Chapter 1

Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
Section 1.1
Chemistry: An Overview Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
▪ The main challenge of chemistry is to understand

the connection between the macroscopic world
that we experience and the microscopic world of
atoms and molecules.
▪ You must learn to think on the atomic level.

2
Section 1.1
Atoms vs. Molecules

▪ Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
▪ Atom: the smallest part of an element that is still that element.
▪ Element: a substance that is made entirely (‫ )مصنوعة بالكامل‬from
one type of atom
▪ Molecule: Two or more atoms joined and acting as a unit.
(consists of neutral species (CO, SF6,….)
▪ Compound: consists of neutral and/or ionic species (NaF, CO,..)
3
Section 1.1
Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules

• Use subscripts when more than one atom is in the
molecule.
• Diatomic molecules: composed of the single element of the

same type (O2, F2,….)
4
Section 1.1
A Chemical Reaction
▪ One substance changes to another by
reorganizing the way the atoms are attached to
each other.
5
Section 1.2
The Scientific Method Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Science
▪ Science is a framework for gaining and organizing
knowledge (‫)إطار الكتساب وتنظيم المعرفة‬
▪ Science is a plan of action — a procedure for processing
and understanding certain types of information.
It is not simply a set of facts
▪ Scientists are always challenging our current beliefs
about science, asking questions, and experimenting to
gain new knowledge.
▪ Scientific method is needed.
6
Section 1.2
Fundamental (Fundamental) Steps of the Scientific Method

Process that lies at the center of scientific inquiry.
1. What is the problem
2. Making observation: (collecting data)
Observations may be :
▪ Qualitative (water is a liquid)
▪ Quantitative (water boils at 100 ºC)
3. Formulating hypotheses (making a
prediction)
possible explanation for an observation
4. Performing experiments (testing
hypotheses)
Gathering new information
7
Section 1.2
Scientific Models
Hypothesis: a possible explanation for an observation.
Theory (Model): a Set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall
explanation of some natural phenomenon.
Observations vs Theories
Observation is something that is witnessed and can be recorded.
Theory is a possible explanation of why nature behaves in a
particular way, and it can be changed as more information
becomes available. (explanation of behavior)
Law: a summary of repeatable observed (measurable) behavior..
Example: law of conservation of mass.
8
Section 1.2
Example:
Boyle’s Law, states that
as the pressure (P) is increased on a gas, the volume (V)

that the gas occupies will shrink proportionately, at a
constant temperature,
PV = a constant.
9
Section 1.3
Units of Measurement Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Nature of Measurement
Measurement: quantitative observation consisting of two parts.
number and scale (unit)
• Examples
20 grams 6.63 × 10-34 joule·second
Two major systems of units
The English system and the metric system
The volume of Soda :
12 fluid ounces (English system) and 354 milliliters (SI system).
If you are 5.00 feet tall (English system),
your height is 1.52 meters (m) (SI system).
10
Section 1.3
The Fundamental SI Units SI: International System
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
11
Section 1.3
Prefixes Used in the SI System

• Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit.
unit unit
12
Section 1.3
Prefixes Used in the SI System
1 L = (1 dm)3 = (10 cm)3 , 1 m = 10 dm , 1 cm3 = 1 mL , 1 L = 1 dm3 , 1 m3 = 103 L

13
Section 1.3
Mass ≠ Weight
▪ Mass is a measure of the resistance of an object to a
change in its state of motion. Mass does not vary.
▪ Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object.

Weight varies with the strength of the gravitational field.
14
Section 1.3
▪ Examples: convert
1. 1437 mm to m (1.437 m)
2. 172 cm to dm (17.2 dm)
3. 0.225 dm3 to cm3 (225 cm3)
15
Section 1.4
Uncertainty in Measurement Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
▪ A digit that must be estimated in a measurement is

called uncertain.
▪ A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
It is dependent on the precision of the measuring
device.
▪ Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit
(the estimated number).
16
Section 1.4
Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

