MECHANICAL

MEASUREMENTS &
METROLOGY
10ME32B
TEXTBOOKS

 ENGINEERING METROLOGY :: R.K.JAIN

 MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS & METROLOGY :: Dr. T. CHANDRASHEKHAR
Syllabus
Syllabus
Syllabus
Syllabus
METROLOGY
 Precision vs Accuracy
Inaccurate and imprecise (unrepeatable)

Stone age man

missed the bull's-
eye and the 3
attempts were not
near each other.

Precise but inaccurate

Robin Hood's Merry
Man missed the
bull's-eye but the 3
attempts were near
each other.
8
Precision vs Accuracy (cont)
Accurate but imprecise

American Indian's 3
attempts are near
the bull's-eye, but
were not near each
other.

Accurate and precise

Olympic archer hits

the bull's-eye 3
times!

9
METROLOGY
Metrology is derived from greek word
Metro – which means measurement
Logy – which means science

Hence metrology is called as science of pure measurements.

Measurements are quantitative observations; numerical descriptions

OBJECTIVES OF
METROLOGY
Used for selection of proper measuring instrument.
Used for deciding proper measuring standards.
Used for minimizing cost of inspection.
Maintain accuracy and precision at the time of
measurements
 FUNCTIONS OF METROLOGY
Establishing units of measurements.
Reproducing these units as standards.
Ensuring the uniformity of measurements
Developing method of measurements
Analysis of accuracy of measurements w.r.t errors

.
 TYPES OF METROLOGY
LEGAL METROLOGY OR SCIENTIFIC METROLOGY
INDUSTRIAL METROLOGY

.
LEGAL METROLOGY
 It is concerned with establishment of quantity system, unit of
measurement, development of new methods etc.
 Applications
Commercial transactions
Measurement of health
Measurement of human safety
INDUSTRIAL METROLOGY
 It is concerned with the applications of measurement science to
manufacturing and other processes and their use in society
INSPECTION
 In engineering activities inspection involves the measurements, tests,
and gauges applied to certain characteristics in regard to object and
activity.
 Needs and Functions of Inspection

To achieve
interchangeability
To determine
good or bad parts

To support the
To improve and develop
manufacturing department
precision measuring
instruments

17
NEED FOR INSPECTION
 Quality output.
Change in Technology
Mass production
Save money
Interchangeability
To develop reputation
FUNDAMENTALS OF METROLOGY

Principles of Metrology
◦ Fundamentals Units and Standards
◦ Language of measurement and must be constant worldwide
◦ SI base units:
1. Length : Meter (m)
2. Mass : Kilograms (kg)
3. Time : second (s)
4. Current : Ampere (A)
5. Thermo. Temp : Kelvin (K)
6. Amount of subs. : Mole (mol)
7. Luminous intensity : Candela (cd)
 WE WANT TO MAKE “GOOD”
MEASUREMENTS
Making measurements is woven throughout daily life in a lab.

Often take measurements for granted, but measurements must be

“good”.

What is a “good” measurement?

EXAMPLE
A man weighs himself in the morning on his bathroom scale, 172
pounds.
Later, he weighs himself at the gym,173 pounds.
QUESTIONS
How much does he really weigh?
Do you trust one or other scale? Which one? Could both be wrong? Do
you think he actually gained a pound?
Are these “good measurements”?
NOT SURE
We are not exactly certain of the man’s true weight because:
Maybe his weight really did change – always sample issues

Maybe one or both scales are wrong – always instrument issues

DO WE REALLY CARE?
Do you care if he really gained a pound?

How many think “give or take” a pound is OK?

ANOTHER EXAMPLE
Suppose a premature baby is weighed. The weight is recorded as 5
pounds 3 ounces and the baby is sent home.

Do we care if the scale is off by a pound?

“GOOD” MEASUREMENTS
A “good” measurement is one that can be trusted when making
decisions.

We just made judgments about scales.

We make this type of judgment routinely.

