1

James O’Rourke

Physical Geography of Stockton University

Envl-2105-001

Dr. Jeffery Webber

Figure 1.

Figure 2

Average Tempurature Per. Month (C)

30
25
20
15
Temp(C)

10
5
0
-5 -19 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -20 -21 -21 -21 -21 -21 -21 -22 -22 -22 -22 -22 -22 -23 -23 -23
v n ar y Jul ep ov an ar ay Jul ep ov an ar ay Jul ep ov an ar ay
No Ja M Ma S N J M M S N J M M S N J M M
Month+Year
2

Figure 2.1

Average Relative Humidity (%)(Nov2019-May 2023)

Relative Humidity(%)

90
80
70
60
50
v n ar ay l p v n ar ay l p v n ar ay l p v n ar ay
No Ja M M Ju Se No Ja M M Ju Se No Ja M M Ju Se No Ja M M
Month

Figure 3

3.1
3

Figure 4

Figure 4.1
4

Figure 4.2

Abstract

Located in the pinelands of southern New Jersey is Stockton Universities campus. There
are a few defining characteristics of this location’s physical geography. Data from the Atlantic
City International Airport shows that we have a temperate climate with no rainy or dry season
with regular precipitation. Precipitation, terrain, and soil all affect the hydrology of a location.
The water profiles on campus have a low discharge rate, due to flat terrain. Another reason for
less water profiles are well draining soil. Which is due to a high sand content. The water
discharge for the two flow meter readings that we took was 0.348 and 0.24882 meters per second
cubed. This is low due flat terrain and lack for rain. The soil on campus is characterized by
having little structure, small O-Layers and an eluviated layer. This soil series are most likely
5

astion sands. These can all be characterized in the field with just your hands, eyes and water.
Changes in elevation is measured by starting at a known elevation point, taking at least 3
separate turning points until you are back at the known elevation location so you can record your
error.

Introduction

The physical geography of an area has a much bigger impact on people than most think.
Physical geography makes up climate, soils, hydrology, and terrain. Each of these properties
plays a role in not just the structure and appearance of an area, but also the culture. Climate
varies across the globe and areas with different climates have different unique attributes. An area
with a warmer and more stable climate may attract more tourist attention than an area with a cold
and stormy climate. Flooding and storm analysis requires engineers and government planners to
take the geography of an area into account when creating roads, houses, and other projects.
People in steep mountainous areas may be more into skiing than people in flat coastal areas
where surfing is more popular. Understanding hydrology and measuring stream discharge is
relevant for flood prediction, aquatic ecosystem health, and human consumption of water. One of
the most recognized environmental issues is climate change. Being able to analyze copious
quantities of climate data is important for not only measuring how much we are affecting the
climate now, but also predicting how the climate may change in the future. Soil science is
another vital component for an ecosystem’s health. It is important to understand soil for knowing
wat plant species can survive in an area. Another aspect of understanding soil is how well your
soil is at holding water. Areas with dry and sandy soil are more susceptible to forest fires than an
area that might have moist soil. The terrain or an area is important for infrastructure. Flat areas
may be easier to build on than rocky and mountainous areas. Knowing how far above sea level
you are is also important as sea levels are rising due to our climate getting warmer.

Background

The Stockton University campus has little elevation change like most of Southern New
Jersey. You can see this in figure 1. Contour lines represent changes in elevation. the more
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contour lines there are the steeper the changes in elevation are in that given area. The two biggest
lakes on campus are Lake Fred and Lake Pam. Several small streams flow into and out of each.
You can see the lakes and which stream we collected data from represented by the water drop in
figure 1. The Pinelands forests are known for having well-draining, sandy soil. This is from
being close to the sandy coast. The soil surveying we conducted was located in astion sand as
shown by the red dot in figure 1. The climate in our region is a CFA climate. This is defined by
having warm summers, cold winters, and no dry season. However, this classification might
change eventually as the climate changes. An area’s climate is typically defined by an average
temperature precipitation and other climate factors over the last 30 years. Relative humidity is
defined by the dew point temperature divided by the current temperature multiplied by one
hundred to get a percent. Dew point temperature is the temperature at which a parcel of air must
cool to form a cloud.

Methods

Terrain

To gauge the terrain of campus we use surveying tools to record the changes in elevation.
The tools we used for this project was an auto level, and a level rod. We started at a known
elevation point which is this case was a NJDEP well. We took a reading of the well to find the
height on instrument. We then took a foresight reading by moving the level rod and taking
another height with the auto level. Then by moving the auto level and taking a backsight we were
able to find the change in elevation between the two distances. We repeated this process 2 more
times and then returned to the well to find our error and change in elevation.