▪ The volume is read at the bottom of the
liquid curve (meniscus).
▪ Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about
20.15 mL.
▪ Certain digits: 20.15
▪ Uncertain digit: 20.15
The uncertainty in the last number (the
estimated number) is usually assumed to be
±1 unless otherwise indicated
17
Section 1.4
Measurement of Volume Using a graduate cylinder
18
Section 1.4
Example
What is the difference between the measurements
25.00 mL measured with a buret and 25 mL measured with a
graduated cylinder?
24.99 mL or 25.01 mL 24 mL or 26 mL
19
Section 1.4
Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy
• Agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Precision
• Degree of agreement among several measurements

of the same quantity.
20
Section 1.4
Types of errors
Random error (indeterminate error)
• Measurement has an equal probability of being high or low. (affect the
precision)
measured value (both
× ×× direction)
True value
× ××
Systematic error (determinate error)

• Make the measurements in the same direction each time, it is either
always high or always low. (affect the accuracy)
× ××××
True value
21
Section 1.4
Precision and Accuracy
Indicates small
Indicates large Indicates small
random errors and no
random errors random errors but a
systematic error
large systematic error
22
Section 1.4
Answer:
- very good precision (for a graduated cylinder)
- average value measured by buret is significantly different from 25 mL.
Graduated cylinder is not very accurate. (systematic error)
23
Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
▪ 3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).
❑Question: Give the number of significant figures:

a- 1425
b- 85
c- 9965842
24
Section 1.5
Significant Figures and Calculations
Dr. Osama Al-Madanat

2. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros (‫)االصفار البادئة‬: are zeros that precede
(‫ )تسبق‬all the nonzero digits. These do not count as
significant figures (sf).
▪ 0.048 2 sf.
▪ 0.000586 3 sf
▪ 0.00000052831 5 sf
25
Section 1.5

b. Captive zeros (‫)األصفار المقيدة‬: are zeros between
nonzero digits. These always count as significant figures.
▪ 16.07 has 4 sig figs.
▪ 1.0025 5 sf
▪ 10.2041 6 sf
26
Section 1.5

c. Trailing zeros (‫)األصفار الزائدة‬: are zeros at the right end of
the number. They are significant only if the number
contains a decimal point.
▪ 9.300 has 4 sig figs.

▪ 150 has 2 sig figs.
27
Section 1.5

3. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant
figures. They have no uncertainty
▪ 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.
▪ 9 pencils (obtained by counting).
▪ 8 molecules
▪ 1 m = 100 cm
28
Section 1.5
Exponential Notation
▪ Example
▪ 300. written as 3.00 × 102
▪ Contains three significant figures.
▪ Two Advantages
▪ Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.
▪ Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very
small number.
➢ N × 10m , N: 1-9
m: the power (± integer no.)
29
Section 1.5
Rules for Rounding
1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the final
result, then round.
2. If the digit to be removed
a. is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same. For example,
1.33 rounds to 1.3.
b. is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit is increased by 1.
For example, 1.36 rounds to 1.4.
Example
Round the number 4.345 to Two significant figures
4.3 4.4 (Do not round sequentially)
Exercise: Round the number 6.8347 to three significant figures
30
Section 1.5
❑ Examples: Give the no. of S.F

1. 0.0105 g (3 S.F)
2. 0.050080 g (5 S.F)
3. 8.050 × 10-3 s (4 S.F)
▪ 568.762 express it in scientific notation

➢ 5.68762 × 102
▪ Round the number 33.245 x 103 to:

1- three digits
2- four digits
31
Section 1.5
Exercises
Q1: Show how to indicate the number one thousand to 1 significant
figure, 2 significant figures, 3 significant figures, and 4 significant
figures.
Q2: How many significant figures are in each of the following?
For more practice problems visit the following site:

https://www.sciencegeek.net/Activities/sigfigs.html
32
Section 1.5
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
1. For multiplication or division, the number of significant

figures in the result is the same as the number in the least
precise measurement used in the calculation.
1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 → 7.4 (the answer contains 2 SF)
11.2 × 3.151 = 35.2912 → 35.3

