Vector Differential Calculus

Chapter 14
Vector Differential Calculus
Contents
14.1 Vector calculus 3
14.2 Curves and their length 10
14.3 Tangent Vector, Normal Vector, Binomial Vector and Curvature 17
14.4 Scaler and Vector Fields 22
14.5 Curl of Vector Field and Divergence 24
14.6 Exercise 28
A vector derivative is a derivative taken with respect to a vector field. Vector derivatives are extremely
important in physics, where they arise throughout fluid mechanics, electricity and magnetism, elasticity,
and many other areas of theoretical and applied physics.
14.1 Vector calculus

Definition 14.1.1 Let f be a function whose domain is a subset D of Rn where n ≥ 1 and whose range
is contained in R; that is, to each point x = (x1 , x2 , · · · , xn ) in D, f assigns a value f (x) in R. Such that
f is called real-valued function or scalar valued function.
Example 14.1 f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 is aparticular example of real-valued function.
Definition 14.1.2 A vector valued function r(t) is a function whose domain is a set of real num-
ber and range is the set of vectors; that is, r : D → Rn , where D ⊆ R ⇔ for all t ∈ R, r(t) =
(r1 (t), r2 (t), · · · , rn (t)) ∈ Rn where ri (t), 1 ≤ i ≤ n is real valued function.
Example 14.2 r(t) = ((t 2 + 1), 2t, 3t) is aparticular example of vector valued function.
Graphs of a Vector Valued Function

In order to sketch the graph of a vector function all we need to do in plug in some values of t and then plot
points that correspond to the resulting position vector. We get out of the vector function.
Definition 14.1.3 Position vector is a vector that starts at the origin and ends at the given point.
Example 14.3 Sketch the graph of the function r(t) = (t, 1).
Solution: Plug in a few values of t and get some position vectors; that is, r(−3) = (−3, 1), r(−1) = (−1, 1),
r(2) = (2, 1) and r(5) = (5, 1). Here is a sketch of this vector function.
Example 14.4 Sketch the graph of the function r(t) = (t,t 3 − 10t + 7).
Solution: Plug in a few values of t and get some position vectors; that is, r(−3) = (−3, 10), r(−1) =
Any one can get this soft-copy from Google site Exodus4Wisdom c Natnael Nigussie
natnaelnigussie@gmail.com
natnael.nigussie@aastu.edu.et
2 Vector Differential Calculus
Figure 14.1: r(t) = (t, 1)
(−1, 16), r(2) = (1, −2) and r(3) = (3, 4). So, we have got a few points on the graph of this function and
this points used to get an idea of what the graph is. Here is a sketch of this vector function.
Figure 14.2: r(t) = (t,t 3 − 10t + 7)
Example 14.5 Describe the curve defined by the vector function r(t) = (1 + t, 2 + 5t, −1 + 6t).
Solution: The corresponding parametric equation are
x = 1 + t, y = 2 + 5t, z = −1 + 6t
which is a parametric equation of a line passing through the point (1, 2, −1) and parallel to the vector
(1, 5, 6). Alternatively, we could observe that the function can be written as r = r0 + tv, where r0 =
(1, 2, −1) and v = (1, 5, 6), and this is the vector equation of a line.
Example 14.6 Sketch the curve whose vector equation is r(t) = (cost, sint,t).
Solution: The parametric equation for this curve are
x = cost, y = sint, z = t
since x2 + y2 = cos2 + sin2 = 1, the curve must lie on the circular cylinder x2 + y2 = 1. The point (x, y, z)
lies directly above the point (x, y, 0), which moves counterclockwise around the circle x2 + y2 = 1 in the
xy-plane. Since z = t, the curve spirals upward around the cylinders as t increases. The curve is called a
helix.
Figure 14.3: r(t) = (cost, sint,t)
Domain of Vector valued Function

The domain of vector valued function r(t) = (r1 (t), r2 (t), · · · , rn (t)) is obtained by
Domain r(t) = Domain r1 (t) ∩ Domain r2 (t) ∩ · · · ∩ Domain rn (t)

2
√
Example 14.7 Find the domain of r(t) = ti + t j +
√ 1 − t 2 k.
Solution: Let f (t) = t, g(t) = t 2 and h(t) = 1 − t 2 . We know that
Domain of f (t) is R since f (t) = t

Domain of g(t) is R since g(t) = t 2
√
Domain of h(t) is [−1, 1] since h(t) = 1 − t2
Hence
Domain r(t) = Domain f (t) ∩ Domain g(t) ∩ Domain h(t)

= R ∩ R ∪ [−1, 1]
= [−1, 1]

√
Example 14.8 Find the domain of r(t) = lnti +
√ 1 − t j + t 4 k.
4
Solution: Let f (t) = lnt, g(t) = 1 − t and h(t) = t . We know that
Domain of f (t) is t > 0 since f (t) = lnt

√
Domain of g(t) is t ≤ 1 since g(t) = 1 − t
Domain of h(t) is R since h(t) = t 4
Hence

= t > 0∩t ≤ 1∩R
= (0, 1]
t 1
√
Example 14.9 Find the domain of r(t) = e i + j + 1 − t 2 k.
√ t
Solution: Let f (t) = et , g(t) = 1t and h(t) = 1 − t 2 . We know that
Domain of f (t) is R since f (t) = et

1
Domain of g(t) is R/{0} since g(t) = t
√
Domain of h(t) is [−1, 1] since h(t) = 1 − t 2
Hence

= R ∩ R/{0} ∩ [−1, 1]
= [−1, 0) ∪ (0, 1]
Operations
Definition 14.1.4 Let F and G be vector-valued functions and f and g real valued functions. Then the
functions F ± G, f F, F · G, F × G and Fog are defined by
(F ± G)(t) = F(t) ± G(t)

(F · G)(t) = F(t) · G(t)
(F × G)(t) = F(t) × G(t)
( f F)(t) = f (t)F(t)
(Fog)(t) = F(g(t))
Example 14.10 Let
F(t) = costi + sint j + tk and G(t) = − sinti + cost j + tk

√
If g(t) = t, find F + G, F − G, gF, F · G, F × G and Fog.
Solution: From the definition we find that
(F + G)(t) = (cos − sint)i + (sint + cost) j + 2tk
(F − G)(t) = (cos + sint)i + (sint − cost) j
√ √ 3
(gF)(t) = t costi + t sint j + t 2 k
(F · G)(t) = − cost sint + sint cost + t 2 = t 2
(F × G)(t) = t(sint − cost)i − t(sint + cost) j + k
√ √ √
(Fog)(t) = F(g(t)) = cos ti + sin t j + tk
The domain of each function except gF and Fog consists of all real numbers; the domain of gF and Fog
consosts of [0, ∞), since this is the domain of g.
Limit
Definition 14.1.5 Let r(t) = f (t)i + g(t) j + h(t)k be a vector valued function defined in an interval I
containing t0 except possibly at t0 . Then, a vector L is the limit of r at t0 ; that is, lim r(t) = L if and
t→t0
only if for each ε > 0 there exists a positive number δ > 0 such that
|r(t) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |t − t0 | < δ
Definition 14.1.6 If r(t) = ( f (t), g(t), h(t)), then
lim r(t) = (lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t)

t→t0 t→t0 t→t0 t→t0
provided the limits of the component functions exist.
Example 14.11 Find lim(t 2 , 5 cost, sint).