IN THE LAB
Anyone who works in a lab makes judgments about whether
measurements are “good enough” –
◦ but often the judgments are made subconsciously
◦ differently by different people

Want to make decisions

◦ Conscious
◦ Consistent
QUALITY SYSTEMS
All laboratory quality systems are concerned with measurements

All want “good” measurements

NEED
Awareness of issues so can make “good” measurements.

Language to discuss measurements.

Tools to evaluate measurements.

VOCABULARY
Units of measurement

Standards
Calibration
Traceability
Tolerance

Accuracy
Precision
Errors
Uncertainty
FUNDAMENTALS OF METROLOGY
To determine good and bad parts
1. To determine the conformance of products to specifications or requirements –
important in assisting manufacturing process and assuring of quality.
2. In industry, inspection is used for selection of products whether it can be
‘accepted’ or ‘rejected’
3. To maintain the product quality – meet customer satisfaction index

To achieve Interchangeability
1. Interchangeability – products should be able to fit and mate if chosen randomly
from different manufacturers
2. Examples: Screws and threads, nuts and bolts, pipes and pressure vessels,
pnuematic and hydraulics fittings/valves, etc.
3. Can be achieved by means of measuring and gauging
1. Calipers, micrometers, thickness gauge, radius gauge etc
2. Plug gauge, pin gauge, ring gauge etc
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
 To provide accuracy at minimum cost.
 Thorough evaluation of newly developed products.
 To determine the measuring instrument capabilities.
 To reduce the cost of inspection , rejection & rework.
 To standardize measuring methods
 To maintain the accuracy of measurements through periodic
caliberation of the instruments.
 To prepare design for gauges and special inspection fixtures.
STANDARD
A standard is defined as something that is setup and established by an
authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, weight, value.

For example: A meter is a standard setup by an international

organization for the measurement of length.
STANDARDS ARE:
Physical objects, the properties of which are known with sufficient
accuracy to be used to evaluate other items.
STANDARDS ALSO ARE
Documents established by consensus and approved by a recognized
body that establish rules to make a process consistent
◦ Example ISO 9000
◦ ASTM standard method calibrating micropipettor
STANDARDS OF LENGTH
International Prototype Meter
STANDARDS OF LENGTH
International Prototype Meter
Imperial standard yard
Imperial standard yard
Airy points
DISADVANTAGES OF MATERIAL LENGTH
STANDARDS

Material length standards varies in length over the years.

The exact replicas of material length standards were not
available for use somewhere else
If these standards are accidentally damages or destroyed
then exact copies could not be made
Conversion factors has to be used for changing over to
metric systems
 Wavelength Standard

The Meter is defined as 1650763.73 wavelengths of the orange radiation

in vacuum of the krypton 86-isotrope.

The Yard is defined as 1509458.35 wavelengths of the orange radiation

in vacuum of the krypton 86-isotrope.

Meter is defined as the length of path travelled by the light in vacuum in

1/299792458 second.
 ADVANATGES OF USING LIGHT Standard
Length does not change
It can be reproduced easily if destroyed at any time and at
any place
This primary unit is accessible to any physical property.
Measurements with higher accuracy
 Subdivisions of standards

1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary Standards
3. Tertiary Standards
4. Working Standards
 TYPES of standards

1. Line Standard
2. End Standards
1. Line Standards

When the length being measured is expressed as the

distance between two lines then it is called line
standard. Ex: Measuring scales, Imperial standard
yard, International Prototype Meter.
1. Line Standards

Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take the full

advantage of the accuracy.
A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.
The scale marking are not subjected to wear although significant wear on
leading ends results in under sizing
A scale does posses a built in datum
Scales are subjected to parallax effect
Scales are not subjected to close tolerance length measurement.
2. End standard Standards

When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
parallel end faces then it is called end standard. They can be made to high degree
of accuracy.
2. End standard Standards