S.F: 3 4 6 3
(the answer contains 3 SF)
33
Section 1.5
Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
2. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same

number of decimal places as the least precise
measurement used in the calculation.
23.445
+ 7.83
31.275 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Corrected 31.28
(the answer contains 2 decimal points AND 4 SF)
34
Section 1.5
Examples
Carry out the following mathematical operations, and give each
result with the correct number of significant figures.
, if:
35
Section 1.5
▪
A- 0.781 × 0.23 / 5.871 (3.1 × 10-2)
36
Section 1.5
▪
B- 0.781 - 0.23 / 5.871 (9.4 × 10-2)
37
Section 1.5
▪
C- 0.781 + 0.23 / 5.871 (0.172 or 1.72 × 10-1)
38
Section 1.5
▪
with no decimal point because the no. with least no. of decimal places (21) has none)
39
Section 1.5
40
Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis
▪ Use when converting a given result from one system of

units to another.
▪ To convert from one unit to another, use the
equivalence statement that relates the two units.
▪ Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the
direction of the required change (to cancel the
unwanted units).
▪ Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit
factor to give the quantity with the desired units.
41
Section 1.7
Dimensional Analysis Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How
many inches does this represent?
• To convert from one unit to another, use the
equivalence statement that relates the two units.
1 ft = 12 in
The two unit factors are:
1 ft 12 in
and
12 in 1 ft
42
Section 1.7
Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many
inches does this represent?
▪ Derive the appropriate unit factor by looking at the direction of
the required change (to cancel the unwanted units).
12 in
6.8 ft  = in
1 ft
43
Section 1.7
Example #1
A golfer putted a golf ball 6.8 ft across a green. How many
inches does this represent?
▪ Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor to give
the quantity with the desired units.
12 in
6.8 ft  = 82 in
1 ft
44
Section 1.7
Example #2
An iron sample has a mass of 4.50 lb (pounds). What is
the mass of this sample in grams?
(1 kg = 2.2046 lbs; 1 kg = 1000 g)
1 kg 1000 g
4.50 lbs   = 2.04  103 g
2.2046 lbs 1 kg
45
Section 1.7
CONCEPT CHECK!
What data would you need to estimate the money you

would spend on gasoline to drive your car from New
York to Los Angeles? Provide estimates of values and a
sample calculation.
46
Section 1.7
EXERCISE!
1 km = 1000 m
1 m = 1.094 yd
47
Section 1.8
Temperature Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Three Systems for Measuring Temperature

▪ Fahrenheit
▪ Celsius
▪ Kelvin
48
Section 1.8
The Three Major Temperature Scales
49
Section 1.8
Converting Between Scales
TK = TC + 273.15 TC = TK − 273.15
TC = ( )
TF − 32 F
5C
9F
TF = TC 
9F
5C
+ 32 F
50
Section 1.8
EXERCISE!
❑ 50 °F to ?? °C (10 °C)
❑ 25 °C to ?? °F (77 °F)
❑ 0 °K to ?? °F (-459.67 °F)
( K → C → F)
51
Section 1.8
EXERCISE!
TC = (TF − 32 F )
5C
9F
At what temperature does ° F
C = °?
▪ Since °C equals °F, they both should be the same value
(designated as variable x).
▪ Use one of the conversion equations such as:
(
TC = TF − 32 F ) 5C
9F
▪ Substitute in the value of x for both TC and TF. Solve for x.
°
52
Section 1.8
EXERCISE!
TC = (
TF − 32 F ) 5C
9F
x= ( x − 32 F ) 5C
9F
x = − 40
So − 40C = − 40F
53
Section 1.9
Density Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
▪ Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance.

▪ Common units are g/cm3 or g/mL.
mass
Density =
volume
g/cm3 or g cm-3
54
Section 1.9
Example #1
A certain mineral has a mass of 17.8 g and a volume
of 2.35 cm3. What is the density of this mineral?
mass
Density =
volume
17.8 g
Density =
2.35 cm3
3
Density = 7.57 g/cm
55
Section 1.9
Example #2
What is the mass of a 49.6 mL sample of a liquid,
which has a density of 0.85 g/mL?
mass
Density =
volume
mass = x = 42 g
x
0.85 g/mL =
49.6 mL
Mass = x = 42.16 Remember (2 s.f)