t→0
Solution: Here each of the component functions is continuous for all t and so, we can calculate their limits
simply by substituting the values for t, we have
lim(t 2 , 5 cost, sint) = (lim t 2 , lim 5 cost, lim sint)
t→0 t→0 t→0 t→0
= (1, 5, 0)

Example 14.12 Find lim(e2t + 5,t 2 + 2t − 3, 1t ).

t→0
Solution: The limit of the third component is lim 1t , which does not exist. So, even though the limits of
t→0
the first two components exist, the limits of the vector-valued function does not exist.
Rule for Vector Limit

Let F and G are vector functions and h is a scalar function, assume that lim F(t) = L, lim G(t) = M and
t→t0 t→t0
lim h(t) = C, then
t→t0
1. lim [F ± G](t) = L ± M
t→t0
2. lim (hF)(t) = CL
t→t0
3. lim [F · G](t) = L · M
t→t0
4. lim [F × G](t) = L × M
t→t0
Example 14.13 Let F(t) = cos πti + 2 sin πt j + 4t 2 k and G(t) = ti + t 3 k, find
lim[F · G](t) and lim[F × G](t)

t→1 t→1
Solution: For each of the required limits we have a choice of methods. we can find the product of F and G
and take the limit of the product or find lim F(t) and lim G(t), take the product of those limits, and apply
t→1 t→1
the above rules. So, since (F · G)(t) = t cos πt + 4t 5 , it follows that
lim[F · G](t) = lim(t cos πt + 4t 5 ) = 3

t→1 t→1
Since [F × G](t) = 5 j,
lim[F × G](t) = 5 j
t→1

Continuity
Definition 14.1.7 A vector function r(t) is continuous at a point t0 in its domain if lim r(t) = r(t0 ).
t→t0
The function is continuous if it is continuous at every point in its domain.
Theorem 14.1.1 A vector valued function r(t) = ( f (t), g(t), h(t)) is continuous at t = t0 if and only if
all of f (t), g(t) and h(t) are continuous at t = t0 .
Example 14.14 Determine for what values of t the vector valued functions r(t) = (e5t , ln(t + 1), cost)
is continuous.
Solution: From the above theorem it is enough to consider the continuity of the component functions r(t)
will be continuous wherever all its components are continuous. We have
e5t is continuous for all t

ln(t + 1) is continuous for t > −1 and
cost is continuous for all t
Therefore, r(t) is continuous for t > −1.
Derivative
Definition 14.1.8 The vector function r(t) has a derivative at t. The derivative is the vector function
defined as
dr r(t + h) − r(t)
r0 (t) = = lim
dt h→0 h
A vector function r is differentiable if it is differentiable at every point of its domain.
Theorem 14.1.2 The vector function r(t) = f (t)i + g(t) j + h(t)k has a derivative at t if f , g and h have
derivatives at t, then
df dg dh
r0 (t) = i+ j+ k
dt dt dt
Figure 14.4: r0 (t)
Example 14.15 Find the derivative of r(t) = (1 + t 3 )i + te−t j + sin 2tk.

Solution: By using the above theorem, we differentiation each component of r as
r0 (t) = 3t 2 i + (1 − t)e−t j + 2 cos 2tk
2 cost ,t lnt).
Example 14.16 Find the derivative of r(t) = (sint , e
Solution: By using the above theorem and applying the chain rule to the first two components and the
product rule to the third, we have (for t > 0)
d d d
r0 (t) = ( (sin(t 2 )), (ecost ), (t lnt))
dt dt dt
d d d d
= (cost 2 (t 2 ), ecost (cost), (t) lnt + t (lnt))
dt dt dt dt
1
= (2t cost 2 , ecost (− sint), lnt + t )
t
2 cost
= (2t cost , − sinte , lnt + 1)
Differentiation Rules for Vector Function

Let F and G be differentiable vector function of t, C be a constant vector, c any scaler and f any
differentiable scaler function.
1. Constant Function Rule
dC
=0
dt
2. Scalar Multiple Rule
cF(t)
= cF 0 (t)
dt
3. Sum and Difference Rule
d
[F(t) ± G(t)] = F 0 (t) ± G0 (t)
dt
4. Dot Product Rule
d
[F(t) · G(t)] = F 0 (t) · G(t) + F(t) · G0 (t)
dt
5. Cross Product Rule
d
[F(t) × G(t)] = F 0 (t) × G(t) + F(t) × G0 (t)
dt
6. Chain Rule
d
F( f (t)) = F 0 ( f (t)) f 0 (t)
dt
Example 14.17 Let F(t) = tan−1 ti + 5k and G(t) = i + lnt j − 2tk. Find (F · G)0 (t).
Solution: First we calculate F · G and then differentiate. We find that (F · G)0 (t) = tan−1 t − 10t, and
conclude that
1
(F · G)0 (t) = 2 − 10
t +1
For the second method we first notice that
1 1
F 0 (t) = i and G0 (t) = j − 2k
t2 + 1 t
Then
(F(t) · G(t))0 = F 0 (t) · G(t) + F(t) · G0 (t)

1 1
= ( 2 i)(i + lnt j − 2tk) + (tan−1 ti + 5k)( j − 2k)
t +1 t
1
= 2 − 10
t +1

Corollary 14.1.3 Let F be differentiable on an interval I, and assume that there is a number c such
that
kF(t)k = c for t in I
Then F(t) · F 0 (t) = 0 for t in I.
Example 14.18 Show that if kr(t)k = c a constant, then r0 (t) is orthogonal to r(t) for all t.
Solution: Since
r(t) · r(t) = kr(t)k2 = c2
and c2 is a constant. From the above theorem we have
d
0= [r(t) · r(t)] = r0 (t) · r(t) + r(t) · r0 (t) = 2r0 (t) · r(t)
dt
Thus r0 (t) · r(t) = 0, which says that r0 (t) is orthogonal to r(t). Geometrically, this result says that if a
curve lies on a sphere with center the origin, then the tangent vector r0 (t) is always perpendicular to the
position vector r(t).
Physical Application of Derivatives of Vector Valued Function

Suppose an object moves through space, the coordinates x, y and z of its location are functions of time.
Let us assume that these functions are twice differentiable and define the position, velocity, speed, and
accelaration as
• Position: r(t) = x(t)i + y(t) j + z(t)k
dy
• Velocity: v(t) = dr = dx dz
dt i + dt j + dt k
q dt
dy 2
• Speed: kvk = ( dx 2 dz 2
dt ) + ( dt ) + ( dt )
2
d2 x 2
• Acceleration: a(t) = dv
dt = dt 2
i + ddt 2y j + ddt 2z
Example 14.19 Suppose the position vector of an object is given by
r(t) = (x0 + at)i + (y0 + bt) j + (z0 + ct)k
Determine the velocity, speed and accelaration of the object.