Weather and climate

Another component of physical geography is weather and climate. Graphs and line charts
are great ways to examine changes in weather and climate. One way to gather weather data is by
using apps like excel and R-studio. By entering in average temperature or precipitation value you
can gauge and areas climate by putting it into a graph. A large amount of data was collected and
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presented on a spreadsheet. The data we used was from the Atlantic City International Airport
climate data from October 2019 to May 2023. You can see this data on figure 2, 2.1. We then
organized that data into a pivot table. We were then able to interpret it for various purposes. We
could then display max temperature to find the hottest month on record or the lowest month on
record. We wanted to use the average relative humidity values and average monthly temperature
and made it into a graph. We put the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent
variable on the y-axis. By using a line graph, we can visualize changes in temperature over
periods of many years. We took data from excel and found averages by plugging in equations.
By taking the monthly recorded averages we can see the changes in temperatures throughout the
year. By using the percent relative humidity on the y-axis and the months on the x-axis. Another
useful tool for showing data is R-Studio. One experience I gained was transferring data from
NOAA to R-Studio. We ran the data with the coding already given to us. The data was
transferred to the file we made. Some of the data was presented on box plots, histograms, and
time series. We collected climate data from various places along the eastern U.S.

Hydrology

One important aspect of physical geography is hydrology. Lakes and streams have a
significant impact on the health of an ecosystem. One way to predict floods is by measuring
stream discharge for rivers and even small streams. Discharge is the amount of water flowing
through a stream at a specific time. You can find discharge by multiplying cross sectional area by
velocity. We measured velocity and discharge on a stream outside of Lake Fred. We found the
cross-sectional area by measuring the distance of width of the lake and divided it by the number
of total readings we would take. In this case it was twelve. We then took a depth measurement by
using an auto level and a level rod. We took a first reading at the base of the stream to find the
height of instrument sand then we took the rest of the heights and subtracted it by the height of
instrument to find the depth. We found velocity by using two different methods. One method is
using a float that can sit on the surface of the water and flow with it. We measured a specific
distance along the lake and recorded the time that it took for the float to get from point A to point
B. We repeated this three times to get an average velocity. Velocity is found by dividing the
number of meters by the number of seconds it took for the float to get across. The other method
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is by using a flow meter that measures the amount of water that passes by it in the middle of the
stream. With this date we can find discharge. We can multiply the cross-sectional area by the
velocity to find the total discharge. We then recorded discharge for each area of the lake we did
and compared the float method reading to the flow meter reading. By using cross sectional area
and depths we can accurately draw a diagram of the stream. We used the Riemann Sum concept
to accurately show a channel area calculation. We used graph paper and wrote the length of the
stream in increments on the x axis and the depth on the y axis. We used a proportional scale and
used a bar graph format to show the depth of the stream. You can see a diagram of the two stream
profiles in figure 3 and 3.1.

Soils

It is important to understand soil identification to understand what vegetation is more

successful or what plants is may be may be better to farm. For reading soils we went out on the
Stockton campus soil pits as represented by the red dot on figure 1. We dug down into the soil on
various locations so we could see the different soil profiles. We measured the depth of the pit we
dug and then performed a visual analysis at first to gauge the structure and color of the soils. On
all the cases the structure was massive. Texture is another vital component of soil to understand,
to find this we place a ball of soil in our hand and add some water until it is a thick but flexible
texture. Then trying to make a soil ribbon by pressing the soil down with our thumb, then
measuring the length of the ribbon. After completing the ribbon test, you add water to a punch of
soil and rub it against your palm to determine if it is gritty, smooth, or equally gritty and smooth.
By these steps we were then able to identify the texture of the soil. Color is another thing we
were able to identify in the field. We used a Munsell soil color book and used the 10 YR page
showing an arrangement of chips based on value and chroma. We were able to decide the color
by doing a visual analysis of the soil and placing it on the page and choosing which one it looked
closest to. We also characterized soil horizons by doing an analysis on color, length, and texture.
By using knowledge on different horizons and understanding characteristics of each one. A
common characteristic was a small o-layer. This is likely from well-drained soil and a small
number of organics. Another defining characteristic was an eluviated E-Layer. You can see
descriptions of the soil profiles in figures 4-4.2.

