,
national government agencies, and the private sector
to promote regional development.
• Local Development Councils (LDCs): At the local level,
LDCs facilitate collaboration in planning and
implementing development projects
Analysis of Strengths and Weaknesses
A. Role of Political Institutions and Actors
• It acts as a significant framework in adapting and
nourishing government administration in societies.
• However, it creates an excessive use of power and
corruption.
B. Party Affiliations and Electoral Cycles
• It creates a foundation for active political participation
which enhances democratic responsibilities.
• Inter-local government relations in this context are
weakened when there is a partisan interest.
C. Influence of Interest and Ideologies
• The influence of interest and ideologies has the power to
gather effective plans and to help bring a collaborative
environment among local government entities.
• Its weakness lies in the extreme competition and
tensions among local entities with different interests
and ideologies.
D. Political Collaborations
• Inter-local government relations’ strength is through
encouraging political participation and democratic
practices.
• Political collaboration of inter-local governments is
weakened because there is not enough institutional
capability to sustain efficient relations.
Critique and Evaluation of Inter-Local Government Relations
A. Impact of Challenges
• Political Dynasties: limited presentation of myriad
representatives hinders the need for upgraded
leadership, and threatens democratic procedures.
• Coordination Issues: there are impaired responses to
crises and neglect of environmental objectives.
 • Resource Restrictions: it creates a negative impact on
the performance and enactment of innovation projects.
B. Effectiveness and Efficiency
• Improved Service Performance: enhance government
functions and infrastructure are results of LGUs
collaborative and shared common practices.
• Joint Help and Proficiency: the shared resources and
aid from a local government enhances its effectiveness
and efficiency.
• Innovation of Policy and Shared Practice: the exchange
of LGU’s ideologies and interests embraces the best
approaches for governance
C. Areas for Improvement
• Improving Coordination Agencies: LGUs require best
collaboration particularly in disaster mitigation as well
as in environmental preservation.
• Handling Resource Restrictions: In rural areas, LGUs
demand additional resources and proficiency.
• Alleviating Political Influence: Feuds and disputes in the
political landscape should be prevented as it impedes
collaboration and democratic expression.
REPORT 5:
The Practice of Development Management: Concepts,
Theories, and Practices
Practices
• Development management involves the planning,
coordination, and implementation of policies and programs
aimed at fostering sustainable growth, improving the quality
of life for residents, and addressing the diverse needs of the
community.
1. Local Planning and Development Plans: Comprehensive
Plans Land Use Planning
2. Regulatory Compliance: Zoning Regulations Building Codes
3. Economic Development: Entrepreneurship Support Job
Creation
4. Project Management: Infrastructure Projects Community
Facilities
5. Crisis Management and Resilience: Community Resilience
Contingency Planning
6. Infrastructure and Service Delivery: Basic Infrastructure
Service Accessibility
7. Stakeholder Collaboration: Interagency Cooperation Public-
Private Partnerships
8. Resource Mobilization: Proper utilization and allocation of
funds Human Resource Development and Capacity Building
Theories and Real Life Applications
1. Modernization Theory
• It posits that societies progress through a series of
stages of development.
• This theory is visible in the Public Utility Vehicle
Modernization Program (PUVMP) of the Philippines to
modernize jeepneys.
2. Dependency Theory
• Dependency theory emphasizes the structural
inequalities and power imbalances between developed
and developing countries.
• In the Philippines' record-high debt of P14.51 trillion in
November 2023 reflects the country's continued
dependency on external financing and the structural
inequalities that contribute to its economic challenges.
3. Structural Functionalism
• Structural Functionalism refers to how various
institutions and social structures work together to
maintain social order and stability
• In the Philippine context, the 3 branches of
government—executive, legislative, and judicial—can be
understood through the lens of this theory as
interrelated parts of a complex system that work
together to maintain social order and stability.
4. Institutional Theory
• Institutional theory examines the role of formal and
informal institutions in shaping individual and
organizational behavior.
• The CDP reflects Institutional Theory by outlining
strategic plans for five development sectors—social,
environmental, economic, institutional, and
infrastructure for the LGU’s
5. Participatory Development
• Participatory development approaches emphasize the
involvement of local communities and stakeholders in
the decision-making processes related to development
initiatives.
• An example in the Phil. is the Bottom-Up Budgeting
(BUB) process, where citizens and civil society
organizations participate in identifying priority projects
for funding in their communities.
6. Sustainable Development
• This theory advocates for meeting the needs of the
present generation without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs.
• An example in the Phil. the Sustainable Integrated Area
Development (SIAD) approach, which aims to promote
sustainable development by integrating economic,
social, and environmental considerations in local
development plans
7. Human Development Approach
• This theory prioritizes expanding human capabilities
and freedoms as the primary objective of development.
• An example is the Pantawid Pamilyang Pilipino
Program (4Ps), which provides conditional cash
transfers to poor households, focusing on improving
access to education and healthcare for children.