Solution: Differentiating, we find that
dr
v(t) = = ai + b j + ck
dt
and hence that
dv
a(t) = =0
dt
The speed is the right of the velocity vector, which in this case means that
p
kv(t)k = a2 + b2 + c2
Integrals of Vector Function

Definition 14.1.9 Let
F(t) = f1 (t)i + f2 (t) j + f3 (t)k
Rb
Where fR1 , f2 and f3 are continuous on [a, b]. Then the definite integral a F(t)dt and the indefinite
integral F(t)dt are defined by
Z b Z b Z b Z b
F(t) dt = ( f1 (t) dt)i + ( f2 (t) dt) j + ( f3 (t) dt)k and
a
Z Za Z a Z a
F(t)dt = ( f1 (t) dt)i + ( f2 (t) dt) j + ( f3 (t) dt)k
R1
Example 14.20 Evaluate 0 (sin πt, 6t 2 + 4t) dt.
Solution:
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
(sin πt, 6t 2 + 4t) dt = ( sin πt dt, (6t 2 + 4t) dt)
0 0 0
1 t2 6t 3
= (− cos πt, + 4 )|10
π 2 2
1 1
= (− cos π, 2 + 2) − (− cos 0, 0)
π π
1 1
= ( + , 4 − 0)
π π
2
= ( , 4)
π

R
Example 14.21 Evaluate the indefinite integral ((cost)i + j − 2tk) dt.
Solution:
Z Z Z Z
((cost)i + j − 2tk) dt = ( cost dt)i + ( dt) j − ( 2t dt)k
= sinti + x j − t 2 k +C

Rπ
Example 14.22 Evaluate the definite integral 0 ((cost)i + j − 2tk) dt.
Solution: Since ((cost)i + j − 2tk) dt = sinti + x j − t 2 k +C, then we have
R
Z π Z π Z π Z π
((cost)i + j − 2tk) dt = ( cost dt)i + ( dt) j − ( 2t dt)k
0 0 0 0
= sint|π0 i + x|π0 j − t 2 |π0 k
2
= π j−π k
14.2 Curves and their length

Definition 14.2.1 A curve is a range of a continuous vector-valued function on an interval of real
number.
Example 14.23 Any point, a line, line segment, circle, parabola, a circular helix, ellipse are examples
of curves.
We will generally use C to denote a curve and r to denote a vector-valued function whose range is a curve
C. In this case, we say that C parametrized by r, or that r is a parametrization of C.
Examples of parametrization of some curves

1. A straight line ` through a point a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) with position vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) in the direction
of a constant vector b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) is represented by
r(t) = a + tb = (a1 + tb1 )i + (a2 + tb2 ) j + (a3 + tb3 )k
2. The vector function r(t) = (x0 + a cost)i + (y0 + b sint) j represents an ellipse in the xy-plane with
center (x0 , y0 ) and the principle axis in the direction of the x and y-axis.
3. If a = b = c in the equation of ellipse, then
r(t) = (x0 + c cost)i + (y0 + c sint) j
is an equation of a circle centered at (x0 , y0 ) with radius c.
4. Circular helix represented by the vector function
r(t) = r costi + r sint j + ctk
is called a circular helix. It lies on the cylinder x2 + y2 = r2 .
Figure 14.5: r(t) = r costi + r sint j + ctk
Example 14.24 Let f be a continuous real-valued function on an interval I. Show that the graph of f is
a curve, and find a parametrization of the curve.

Solution: The vector-valued function r defined by
r(t) = ti + f (t) j for t in I
is continuous and trace out the graph of f . Thus the graph of f is the range of r. So, by definition the
graph of f is a curve.
Definition 14.2.2 A plane curve is a curve that lies in a plane. A curve that is not a plane curve is
called a twisted curve.
A graph of continuous function of one variable y = f (x) is a plane curve, whereas a circular helix is a
twisted curve.
Example 14.25 Find a vector equation and parametric equation for the line segment that joins the point
P = (1, 3, −2) to the point Q = (2, −1, 3).
Solution: A vector equation for the line segment that joins the tip of the vector r0 to the tip of the vector
r1 as
r(t) = (1 − t)r0 + tr1 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
Here we take r0 = (1, 3, −2) and r1 = (2, −1, 3) to obtain a vector equation of the line segment from P to
Q as
r(t) = (1 − t)(1, 3, −2) + t(2, −1, 3), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1 or
r(t) = (1 + t, 3 − 4t, −2 + 5t), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
The corresponding parametric equation are
x = 1 + t, y = 3 − 4t, z = −2 + 5t where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
Figure 14.6: Line passes through (1, 3, −2) and (2, −1, 3)
Example 14.26 Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection of the cylinder x2 +y2 = 1
and the plane y + z = 2.
Solution: The first figure shows how the plane and the cylinder intersect, and the second figure shows the
curve of intersection C, which is an ellipse.
The projection of C onto the xy-plane is the circle x2 + y2 = 1 , z = 1. So we can write
Figure 14.7: The curve formed by the intersection of x2 + y2 = 1 and the plane y + z = 2
x = cost, y = sint, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
From the equation of the plane, we have
z = 2 − y = 2 − sint
So we can write parametric equations for C as
x = cost, y = sint, z = 2 − sint, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
The corresponding vector equation is
r(t) = (cost, sint, 2 − sint), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
This equation is called a parametrization of the curve C. The arrow in the figure indicate the direction in
which C is traced as the parametric t increases.
y2
Example 14.27 The surface 9x2 + 4 = 1 and z = sin(x − y) intersect in a curve. Find a parametrization
of the curve. 2
Solution: Here 9x2 + y4 = 1 can be written as (3x)2 + ( 2y )2 = 1, then we see that we can write 3x = cost,
y 1 1
2 = sint, or x = 3 cost and y = 2 sint. Since z = sin(x − y), we now have z = sin( 3 cost − 2 sint). We
can also write this as the vector-valued function
1 1
r(t) = ( cost, 2 sint, sin( cost − 2 sint))
3 3
which is parametrization for the curve.
Properties of Curves
We will discuss three of many properties a curve can posses; the properties of being closed, smooth, and
piecewise smooth.
Definition 14.2.3 A curve C is closed if and only if it has a parametrization r on [a, b] such that
r(a) = r(b). In other words, a curve is closed on [a, b] if and only if its initial and terminal points
coincide.
Example 14.28 The unit circle C such that r(t) = costi + sint j for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π, is closed since r(0) =
r(2π) whereas line-segment, cycloids, circular helix are not closed.
Definition 14.2.4 A vector-valued function r on an interval I is said to be smooth if and only if it has
continuous derivatives on I and r0 (t) 6= 0, for all interior points of I. A curve C is smooth if it has a
smooth parameter.
Example 14.29 The circular helix r(t) = costi + sint j + tk is smooth for −∞ < t < ∞, since r0 (t) =
− sinti + cost j + k 6= 0 for all t ∈ (−∞, ∞) because the k component of r0 (t) is 1 for all t.
Example 14.30 Show that the standard unit circle is smooth.