End standards are highly accurate and are well suited to measurements of close
tolerances.
They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time
Dimensional tolerance as small as 0.0005 mm can be measured
End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
End standards have built in datum, because their measuring faces are flat and
parallel and can be positively located on a datum surfaces.
They are not subjected to parallax effect.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LINE
STANDARD AND END STANDARD
SL.N CHARACTERIST LINE STANDARD END STANDARD
O ICS
1. PRINCIPLE LENGTH IS LENGTH IS EXPRESSED
EXPRESSED AS THE AS THE DISTANCE
DISTANCE BETWEEN BETWEEN TWO FLAT
TWO LINES. PARALLEL FACES.
2. ACCURACY LIMITED TO +/- 0.2 MM HIGHLY ACCURATE FOR
FOR HIGH ACCURACY MEASUREMENTS OF
CLOSE TOLERANCES UP
TO +/- 0.001 MM
3. EASE & TIME OF MEASUREMENT IS USE OF END STANDARD
MEASUREMENT QUICK AND EASY REQUIRES SKILL AND IS
TIME CONSUMING
4. EFFECT OF SCALE MARKINGS THESE ARE SUBJECTED
WEAR ARE NOT SUBJECTED TO WEAR ON THEIR
TO WEAR, HOWEVER MEASURING SURFACES
SIGNIFICANT WEAR
MAY OCCUR ON
LEADING ENDS.
COMPARISON BETWEEN LINE
STANDARD AND END STANDARD
5. ALIGNMENT CANNOT BE EASILY CAN BE EASILY
ALIGNED WITH THE ALIGNED WITH THE
AXIS OF AXIS OF
MEASUREMENT. MEASUREMENT.

6. MANUFACTURE SIMPLE TO MANUFACTURING

& COST MANUFACTURE AT LOW PROCESS IS COMPLEX
COST AND COST IS HIGH

7. PARALLAX THEY ARE SUBJECTED THEY ARE NOT

EFFECT TO PARALLAX ERROR SUBJECTED TO
PARALLAX ERROR

8. EXAMPLES SCALE, INTERNATIONAL SLIP GAUGES, END

PROTOTYPE METER, BARS, MICROMETERS
IMPERIAL STANDARD ETC.
YARD
Transfer from line standard to end standard
 Transfer from line standard to end standard
L1=A+b+c

The two blocks at the ends can be arranged in four ways.

L1=A+b+c
L1=A+b+d
L1=A+a+c &
L1=A+a+d
Adding the four we get,
4L1= 4A+2a+2b+2c+2d
4L1 = 4A+2(a+b)+2(c+d)---------(i)
Transfer from line standard to end standard
As the blocks (a+b) & (c+d) cannot be exactly of the same length.
The two are compared and the difference between them is shown in the fig,
Transfer from line standard to end standard
Putting this value of (c+d) in equation (i), we get

4L1=4A+2(a+b) +2[(a+b0+x]
4L1=4A+2(a+b)+2(a+b)+x
4L1=4A+4(a+b) +2x

Dividing by 4 we have,
L1= A+(a+b)+1/2x
Transfer from line standard to end standard
 NUMERICALS
1. A calibrated meter end bar has an actual length of 1000.0003 mm. It is to be used in the
calibration of two bars A & B, each having a basic length of 500 mm.
When compared with the meter end bar LA+LB was found out to be shorter by 0.0002 mm. In
comparing A with B it was found out that A was 0.0004 mm longer than B. Find the actual length
of A & B.
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
 NUMERICALS
3. Four length bars A, B, C, D of approximately 250 mm each are to be calibrated with standard
calibrated meter bar which is actually 0.0008 mm less than a meter. It is also found that, bar B is
0.0002 mm longer than bar A, bar C is 0.0004 mm longer than bar A and bar D is 0.0001 mm
shorter than bar A. The length of all four bars put together is 0.0003 mm longer than the
calibrated standard metre. Determine the actual dimensions of each other.
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
 NUMERICALS
4. Four length bars A, B,C and D each having a basic length 125 mm are to be calibrated using a
calibrated length bar of 500 mm basic length. The 500 mm bar has an actual length of 499.9991
mm. Also it was found that
LB= LA + 0.0001 mm
LC= LA + 0.0005 mm
LD= LA - 0.0002 mm
& LA + LB + LC + LD = L + 0.0003 mm.
Determine LA, LB, LC & LD
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
 SLIP GUAGES
OR
JOHANNSON GAUGES
OR
GUAGE BLOKS
 Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having a cross-section of 30mm
face length and 10mm face width.