Results
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Weather and Climate

After organizing the data in excel and creating a graph, we can see the local weather
through the years. From November 2019 to May 2023, there are some noticeable trends we can
see. The temperature fluctuates from near freezing temperatures in the winter months of January
and February, to getting close to 25 degrees Celsius in the summer months of July and august.
We can see that in January 2022 the temperatures got to below freezing frequently, However the
next winter was visibly milder. In the average relative humidity graph, there are a few trends that
we can see. Relative humidity tends to be lower in March and April and higher in the summer
months. You can see these graphs on figure 2,2.1.

Hydrology

For measuring stream discharge, we conducted two tests in two separate locations on the
same stream. The first stream we studied was a 7.7-meter-long segment and the second was a
5.5-meter-long segment. The total area of the stream for stream one was 2.47 meters cubed and
for stream two it was 2.0735 meters cubed. The first test we used was the ball and float method.
In the first stream location had a velocity of 0.249 meters per second. At the second location it
had a reading of 0.1499 meters per second. The second method we used was a flow meter. This is
an instrument that measures velocity directly by submerging it into flowing water. The first
stream location has a flow meter velocity of 0.141. The second stream has a reading of 0.120.
While the two methods yield different results it does theoretically make sense because the flow
meter reads velocity at the middle of the stream while the ball and float method read velocity at
the top of the stream. The top of the stream is typically faster than the middle of the stream. Flow
meters are typically more accurate at measuring stream discharge. We found the depth of the
stream locations by using level rod readings and finding the height of instrument. We took depth
measurements in meters, the deepest parts measured at around 1.5 meters deep for the first and
second profile. The depth would shrink as you got closer to the edge of the stream.

Result of soils

1st Location:

For site two we dug to a depth of sixty-five centimeters. The total structure of the site was
massive. The O-layer was only around one centimeter deep. Its texture was a sandy loam due to
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it being less absorbent and gritty, and its color was brown. The A-layer had a loamy sand texture
and a very deep brown color. This layer had a higher amount of minerals. The E-layer was sandy
and had a grey color. This layer lacked minerals and was eluviated. Between the E and B layers
was a 5 cm B-dominant transition layer due to higher mineral content and color. The last layer
was a 24-centimeter B-layer. The texture of the B-layer was loamy due to it being equally gritty
and smooth, and the color was yellowish brown.

2nd Location:

For site one the depth was eighty-five centimeters. The structure of the site was massive.
There was a larger O-Layer due to the higher number of organics. The texture was sandy loam
due to it being gritty and less absorbent, and the color was brown. The A-Layer had a small
number of medium roots. Its color was a very deep brown color. Its texture was a sandy loam.
The E-Layer was twenty-nine centimeters long and eluviated. Its color was grey, and its texture
was sandy. The next layer is a B-dominant transition Layer. The texture of the transition layer
was loamy, and the color was deep brown. The B-layer was thirty-three centimeters long and the
texture was loamy. The color was yellowish brown. There was a higher mineral content and clay
content.

3rd Location:

Site four had a depth of sixty-eight centimeters and the structure was massive. There was
no O-Layer due to well decomposed soil. There was a 10-centimeter-long A-layer that was
darker in color. The texture was a loamy sand, due to no ribbon being formed and a gritty texture,
and the color was very deep brown. The E-layer was ten centimeters long and had a sandy
texture with a dark grey color. The next layer was a 5-centimeter-long BE transitional layer. Its
texture was a clay loam, and its color was very dark greyish brown. The B-layer was twenty-five
centimeters long and its texture was silty. Its color was a brownish yellow. The next layer was an
18-centimeter BC transition layer that had a higher clay content. It had a silty texture, and its
color was yellowish brown.
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These characteristics are common for Spodosols. Based on this data and the location of
where we analyzed the soils as seen on figure 1, these soils are the Atsion series.

Discussion

Many aspects of physical geography interlink with each other. For example, weather and
climate have an effect of the hydrology of campus. In the days leading up to our experiment
there was no precipitation. This can affect stream discharge because there is less water in the soil
and lakes. On a bigger scale climate with less precipitation or dry seasons can see substantial
changes in stream discharge compared to areas with more precipitation. Another component that
affects hydrology is soil. Stockton campus and surrounding areas have more sandy and porous
soil. Sands are typically dry and make areas susceptible to forest fires even a few days after a
rain. This soil type does not hold water as well which means the ground can become unsaturated
easily. This means there may be less water features. The hydrology of campus can affect
precipitation and humidity. With large bodies of water on campus it provides more water vapor
in the air. This can also cause more rain to form compared to surrounding areas. Elevation levels
can also affect climate. In places higher in elevation the air is thinner and colder. Areas closer to
sea level experience higher humidity compared to places with higher elevations that have thinner
air.

Conclusion

Understanding the physical geography of a location enables you to better understand the
unique properties an area might have to offer. It also helps with predicting and understanding
water movement, agriculture, and climate change.

 The terrain of campus is flat with only slight changes in elevation.

 When it comes to measuring discharge, flow meter velocity is more accurate than using
the ball and float method, because it reads velocity at the center of the stream instead of
the top.
 Stocktons climate is a CFA, which is temperate and has no dry season.
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 The soil on campus is dry and well-drained with a small O-Layer and an Eluviated E-
Layer. These show that the soils are most likely spodosols but more specifically the
Atsion series.

References

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Mu˜nozBarrutia. Use of the p-values as a size-dependent function to address practical differences
when analyzing

large datasets. Scientific reports, 11(1):20942, 2021.

B Grabowski. “p <0.05” might not mean what you think: American Statistical Association
clarifies P

values, 2016.

C.C. Harrelson, C.L. Rawlins, and J.P. Potyondy. Stream channel reference sites: an illustrated
guide

to field technique. Technical Report RM-245, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO, 1994. 61p.
13

T.N. Irvine and D.R. Rumble. A writing guide for petrological (and other geological)
manuscripts. Journal

of Petrology, pages 1–46, 1992.

A.N. Johnston, S.D. West, and W.M. Vander Haegen. Diets of native and introduced tree
squirrels in

Washington. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 83(7):1598–1606, 2019.

B.K. Kern, D.J. Westlind, and M.A. Day. Season and interval of burning and cattle exclusion in
the

southern Blue Mountains, Oregon: Overstory tree height, diameter and growth. Forest Service
Research

Data Archive, 2017. https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2017-0041.

S Kross. A Q-Q plot dissection kit. https://seankross.com/2016/02/29/A-Q-Q-Plot-Dissection-

Kit.

html, 2016. Accessed: 2023-08-21.

W.H. Kruskal and W.A. Wallis. Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. Journal of the
American

statistical Association, 47(260):583–621, 1952.

J.P. Michaud, M. Wierenga, and EnviroVision. Estimating discharge and stream flows: A guide
for sand

and gravel operators. Department of Ecology, State of Washington, 2005. Publication number 05-
10-070.

OpenStreetMap contributors. Openstreetmap, 2023. https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright.

S. Chamberlain and D. Hocking. rnoaa: ‘NOAA’ weather data from R, 2023. URL https://CRAN.

R-project.org/package=rnoaa. R package version 1.4.0.

14

M Freeman. A visual comparison of normal and paranormal distributions. Journal of Epidemiol

Community

Health, 60(1):6, 2006.

M. Gimond. Intro to GIS and spatial analysis. https://mgimond.github.io/Spatial/, 2023.

Accessed:

2023-09-27.

E. G´omez-de Mariscal, V. Guerrero, A. Sneider, H. Jayatilaka, J.M. Phillip, D. Wirtz, and A.

Mu˜nozBarrutia. Use of the p-values as a size-dependent function to address practical differences
when analyzing

large datasets. Scientific reports, 11(1):20942, 2021.

B Grabowski. “p <0.05” might not mean what you think: American Statistical Association
clarifies P

values, 2016.

C.C. Harrelson, C.L. Rawlins, and J.P. Potyondy. Stream channel reference sites: an illustrated
guide

to field technique. Technical Report RM-245, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky

Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO, 1994. 61p.

T.N. Irvine and D.R. Rumble. A writing guide for petrological (and other geological)
manuscripts. Journal

of Petrology, pages 1–46, 1992.

A.N. Johnston, S.D. West, and W.M. Vander Haegen. Diets of native and introduced tree
squirrels in

Washington. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 83(7):1598–1606, 2019.

15

B.K. Kern, D.J. Westlind, and M.A. Day. Season and interval of burning and cattle exclusion in
the

southern Blue Mountains, Oregon: Overstory tree height, diameter and growth. Forest Service
Research

Data Archive, 2017. https://doi.org/10.2737/RDS-2017-0041.

S Kross. A Q-Q plot dissection kit. https://seankross.com/2016/02/29/A-Q-Q-Plot-Dissection-

Kit.

html, 2016. Accessed: 2023-08-21.

W.H. Kruskal and W.A. Wallis. Use of ranks in one-criterion variance analysis. Journal of the
American

statistical Association, 47(260):583–621, 1952.

J.P. Michaud, M. Wierenga, and EnviroVision. Estimating discharge and stream flows: A guide
for sand

and gravel operators. Department of Ecology, State of Washington, 2005. Publication number 05-
10-070.

OpenStreetMap contributors. Openstreetmap, 2023. https://www.openstreetmap.org/copyright.