Solution: The circle can be parametrized by
r(t) = costi + sint j for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
The function r is differentiable on [0, 2π], and
r0 (t) = − sinti + cost j for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Therefore, r0 (t) is continuous on [0, 2π] and
q
kr0 (t)k = (− sint)2 + (cost)2 = 1
from this we conclude that r0 (t) 6= 0 for each t in [0, 2π]. It follows that the circle is smooth.
Corollary 14.2.1 If r(t) is differentiable vector function of constant length, then r · dr

dt = 0, where r(t)
is a position vector of a particles moving a long a smooth curve in space.
Definition 14.2.5 A continuous vector-valued function r on an interval I is said to be piecewise smooth

if and only if I is composed of a finite number of sub intervals on each of which r is smooth and r has
one-sided derivatives at each interior point of I.
Example 14.31 Show that the curve
r(t) = r(t − sint)i + r(1 − cost) j for − 2π ≤ t ≤ 2π

which parametrizes two arches of a cycloid, is piecewise smooth.
Solution: We have
r0 (t) = r(1 − cost)i + r sint j
Even though r0 is continuous, r is not smooth because r0 (0) = 0. However, r0 (t) 6= 0 for −2π < t < 0
and for 0 < t < 2π. Therefore, r is smooth on [−2π, 0] and [0, 2π], and hence r is piecewise smooth.
Figure 14.8: Curves of cycloid
Remark 14.2.2 A curve is smooth if it composed of one piece with no sharp corners. A curve is
piecewise smooth if it is composed of one piece and has at most a finite number of sharp corner. Of
course, smooth curves are always piecewise smooth, but a piecewise smooth curve is not necessarily
smooth.
Length of a Curve
Definition 14.2.6 Suppose C is a curve with a piecewise smooth parametrization r on [a, b]. The
length L of C is defined by
Z b
dr
L= k kdt
a dt
Example 14.32 Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector equation r(t) = costi +
sint j + tk from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point (1, 0, 2π).
Solution: Since r0 (t) = − sinti + cost j + tk, we have
q √
kr0 (t)k = (− sint)2 + cos2 t + 1 = 2
Figure 14.9: r(t) = costi + sint j + tk
The arc from (1, 0, 0) to (1, 0, 2π) is described by the parametric interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π and so, we have
Z 2π Z 2π √ √
dr
L= k kdt = 2dt = 2 2π
0 dt 0

√
6 2 3
Example 14.33 Find the length of the curve C parametrized by r(t) = ti +
2 t j +t k, for − 1 ≤ t ≤ 1.
√
Solution: Notice that r0 (t) = i + 6t j + 3t 2 k and thus
p
kr0 (t)k = 1 + 6t 2 + 9t 4
Therefore
Z 1
dr
L = k
k dt
−1 dt
Z 1p
= 1 + 6t 2 + 9t 4 dt
−1
Z 1
= (1 + 3t 2 ) dt
−1
= (t + t 3 )|1−1
= 4
Example 14.34 Find the arc length of the curve traced out by the end point of the vector-valued function
r(t) = (2t, lnt,t 2 ), for 1 ≤ t ≤ e.

Solution: First, notice that r0 (t) = (2, 1t , 2t). We have
Z er
1
L = (2)2 + ( )2 + (2t)2 dt
1 t
Z er
1
= 4 + 2 + 4t 2 dt
1 t
Z e√
1 + 4t 2 + 4t 4
= dt
1 t
Z ep
(1 + 2t 2 )2
= dt
1 t
1 + 2t 2
Z e
= dt
1 t
Z e
1
= ( + 2t) dt
1 t
= (ln |t| + t 2 )|e1
= (ln e + e2 ) − (ln 1 + 1)
= e2
Example 14.35 Find the arc length of the curve traced out by the end point of the vector-valued function
r(t) = (e2t , sint,t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.

Solution: First, note that r0 (t) = (2e2t , cost, 1). We now have
Z 2q
L = (2e2t )2 + (cost)2 + (1)2 dt
0
Z 2p
= 4e4t + cos2 t + 1 dt
0
≈ 53.8
Arc Length Function

Definition 14.2.7 Let C be a smooth curve parametrized by r(t) = f (t)i + g(t) j + h(t)k on an interval
I, and a ∈ I be fixed number. The arc length function s(t) is defined by
Z t Z tq
dr
s(t) = k k du = ( f 0 (u))2 + (g0 (u))2 + (h0 (u))2 du for t ∈ I
a du a
ds(t) dr
p
This implies dt = k du k= ( f 0 (t))2 + (g0 (t))2 + (h0 (t))2 .
Figure 14.10: s(t)
Example 14.36 Find the arc length function s(t) for r(t) = (cost + t sint, sint − t cost,t 2 ), t ≥ 0 and
the arc length parametrization.
Solution: Here r0 (t) = (− sint + (t cost + sint), cost − (−t sint + cost), 2t) = (t cost,t sint, 2t) and
p √
kr0 (t)k = t 2 cos2 t + t 2 sin2 t + 4t 2 = t 5
So,
Z t
s(t) = kr0 (u)k du
0
Z t√
= 5u du
√0
5 2t
= u |0
√2
5 2
= t
2
√ q
5 2 2s
Now we can compute the arc length parametrization since s(t) = 2 t ⇒t = √
5
as
s s s s s s
2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s 2s
r(s) = (cos( √ ) + ( √ ) sin( √ ), sin( √ ) − ( √ ) cos( √ ), √ )
5 5 5 5 5 5 5

Example 14.37 Find an arc length parametrization of the circle of radius 4 centered at the origin.
Solution: First, note that one parametrization of this circle is
C : x = f (t) = 4 cost, y = g(t) = 4 sint, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
In this case, the arc length from u = 0 to u = t is given by
Z tq
s(t) = ( f 0 (t))2 + (g0 (t))2 du
0
Z tq
= (−4 sin u)2 + (4 cos u)2 du
0
Z t
= 4 du
0
= 4t
That is, t = 4s , so that an arc length parametrization for C is
s s
C : x = 4 cos( ), y = 4 sin( ), 0 ≤ s ≤ 8π
4 4

14.3 Tangent Vector, Normal Vector, Binomial Vector and Curva-

ture
Tangent Vector
Definition 14.3.1 The unit tangent vector T (t) to the curve of the vector valued function r(t) is given
by
r0 (t)
T (t) =
kr0 (t)k
is a tangent vector with unit length.
Figure 14.11: Tangent vectors
Example 14.38 Find the unit tangent vector to the curve determine by r(t) = (t 2 + 1,t). In particular at
t = 0 and t = 1. √
Solution: We have r0 (t) = (2t, 1). So that kr0 (t)k = (2t)2 + 1 = 4t 2 + 1. So the unit tangent vector is
p
given by
r0 (t)
T (t) =
kr0 (t)k
(2t, 1)
= √
4t 2 + 1
2t 1
= (√ ,√ )
4t + 1 4t 2 + 1
2
In particular, we have T (0) = (0, 1) and T (1) = ( √25 , √15 ).
Example 14.39 Consider the circle of radius r parametrized by
r(t) = r costi + r sint j + j for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Find a formula for the tangent vector T (t), and calculate T ( π3 ).

Solution: Since
r0 (t) = −r sinti + r cost j
we have kr0 (t)k = (−r sint)2 + (r cost)2 = r.
p
0 (t) √
Therefore, T (t) = krr0 (t)k = − sinti + cost j. Consequently T ( π3 ) = − 23 i + 12 j.
Normal Vector
Definition 14.3.2 Let C be a smooth curve, and let r be a smooth parametrization of C defined on an
interval I such that r0 is smooth. Then for any interier point t of I for which T 0 (t) 6= 0, the normal
vector N(t) at the point r(t) is a unit vector having the same direction as T 0 (t) and is defined by
T 0 (t)
N(t) =
kT 0 (t)k
Example 14.40 Find a formula for the normal N(t) to the curve r(t) = r costi + r sint j.
Solution: We know that T (t) = − sinti + cost j. Therefore, T 0 (t) = − costi − sint j. Since kT 0 (t)k = 1
for all t, it follows that
T 0 (t)
N(t) =
kT 0 (t)k
= − costi − sint j
1
= − r(t)
r

Example 14.41 Find the unit tangent and unit normal vectors to the curve defined by r(t) = (t 2 ,t).
Solution: Notice that r0 (t) = (2t, 1) and so we have
r0 (t)
T (t) =
kr0 (t)k
(2t, 1)
=
k(2t, 1)k
2t 1
= ( , )
k(2t, 1)k k(2t, 1)k
2t 1
= (√ ,√ )
4t + 1 4t 2 + 1
2
3
Using the quotient rule, we have T 0 (t) = 2(4t 2 + 1)− 2 (1, −2t) and kT 0 (t)k = 2(4t 2 + 1)−1 .
The unit normal vector is then
T 0 (t)
N(t) =
kT 0 (t)k
3
2(4t 2 + 1)− 2 (1, −2t)
=
2(4t 2 + 1)−1
1
= (4t 2 + 1)− 2 (1, −2t)
In particular, for t = 1, we get
2 1 1 −2
T (1) = ( √ , √ ) and N(1) = ( √ , √ )
5 5 5 5

Example 14.42 Find the unit tangent and unit normal vectors to the curve determined by r(t) =
(sin 2t, cos 2t,t).

Solution: First, observe that r0 (t) = (2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t, 1) and so we have that
r0 (t)
T (t) =
kr0 (t)k
(2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t,t)
=
k(2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t, 1)k
1
= √ (2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t, 1)
5
This gives us T 0 (t) = √1 (−4 sin 2t, −4 cos 2t, 0)
5
and so, the unit normal is
T 0 (t)
N(t) =
kT 0 (t)k
1
= (−4 sin 2t, −4 cos 2t, 0)
4
= (− sin 2t, − cos 2t, 0)
Notice that the curve here is a circular helix and that at each point, N(t) points straight back towards the
z-axis.
Binomial Vector
Definition 14.3.3 we define the binomial vector B(t) to be B(t) = T (t) × N(t).
Figure 14.12: Tangent, Normal and Binormal Vectors
By definition B(t) is orthogonal to both T (t) and N(t), and its magnitude is given by kB(t)k = kT (t) ×
N(t)k = kT (t)kkN(t)k sin θ , where θ is the angle between T (t) and N(t).
Example 14.43 Find the binomial vector B(t) for the curve traced by r(t) = (sin 2t, cos 2t,t).
Solution: The unit tangent vector is given by T (t) = √15 (2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t, 1) and the principal unit normal
vector is given by N(t) = (− sin 2t, − cos 2t, 0). We now have the binomial vector is given by
B(t) = T (t) × N(t)

1
= √ (2 cos 2t, −2 sin 2t, 1) × (− sin 2t, − cos 2t, 0)
5
i j k
= 2 cos 2t −2 sin 2t 1
− sin 2t − cos 2t 0
1
= √ ((cos 2t)i − (sin 2t) j + (−2 cos2 2t − 2 sin2 2t)k)
5
1
= √ (cos 2t, sin 2t, −2)
5

Curvatures to Curves
Definition 14.3.4 Let C have a smooth parametrization r such that r0 is differentiable. Then the
curvature k of a curve C is the scaler quantity is defined by
dT
k=k k
ds
r0 (t) Rt 0 (u)kdu
where T (t) = kr0 (t)k , s(t) = a kr and r(t) is a vector valued function.
T 0 (t)
Remark 14.3.1 we can also define the curvature k of a curve as k = k r0 (t) k
Example 14.44 Find the curvature of a straight line.

Solution: Suppose that a straight line traced out by the vector valued function is given by
r(t) = (a1 + tb1 , a2 + tb2 , a3 + tb3 )

q
for some constants a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 and b3 . Then r0 (t) = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) and so, kr0 (t)k = b21 + b22 + b23 =
constant. The unit tangent vector is then
r0 (t) 1
T (t) = =q (b1 , b2 , b3 )
kr0 (t)k b1 + b22 + b23
2
Which is a constant vector. This gives us T 0 (t) = 0, for all t. We know have
dT k0k
k=k k= q =0
ds b1 + b22 + b23
2
Therefore, the curvature of a straight line is zero.
Example 14.45 Find the curvature for a circle of radius a with center at (x0 , y0 ).
Solution: We can take the circle to have center at any (x0 , y0 ), and then a parametrization is
r(t) = (x0 + a cost)i + (y0 + a sint) j)
Therefore, r0 (t) = −a sinti + a cost j and kr0 (t)k = a. So,

r0 (t)
T (t) = = − sinti + cost j
kr(t)k
and T 0 (t) = − costi − sint j. This gives kT 0 (t)k = 1, So, we have
T 0 (t) 1
k=k 0
k=
r (t) a

Theorem 14.3.2 The curvature of the curve traced out by the vector valued function r(t) is given by
kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k

k=
kr0 (t)k3
Example 14.46 Find the curvature of twisted cubic r(t) = (t,t 2 ,t 3 ) at a general point and at (0, 0, 0).
Solution: We first compute the required ingredients
r0 (t) = (1, 2t, 3t 2 )

r00 (t) = (0, 2, 6t)
p
kr0 (t)k = 1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4
i j k
r0 (t) × r00 (t) = 1 2t 3t 2 = 6t 2 i − 6t j + 2k
0 2 6t
p p
kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k = 36t 4 + 36t 2 + 4 = 2 9t 4 + 9t 2 + 1, then gives
√
kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k 2 9t 4 + 9t 2 + 1
k(t) = = √
kr0 (t)k3 ( 1 + 4t 2 + 9t 4 )3
At the origin, where t = 0, the curvature is k(t) = 2.
Example 14.47 Find the curvature of the helix traced out by r(t) = (2 sint, 2 cost, 4t).
Solution: We have
r0 (t) = (2 cost, −2 sint, 4) and

r00 (t) = (−2 sint, −2 cost, 0)
Now,
kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k = (2 cost, −2 sint, 4) × (−2 sint, −2 cost, 0)

i j k
= 2 cost −2 sint 4
−2 sint −2 cost 0
= (8 cost, −8 sint, −4 cos2 t − 4 sin2 t)
= (8 cost, −8 sint, 4)
So, we get that the curvature is

kr0 (t) × r00 (t)k
k(t) =
kr0 (t)k3
k(8 cost, −8 sint, 4)k
=
k(2 cost, −2 sint, 4)k3
√
80
= √3
20
1
=
10
Note that this says that the helix has a constant curvature.
Example 14.48 Let one arch of a cycloid be described by
r(t) = r(t − sint)i + r(1 − cost) j for 0 < t < 2π
Find the curvature k.