 They are made up of high grade steels or tungsten carbide material as they
are hard and wear resistant.

 The gauge block set, also known as "Jo Blocks", was developed by the
Swedish inventor Carl Edward Johansson.
 Basic forms of Slip gauges
1.Rectangular
 This form of slip gauges are used because they are less expensive to
manufacture & where space is limited .

2.Square
 They are expensive & wear out easily.

3.Square with center hole

 The center hole is provided to facilitate assembling
 Indian Standards on Slip Gauges
 Slip gauges are graded according to their accuracy as Grade0, Grade I
& Grade II.

 Grade II is intended for use in workshops during the actual production

of the components.

 Grade I is of higher accuracy and is used in inspection departments.

 Grade 0 is used in laboratories & standard room and is used as a

standard for periodically checking the accuracy of Grade I and Grade
II.
 Indian Standards on Slip Gauges(cont..)
M--45 SET OF SLIP GAUFES
 Wringing Phenomena
 Slip gauges are used to provide end standards of specific length by
combining several individual slip gauges.
 Combining of slip gauges is accomplished by wringing phenomena.
 The phenomena of wringing takes place when two flat lapped surfaces are
placed in contact with a sliding movement.
 A small amount of grease or moisture must be present between the surfaces
to wring them satisfactorily.
 Remove the slip gauges from the box or stack.
 First the surfaces of the slip gauges should be washed in petrol, benzene or
other de-greasing agent & wiped dry on a clean cloth.
 A small amount of grease is applied on the sliding surfaces.
 Then one gauge is placed at right angles to the other and slid one over the other
by applying pressure as shown in fig.
 While pressing a twisting motion is applied until the gauge blocks are lined up
as shown in fig (c).
 It is mainly due to the molecular adhesion between liquid film and the mating
flat surfaces.
 Similarly for separating the two wrung slip gauges, combined sliding and
twisting motion is used.
 Air pressure applies pressure between the blocks because the air is
squeezed out of the joint.
 Molecular attraction occurs when two very flat surfaces are brought into
contact. This force causes gauge blocks to adhere.
 The ability for a given gauge block to wring is called wringability.
 Minimum requirements:
 surface finish of at least 0.025µm.
 flatness of at least 0.13µm.
 aces must be parallel.
 Minimum requirements for materials: Hardness >30 HRC.
High Temperature stability.
Corrosion resistance.
 Manufacture of slip gauges developed by NPL
 The high grade steel blocks are hardened & subjected to heat treatment.
 Batches of eight blocks are placed of nominal sizes are mounted on magnetic
chuck.
 The exposed faces of gauges are now lapped flat.
 Now the exposed faces are truly flat but not parallel.
 It is achieved by interchanging four of the eight gauges diagonally and turning
end to end as shown in fig (b).
 To determine the gauges are of the required sizes, they are removed from the
chuck, wrung and their size are compared with primary standards on a suitable
comparator.
Manufacture of slip gauges developed by NPL

Fig (a) Fig (b)

 Care of slip gauges
 Protect all the surfaces against climatic conditions by suitable coating such
as petroleum jelly.
 Keep the slip gauges in suitable case having separate compartment for each
gauge.
 During the actual use, the fingering of lapped faces should be avoided.
 If during wringing process, any sign of roughness or scratching is felt the
process of wringing should be stopped & faces are examined .
 Selection of slip gauges for required dimension or procedure for
building up slip gauges for required dimension

 Always start with last decimal place and deduct it from the required dimension.
 Select the next smallest figure in the same way, find the remainder and continue
this until the required dimension is completed.
 Suppose the dimension to be build is 29.758mm M112 set.
The last decimal place is 0.008, select 1.008 mm slip gauge.
Now, dimension left is 29.758-1.0008=28.75mm.
For second decimal place of 0.05, select 1.25 mm slip gauge.
Therefore the remainder is 28.75-1.25=27.5mm.
Now select 7.5mm & 20mm to build the required combinations.
Thus we have 20+7.5+1.25+1.008=29.758mm