Mass = x = 42 g
56
Section 1.10
Classification of Matter Dr. Osama Al-Madanat
Matter
▪ Anything occupying space and having mass.
▪ Matter exists in three states.
▪ Solid
▪ Liquid
▪ Gas
▪ Matter could be Mixture or pure substance.
Substance: one or more types of atoms combined

chemically
57
Section 1.10
The Three States of Water
58
Section 1.10
Solid
▪ Rigid
▪ Has fixed volume and shape.
Liquid
▪ Has definite volume but no specific shape.
▪ Assumes shape of container.
Gas
▪ Has no fixed volume or shape.
▪ Takes on the shape and volume of its container. 59
Section 1.10
Mixtures
▪ Have variable composition.
Homogeneous Mixture
▪ Having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution.
Heterogeneous Mixture
▪ Having visibly distinguishable parts.
60
Section 1.10
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?
▪ Pure water
▪ Gasoline
▪ Soil
▪ Copper metal
61
Section 1.10
Physical Change
▪ Change in the form of a substance, not in its chemical
composition.
▪ Example: boiling or freezing water
▪ Can be used to separate a mixture into pure
compounds, but it will not break compounds into
elements.
▪ Distillation
▪ Filtration
▪ Chromatography
62
Section 1.10
Chemical Change
▪ A given substance becomes a new substance or
substances with different properties and different
composition.
▪ Example: Bunsen burner (methane reacts with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water)
63
Section 1.10
Measurable properties of matter fall into two categories:
❖ Extensive properties:
➢ Depends on how much matter I have (mass, length, volume,….)
(depend on the amount of substance)
❖ Intensive properties:
➢ don’t depend on the amount of substance
(temperature, boiling point, density,…..)
64
Section 1.10
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which of the following are examples of a chemical

change?
▪ Pulverizing (crushing) rock salt

▪ Burning of wood
▪ Dissolving of sugar in water
▪ Melting the ice on a warm summer day
65
Section 1.10
The Organization of Matter
66

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▪ The main challenge of chemistry is to understand

▪ You must learn to think on the atomic level.

Atoms vs. Molecules

Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules

• Diatomic molecules: composed of the single element of the

Fundamental (Fundamental) Steps of the Scientific Method

Boyle’s Law, states that

as the pressure (P) is increased on a gas, the volume (V)

The Fundamental SI Units SI: International System

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation

Prefixes Used in the SI System

Prefixes Used in the SI System

1 L = (1 dm)3 = (10 cm)3 , 1 m = 10 dm , 1 cm3 = 1 mL , 1 L = 1 dm3 , 1 m3 = 103 L

▪ Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object.

▪ A digit that must be estimated in a measurement is

Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

Measurement of Volume Using a graduate cylinder

Precision and Accuracy

• Agreement of a particular value with the true value.

• Degree of agreement among several measurements

Systematic error (determinate error)

Precision and Accuracy

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

❑Question: Give the number of significant figures:

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

▪ 9.300 has 4 sig figs.

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

❑ Examples: Give the no. of S.F

▪ 568.762 express it in scientific notation

▪ Round the number 33.245 x 103 to:

Q2: How many significant figures are in each of the following?

For more practice problems visit the following site:

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

1. For multiplication or division, the number of significant

1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 → 7.4 (the answer contains 2 SF)

11.2 × 3.151 = 35.2912 → 35.3

Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations

2. For addition or subtraction, the result has the same

(the answer contains 2 decimal points AND 4 SF)

▪ Use when converting a given result from one system of

The two unit factors are:

What data would you need to estimate the money you

Three Systems for Measuring Temperature

The Three Major Temperature Scales

Converting Between Scales

▪ Use one of the conversion equations such as:

▪ Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance.

Mass = x = 42.16 Remember (2 s.f)

Substance: one or more types of atoms combined

The Three States of Water

▪ Having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution.

▪ Having visibly distinguishable parts.

Which of the following is a homogeneous mixture?

Measurable properties of matter fall into two categories:

Which of the following are examples of a chemical

▪ Pulverizing (crushing) rock salt

The Organization of Matter

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