Solution: Here we have
r(t) = r(t − sint)i + r(1 − cost) j

r0 (t) = r(1 − cost)i + r sint j
r00 (t) = r sinti + r cost j
Then
|r(1 − cost)(r sint) − (r sint)(r sint)
k = 3
|r2 (1 − cost)2 + r2 sin2 t| 2
r2 (1 − cost)
= 3
(r2 (2 − 2 cost)) 2
1
= 3 √
2 2 r 1 − cost

Remark 14.3.3 For the special case of a plane curve with equation y = f (x), we choose x as the
parameter and write r(x) = xi + f (x) j. Then r0 (t) = i + f 0 (x) j and r00 (t) 00
p = f (x) j. Since i × j = k
0 00 00 0
and j × j = 0, we have r (x) × r (x) = f (x)k. We also have kr (t)k = 1 + [ f 0 (x)]2 and so,
| f 00 (x)|
k(x) = 3
[1 + ( f 0 (x))2 ] 2
Example 14.49 Find the curvature of the parabola y = x2 at the point (0, 0), (1, 1) and (2, 4).
Solution: Since y0 = 2x and y00 = 2, then
|y00 (x)| 2
k(x) = 3 = 3
[1 + (y0 (x))2 ] 2 (1 + 4x2 ) 2
3
The curvature at (0, 0) is k(0) = 2. At (1, 1) it is k(1) = ( 52 ) 2 . At (2, 4) it is k(2) = ( 17
2 3
) 2 . Observe from
the expression for k(x) or the graph of k in figure that k(x) → 0 as x → ±∞. This corresponds to the fact
that the parabola appears to become flatter as x → ±∞.
Example 14.50 Find the curvature of the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c at the point (0, 0), (1, 1) and (2, 4).
Also, find the limiting value of the curvature as x → ∞.
Solution: Taking f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, we have that y0 = 2ax + b and y00 = 2a, then
|y00 (x)| |2a|
k(x) = 3 = 3
[1 + (y0 (x))2 ] 2 (1 + (2ax + b)2 ) 2
2
Figure 14.13: The curventure k(x) = 3
(1+4x2 ) 2
|2a| |2a|
The curvature at (0, 0) is k(0) = 3 . At (1, 1) it is k(1) = 3 . At (2, 4) it is k(2) =
(1+b2 ) 2 (1+(2a+b)2 ) 2
|2a|
3 . Observe from the expression for k(x) or the graph of k that k(x) → 0 as x → ±∞. This
(1+(4a+b)2 ) 2
corresponds to the fact that the parabola appears to become flatter as x → ±∞.
14.4 Scaler and Vector Fields

Scalar Fields
Definition 14.4.1 A scaler field f consists of two parts: a collection D of points in space, called the
domain, and a rule, which assigns to each point (x, y, z) in D one and only one number f (x, y, z). Thus
a scaler field f associates a number f (x, y, z) with points (x, y, z) in its domain. In other words, a scaler
field is simply a real valued function of several variables.
Example 14.51 The mass density of the atmosphere, the temperature at each point in an isolated wall
and the components of a vector field are an examples of a scaler field.
Vector Fields
Definition 14.4.2 Let F be a function whose domain is a subset D of Rn , where n ≥ 1 and whose
range is contained in Rm , where M ≥ 1. Such function F is called vector-valued function.
Definition 14.4.3 A vector field F in R2 is a rule associated with each point (x, y) in a region a vector
F(x, y). In other words, a vector field is simply a vector-valued function of two variables.
Figure 14.14: Vector fields of two variables
Definition 14.4.4 A vector field F in R3 is a rule associated with each point (x, y, z) in a region a
vector F(x, y, z). In other words, a vector field is simply a vector-valued function of three variables.
Example 14.52 Fields of tangent vectors of a curve, normal vectors of a surface and velocity field of a
rotating body are an examples of vector field.
14.4 Scaler and Vector Fields 21
Figure 14.15: Vector fields of three variables
Definition 14.4.5 The domain of scaler and vector fields are sets of points in space, these functions
are called point function.
Remark 14.4.1 A point functions which are not associated with any direction in space, are called
scalar point function for example temperature. A point functions which have a magnitude dependent
on position of a point in space and also have direction associated with it, are called vector point
function for example velocity.
Definition 14.4.6 For a given non-zero vector field defined at every point of a region in space, any
curve passing through the region is called a field line of F, provided that at every point on the curve F
is tangent to the curve. For a force field lines are called lines of force.
Theorem 14.4.2 The field lines of F(x, y, z) = F1 (x, y, z)i + F2 (x, y, z) j + F3 (x, y, z)k do not depend on
the magnitude of F at any point, but only on the direction of the field and the field lines satisfy the
equation
dx dy dz
= =
F1 (x, y, z) F2 (x, y, z) F2 (x, y, z)
Example 14.53 A vector field on R2 is defined by F(x, y) = −yi + x j. Described F by sketching some
of the vectors F(x, y).
Solution: Since F(1, 0) = j, we draw the vector j = (0, 1) starting at the point (1, 0) in the figure. Since
F(0, 1) = −i, we draw the vector (−1, 0) with starting the point (0, 1). Continuing in this way, we
calculate several other representative values of F(x, y) in the table and draw the corresponding vector field
(x,y) F(x,y) (x,y) F(x,y)

(1,0) (0,1) (-1,0) (0,-1)
(2,2) (-2,2) (-2,-2) (2,-2)
(3,0) (0,3) (-3,0) (0,-3)
(0,1) (-1,0) (0,-1) (1,0)
(-2,2) (-2,-2) (2,-2) (2,2)
(0,3) (-3,0) (0,-3) (3,0)
It appears from the above table that each arrow is tangent to a circle with center the origin. To confirm
this, we take the dot product of the position vector F(x) = F(x, y);
x · F(x) = (xi + y j) · (−yi + x j) = −xy + yx = 0
pto the position vector (x, y) and is therefore tangent to a circle

This shows that F(x, y) is perpendicular
with center the origin and radius |x| = x2 + y2 . Notice also that
q p
|F(x, y)| = (−y)2 + x2 = x2 + y2 = |x|
So the magnitude of the vector F(x, y) is equal to the radius of the circle.
Figure 14.16: The vector field of F(x, y) = −yi + x j
Example 14.54 Sketch the field on R3 given by F(x, y, z) = zk.

Solution: The sketch is shown below. Notice that all vectors are vertical and point upward above xy-plane
or downward below it. The magnitude increases with the distance from the xy-plane.
Figure 14.17: The vector field of F(x, y) = zk
14.5 Curl of Vector Field and Divergence

In this section we define two operations that can be performed on a vector field and that play a basic role
in the applications of vector calculus to flow and electrical and magnetism. Each operation resembles
differentiation, but one produces a vector field whereas the other produces a scaler field.
The curl of a vector field

Definition 14.5.1 The curl of a continuously differentiable vector field F, denoted by 5×F, is defined
by
∂F ∂F ∂F
5×F = i× + j× +k×
∂x ∂y ∂z
Figure 14.18: curl F(x, y, z)
Example 14.55 If F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyz j − y2 k, find curl F.

Solution: By definition
curl F = 5×F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
xy xyz −y2
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= [ (−y2 ) − (xyz)]i − [ (−y2 ) − (xz)] j +
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
∂ ∂
[ (xyz) − (xz)]k
∂x ∂y
= (−2y − xy)i − (0 − x) j + (yz − 0)k
= −y(2 + x)i + x j + yzk
Definition 14.5.2 Given a vector-field F, if 5 × F = 0, then the vector field F is called irrotational.
Suppose V (x, y, z) represents the velocity field of fluid following through the solid region. Then 5 ×V
measures the tendency of the fluid to curl, or rotate, about an axis. If 5 × F = 0, then F is said to be
irrotational, whether or not F represents a velocity field.
Theorem 14.5.1 If f is a function of three variables that has continuous second order partial derivatives,
then curl (5 f ) = 0.
Definition 14.5.3 If a vector field F is equal to grad f for some differentiable function f of several
variables, then F is called a conservative vector field, and f is a potential function.
Theorem 14.5.2 If F is conservative, then curl F = 0.
Theorem 14.5.3 If F is a vector field defined on all of R3 whose component functions have continuous
partial derivatives and curl F = 0, then F is a conservative vector field.
Example 14.56 Show that the vector field F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyz j − y2 k is not conservative.
Solution: We have to evaluate the curl F
curl F = 5×F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
xz xyz −y2
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= [ (−y2 ) − (xyz)]i − [ (−y2 ) − (xz)] j +
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
∂ ∂
[ (xyz) − (xy)]k
∂x ∂y
= −y(2 + x)i + x j + yzk
This shows that curl F 6= 0 and so, by above theorem, F is not conservative.
Example 14.57 Show that the vector F(x, y, z) = 2xyzi + x2 z j + (x2 y + 1)k is conservative.
Solution: We have to evaluate the curl F
curl F = 5×F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
2xyz x2 z x2 y + 1
∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ∂
= [ (x y + 1) − (x2 z)]i − [ (x2 y + 1) − (2xyz)] j +
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
∂ 2 ∂
[ (x z) − (2xyz)]k
∂x ∂y
= (x2 − x2 )i − (2xy − 2xy) j + (2xz − 2xz)k
= 0
In addition to this, a vector field F with component functions have continuous partial derivatives. Therefore,
the vector F(x, y, z) = 2xyzi + x2 z j + (x2 y + 1)k is conservative.
Example 14.58 Show that F is a conservative vector field and find a function f such that F = 5 f ,
where
F(x, y, z) = y2 z3 i + 2xyz3 j + 3xy2 z2 k
Solution: We compute the curl of F by
curl F = 5×F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
y2 z3 2xyz3 3xy2 z2
= (6xyz2 − 6xyz2 )i − (3y2 z2 − 3y2 z2 ) j + (2yz3 − 2yz3 )k
= 0
Since curl F = 0 and the domain of F is R3 , F is a conservative vector field. Now, we need to find f
fx (x, y, z) = y2 z3
fy (x, y, z) = 2xyz3
fz (x, y, z) = 3xy2 z2
Integrating fx with respect to x, we obtain
f (x, y, z) = xy2 z3 + g(y, z)
Differentiating the above equation with respect to y, we get fy (x, y, z) = 2xyz3 + gy (y, z), so comparison
with fy (x, y, z) = 2xyz3 gives gy (y, z) = 0. This g(y, z) = h(z) and
fz (x, y, z) = 3xy2 z2 + h0 (z)
Then, fz (x, y, z) = 3xy2 z2 gives h0 (z) = 0. Therefore
f (x, y, z) = xy2 z3 + c
Divergence
Definition 14.5.4 The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector field F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ), denoted
by 5 · F, is defined by the equation
∂ F1 ∂ F2 ∂ F3
5·F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence is a scalar value and deals with the amount of field spread out at a particular point.
Example 14.59 If F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyz j − y2 j, then find the divergence of F.
Solution: By the definition of divergence, we have
div F = 5·F
∂ ∂ ∂
= (xz) + (xyz) + (−y2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= z + xz
Theorem 14.5.4 If F is a vector field on R3 and all its components have continuous second-order
partial derivatives, then
div curl F = 0
Example 14.60 Show that the vector field F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyz j − y2 k can not be written as the curl of
another vector field, that is, F 6= curl G.
Solution: From the above examples, we showed that
div F = z + xz
and therefore div F 6= 0. If it were true that F = curl G, then the above theorem would give
div F = div curl G = 0
Which contradicts div F 6= 0. Therefore F is not the curl of another vector field.
Definition 14.5.5 Given a vector field F, if 5·F = 0, then F is said to be divergence free or Solenoidal.
Suppose V (x, y, z) represents the velocity field of fluid, such air, flowing through a surface, such as a
screen. Then in physical terms, 5 ·V (x, y, z) represents the rate (with respect to time) of mass flow per
unit volume of the fluid from the point (x, y, z).
Definition 14.5.6 A point (x, y, z) is a source if 5 · V (x, y, z) > 0, where V (x, y, z) represents the
velocity field of fluid. This means that there is a positive mass flow from point (x, y, z).
Definition 14.5.7 A point (x, y, z) is a sink if 5 ·V (x, y, z) < 0, where V (x, y, z) represents the velocity
field of fluid. This means that there is a positive mass flow to the point (x, y, z).
Definition 14.5.8 If 5 ·V (x, y, z) = 0 for all (x, y, z) in a region, where V (x, y, z) represents the velocity
field of fluid, then there are neither source nor sinks in the region.
Definition 14.5.9 A fluid whose velocity field is divergence free is called incompressible.
Example 14.61 Let V (x, y, z) = x3 yz2 i + x2 y2 z2 j + x2 yz3 k be the velocity field of a fluid at point (x, y, z).
Determine which point in space are source, sinks? where is the fluid incompressible?
Solution: A straight forward calculation shows that
div V (x, y, z) = 3x2 yz2 + 2x2 yz2 + 3x2 yz2 = 8x2 yz2
Thus div V (x, y, z) = 0 if (x, y, z) lies on any of the coordinate planes. Moreover, div V (x, y, z) > 0 if y > 0
and x and z are not zero. Consequently the source lie to the right of the xz plane, sink to the left and
incompressible on any axis.
14.6 Exercise
t
√
1. Find the limit, lim( e −1
t ,
1+t−1 3
t , 1+t ).
t→0
Ans. (1, 1, 1)
2. At what point does the curve r(t) = ti + (2t − t 2 )k intersects the paraboloid z = x2 + y2 ?
Ans. (0, 0, 0) and (1, 0, 1)
3. Show that the curve with parametric equation x = t 2 , y = 1 − 3t, z = 1 + t 3 passes through the point
(1, 4, 0) and (9, −8, 28) but not through the point (4, 7, −6).
4. Find the derivative of the vector function r(t) = (t sint,t 2 ,t cos 2t).
Ans. r0 (t) = (t cost + sint, 2t, cos 2t − 2t sin 2t)
5. Find the unit tangent vector T (t) at the point t = 1 with r(t) = costi + 3t j + 2 sin 2tk.
Ans. (0, 53 , 54 )
6. Find parametric equation for the tangent line to the curve x = e−t cost, y = e−t sint, z = e−t at the
point (1, 0, 1).
Ans. x = 1 − t, y = t, z = 1 − t
7. The curve r1 (t) = (t,t 2 ,t 3 ) and r2 (t) = (sint, sin 2t,t) intersect at the origin. Find their angle of
intersection.
Ans. 66o
π
(3 sin2 t costi + 3 sint cos2 t j + 2 sint costk) dt.
R 2
8. Evaluate the integral 0
Ans. i + j + k
√
9. Find the length of the curve r(t) = 2ti + et j + e−t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Ans. e − e−1
10. Find the length of the curve r(t) = ti + t 2 j + t 3 k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
1 3
Ans. 27 (13
2 − 8)
11. Let C be the curve of intersection of the paraboloid cylindrical x2 = 2y and the surface 3z = xy.
Find the exact length of C from the origin to the point (6, 18, 36).
Ans. 42
12. Find the unit tangent T (t), unit normal N(t) and curvature for r(t) = (2 sint, 5t, 2 cost).
Ans. ( √229 cost, √529 , − √229 sint), (− sint, 0, − cost), 2
29
13. Find the curvature of r(t) = (t,t 2 ,t 3 ) at the point (1, 1, 1).
q
1 19
Ans. 7 14
14. At what point does the curve y = ex have maximum curvature? What happens to the curvature as
x → ∞?
Ans. (− 12 ln 2, √12 )
15. Find the vectors T , N, and B of the curve r(t) = (t 2 , 32 t 3 ,t) at the point (1, 32 , 1).
Ans. ( 23 , 32 , 31 ), (− 13 , 32 , − 13 ), (− 32 , 13 , 32 )
14.6 Exercise 27
16. At what point on the curve x = t 3 , y = 3t, z = t 4 is the normal plane tangent to the plane 6x + 6y −
8z = 1?
Ans. (−1, −3, 1)
17. Find the curl and the divergence of the vector field F(x, y, z) = (ln x, ln(xy), ln(xyz)).
Ans. ( 1y , − 1x , 1x ), 1x + 1y + 1z
18. Determine whether or not the vector field F(x, y, z) = 2xyi + (x2 + 2yz) j + y2 k is conservative. If it
is conservative, find a function f such that F = 4 f .
Ans. f (x, y, z) = x2 y + y2 z + c
19. Show that any vector field of the form F(x, y, z) = f (x)i + g(y) j + h(z)k, where f , g, h are differen-
tiable functions, is irrotational.
20. Show that any vector field of the form F(x, y, z) = f (y, z)i + g(x, z) j + h(x, y)k is incompressible.

Vector Differential Calculus

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Vector Differential Calculus

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Chapter 14

Vector Differential Calculus

14.2 Curves and their length 10

14.3 Tangent Vector, Normal Vector, Binomial Vector and Curvature 17

14.4 Scaler and Vector Fields 22

14.5 Curl of Vector Field and Divergence 24

14.1 Vector calculus

Example 14.1 f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 is aparticular example of real-valued function.

Graphs of a Vector Valued Function

Figure 14.1: r(t) = (t, 1)

Figure 14.2: r(t) = (t,t 3 − 10t + 7)

Figure 14.3: r(t) = (cost, sint,t)

Domain of Vector valued Function

Domain r(t) = Domain r1 (t) ∩ Domain r2 (t) ∩ · · · ∩ Domain rn (t)

Domain of f (t) is R since f (t) = t

Domain r(t) = Domain f (t) ∩ Domain g(t) ∩ Domain h(t)

Domain of f (t) is t > 0 since f (t) = lnt

Domain r(t) = Domain f (t) ∩ Domain g(t) ∩ Domain h(t)

Domain of f (t) is R since f (t) = et

Domain r(t) = Domain f (t) ∩ Domain g(t) ∩ Domain h(t)

functions F ± G, f F, F · G, F × G and Fog are defined by

(F ± G)(t) = F(t) ± G(t)

F(t) = costi + sint j + tk and G(t) = − sinti + cost j + tk

|r(t) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |t − t0 | < δ

Definition 14.1.6 If r(t) = ( f (t), g(t), h(t)), then

lim r(t) = (lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t)

provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Example 14.11 Find lim(t 2 , 5 cost, sint).

Example 14.12 Find lim(e2t + 5,t 2 + 2t − 3, 1t ).

Rule for Vector Limit

lim[F · G](t) and lim[F × G](t)

lim[F · G](t) = lim(t cos πt + 4t 5 ) = 3

e5t is continuous for all t

Therefore, r(t) is continuous for t > −1.

Figure 14.4: r0 (t)

Example 14.15 Find the derivative of r(t) = (1 + t 3 )i + te−t j + sin 2tk.

r0 (t) = 3t 2 i + (1 − t)e−t j + 2 cos 2tk

Differentiation Rules for Vector Function

(F(t) · G(t))0 = F 0 (t) · G(t) + F(t) · G0 (t)

Physical Application of Derivatives of Vector Valued Function

r(t) = (x0 + at)i + (y0 + bt) j + (z0 + ct)k

Determine the velocity, speed and accelaration of the object.

Integrals of Vector Function

14.2 Curves and their length

Examples of parametrization of some curves

Figure 14.5: r(t) = r costi + r sint j + ctk

a curve, and find a parametrization of the curve.

The corresponding parametric equation are

x = cost, y = sint, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

From the equation of the plane, we have

So we can write parametric equations for C as

x = cost, y = sint, z = 2 − sint, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

The corresponding vector equation is

r(t) = (cost, sint, 2 − sint), where 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Example 14.30 Show that the standard unit circle is smooth.

Corollary 14.2.1 If r(t) is differentiable vector function of constant length, then r · dr

Definition 14.2.5 A continuous vector-valued function r on an interval I is said to be piecewise smooth

Example 14.31 Show that the curve

r(t) = r(t − sint)i + r(1 − cost) j for − 2π ≤ t ≤ 2π

Figure 14.8: Curves of cycloid

Figure 14.9: r(t) = costi + sint j + tk

r(t) = (2t, lnt,t 2 ), for 1 ≤ t ≤ e.

r(t) = (e2t , sint,t), for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.