 After selecting the minimum no of slip gauges in this manner they are cleaned &
wrung with their largest sizes first without touching their measuring surfaces
with fingers.
NUMERICALS
1. Build 58.975 mm using M 112 set of slip gauges
NUMERICALS
1. Build 58.975 mm using M 112 set of slip gauges
NUMERICALS
1. Build 58.975 mm using M 112 set of slip gauges
NUMERICALS
1. Build 58.975 mm using M 112 set of slip gauges
NUMERICALS
1. Using M 112 set of slip gauges, build the following dimensions
49.3115, 68.208 & 52.496
NUMERICALS
1. Using M 112 set of slip gauges, build the following dimensions
49.3115, 68.208 & 52.496
NUMERICALS
1. Using M 112 set of slip gauges, build the following dimensions
49.3115, 68.208 & 52.496
NUMERICALS
The slip gauge set M-38 consists of the following:
Range (mm) Steps (mm) Pieces
1.005 - 1
1.01-1.09 0.01 9
1.1-1.9 0.1 9
1.0-9.0 1.0 9
10.0-100.0 10.0 10

List the slip gauges to be wrung together to produce

the following dimensions:
i) 29.875 mm
ii) 15.09 mm
iii) 101.345 mm
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
NUMERICALS
List the slips to be wrung together to produce an overall dimension
of 92.357 & 35.4875 mm using two protection slips of 2.500 mm
size. Show the slip gauge combination.
NUMERICALS
List the slips to be wrung together to produce an overall dimension
of 92.357 & 35.4875 mm using two protection slips of 2.500 mm
size. Show the slip gauge combination.
NUMERICALS
List the slips to be wrung together to produce an overall dimension
of 92.357 & 35.4875 mm using two protection slips of 2.500 mm
size. Show the slip gauge combination.
 NUMERICALS
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the help of slip
gauge blocks. Two sets available for the purpose are M-45(GRADE)
and M-112 (GRADE II). The range and number of pieces in each set
are given below;
SET M-45 SET M-112
RANGE STEPS PIECES RANGE STEPS PIECES

1.001-1.009 0.001 9 1.005 - 1

1.01-1.09 0.01 9 1.001-1.009 0.001 9

1.1-1.9 0.1 9 1.01-1.49 0.01 49

1.0-9.0 1.0 9 0.5-24.5 0.5 49

10-90 10 9 25.0-100.0 25 4

TOTAL 45 TOTAL 112

 NUMERICALS
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the help of slip
gauge blocks. Two sets available for the purpose are M-45(GRADE)
and M-112 (GRADE II). The range and number of pieces in each set
are given below;
NORMAL SIZE GRADE(0) GRADE (II)

0.5 0.1 0.5

10.0 0.12 0.6
20.0 0.14 0.7
30.0 0.16 0.8
40.0 0.18 0.9
50.0 0.20 1.0
60.0 0.22 1.1
70.0 0.24 1.2
80.0 0.26 1.3
90.0 0.28 1.4
100.0 0.30 1.5
 NUMERICALS
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the help of slip
gauge blocks. Two sets available for the purpose are M-45(GRADE)
and M-112 (GRADE II). The range and number of pieces in each set
are given below;
 NUMERICALS
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the help of slip
gauge blocks. Two sets available for the purpose are M-45(GRADE)
and M-112 (GRADE II). The range and number of pieces in each set
are given below;
 NUMERICALS
It is required to set a dimension of 58.975 mm with the help of slip
gauge blocks. Two sets available for the purpose are M-45(GRADE)
and M-112 (GRADE II). The range and number of pieces in each set
are given below;
TOLERANCE:
The permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance.
Thus it indicates the worker is not expected to produce the part to the
exact size, but a definite small size error is permitted.
TOLERANCE:
TOLERANCE:
TOLERANCE:
TOLERANCE:
TOLERANCE: