Mattu University

College of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Applied Modern physics

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 THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Introduction
All natural phenomena take place in the arena of space and time.
A natural phenomenon consists of a sequence of events.
By event we mean something that happens at some point of space and at some moment of time.
Obviously the description of a phenomenon involves the space coordinates and time.
The oldest and the most celebrated branch of science –mechanics- was developed on the
concepts space and time that emerged from the observations of bodies moving with speeds very
small compared with the speed of light in vacuum.
Guided by intuitions and everyday experience Newton wrote about space and time: Absolute
space, in its own nature, without relation to anything external, remains always similar and
immovable.
Absolute, true and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without
relation to anything external and is otherwise called duration.
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 Introduction…
• In Newtonian (classical) mechanics, it assumed that the space has three dimensions and
obeys Euclidean geometry.
• Unit of length is defined as the distance between two fixed points.
• Other distances are measured in terms of this standard length.
• To measure time, any periodic process may be used to construct a clock.
• Space and time are supposed to be independent of each other.
• This implies that the space interval between two points and the time interval between two
specified events do not depend on the state of motion of the observers.
• Two events, which are simultaneous in one frame, are also simultaneous in all other
frames. Thus the simultaneity is an absolute concept.
• In addition to this, the space and time are assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic.
• Homogeneity means that all points in space and all moments of time are identical.
• The space and time intervals between two given events do not depend on where and when
these intervals are measured. 3
 Introduction…
• Because of these properties of space and time, we are free to select the origin of coordinate system at any
convenient point and conduct experiment at any moment of time.
• Isotropy of space means that all the directions of space are equivalent and this property allows us to
orient the axes of coordinate system in any convenient direction.
• The description of a natural phenomenon requires a suitable frame of reference with respect to which
the space and time coordinates are to be measured. Inertial frames have this property.
• An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law (the law of inertia) holds.
• In other words, an inertial frame is one in which a body moves uniformly and rectilinearly in
absence of any forces.
• All frames of reference moving with constant velocity relative to an inertial frame are also inertial
frames.
• A frame possessing acceleration relative to an inertial frame is called non-inertial frame.
• Newton’s first law is not valid in non-inertial frame.
• Reference frame with its origin fixed at the center of the sun and the three axes directed towards the
stationary stars was supposed to be the fundamental inertial frame. 4
 Introduction…
• In this frame, the motion of planets appear simple. Newton’s laws are valid this heliocentric
frame.
• Let us see whether the earth is an inertial frame or not.
• The magnitude of acceleration associated with the orbital motion of earth around the sun is
0.006m/s2 and that with the spin motion of earth at equator is 0.034 m/s2.
• For all practical purposes these accelerations are negligibly small and the earth may be
regarded as an inertial frame but for precise work its acceleration must be taken into
consideration.
• The entire classical mechanics was developed on these notions of space and time it worked
efficiently.
• No deviations between the theoretical and experimental results were noticed till the end of
the 19th century.
• By the end of 19th century particles (electrons) moving with speed comparable with the speed
of light c were available; and the departures from classical mechanics were observed.

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 Introduction…
• The experiments carried out to measure the orbit radius of electron moving at low
velocity give the predicted result; but the observed radius of electron moving at very
high speed does not agree with the classical result.
• Many other experimental observations indicated that the laws of classical mechanics
were no longer adequate for the description of motion of particles moving at high
speeds.
• For example, classical mechanics predicts that the radius r of the orbit of electron
moving in a magnetic field of strength B is given by r = mv/qB, where m, v and q
denote mass, velocity and charge of electron.

• In 1905 Albert Einstein gave new ideas of space and time and laid the foundation of
special theory of relativity. This new theory does not discard the classical mechanics
as completely wrong but includes the results of old theory as a special case in the
limit (v/c) 0. i.e., all the results of special theory of relativity reduce to the
corresponding classical expressions in the limit of low speed.
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 Classical Principle Of Relativity: Galilea Transformation Equations
• The Galilean transformation equations are a set of equations connecting the space-time
coordinates of an event observed in two inertial frames, which are in relative motion.
• Consider two inertial frames S (unprimed) and S' (primed) with their corresponding axes
parallel; the frame S' is moving along the common x-x' direction with velocity v relative to
the frame S.
• Each frame has its own observer equipped with identical and compared measuring stick and
clock.
• Assume that when the origin O of the frame S' passes over the origin O of frame S, both
observers set their clocks at zero i.e., t = t' = 0.
• The event to be observed is the motion of a particle.
• At certain moment, the S-observer registers the space-time coordinates of the particle as (x,
y, z, t) and S'- observer as (x', y', z', t').
• It is evident that the primed coordinates are related to unprimed coordinates through the
relationship
• x' = x – vt, y' = y, z' = z,---t' = t ----------1 are called Galilean transformation equations.
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 Classical Principle Of Relativity: Galilea Transformation Equations
• Relative to S', the frame S is moving with velocity v in negative direction of x-axis
• therefore inverse transformation equations are obtained by interchanging the
primed and unprimed coordinates and replacing v with –v.
• Thus, x = x' + vt', y = y', z = z', t = t‘

• Fig. 1. Galilean transformation

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we may compare its velocity and acceleration as viewed in the two coordinate systems by taking derivatives of the first

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that was a rest with respect to the galaxy or universe as a whole).

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The Michelson Morley Experiment

if the two arms have the same length l and light moves with the same velocity c
along the two directions, then ΔT = 0 and constructive interference is observed in O.
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The Postulates: We now examine the two postulates of special theory of relativity, on
which Einstein’s theory is based:
1. The Principle of Relativity
The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are the same for observers in all inertial reference frames. No
one frame is preferred over any other.
Galileo assumed that the laws of mechanics were the same in all inertial reference frames. Einstein extended
that idea to include all the laws of physics, especially those of electromagnetism and optics. This postulate
does not say that the measured values of all physical quantities are the same for all inertial observers; most
are not the same. It is the laws of physics, which relate these measurements to one another, that are the same.

2.The Universal Speed of Light

The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c in all directions and in all
inertial reference frames.

We can also phrase this postulate to say that there is in nature an ultimate speed c, the same in all directions
and in all inertial reference frames. Light happens to travel at this ultimate speed. However, no entity that
carries energy or information can exceed this limit. Moreover, no particle that has mass can actually reach
speed c, no matter how much or for how long that particle is accelerated.
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• In Newtonian mechanics space and time were assumed to be absolute and independent of
each other.
• According to the special theory of relativity space and time are not absolute, they depend
on the state of motion and are inseparable from each other.
• In order to correlate the observations carried out in different inertial frames of reference
we need transformation equations, which must be consistent with the postulates of the
special theory of relativity.
• Certainly they cannot be the Galilean transformations because they contradict the second
postulate—the constancy of speed of light.
• Moreover, Galilean transformation equations change the appearance of Maxwell’s
equations on transition from one inertial frame to another.
• We need transformation equations, which preserve not only the form of Maxwell’s
equations but also all the laws of physics.
• It was Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) who guessed empirically the correct form of
transformation equations but Einstein gave their theoretical basis.
• The new transformation equations are called relativistic or Lorentz transformation
equations, 14
 Lorentz Transformations
• the Lorentz transformations are a set of equations, which connect the space-time
coordinates of an event measured in two inertial frames that are in relative motion.
• Consider two inertial frames S and S' with their corresponding axes parallel and the primed
frame moving relative to unprimed frame with velocity v along the common x–x' direction.
• Each frame has its own observer equipped with measuring stick and
synchronized clocks.
• Let the observers set their clocks at t = o = t' when their origins coincide.
• Suppose that the observer in the frame S records the space-time coordinates of a particle
as x, y, z, t and S'–observer records them as x', y', z', t'. Our task is to seek relations of the
type.
x' = f1 (x, y, z, t), y' = f2 (x, y, z, t), z' = f3 (x, y, z, t), t' = f 4 (x, y, z, t)
• Since the frames have relative velocity only along x-direction, the y and z coordinates
remain unchanged. y' = y, z'= z
• In addition to the postulates of special relativity we shall assume that the space and time
are homogeneous and isotropic. 15
• This means that the length interval measured in a frame is independent of the position where
it is measured and the time interval is independent of the instant when it is measured.
• A linear transformation satisfies this criterion.
• In Fig. 1.5.1 a linear and a non-linear transformation are shown.
• A rod of length l placed along x-axis with end coordinates x1 and x2 in the frame S is
transformed by linear transformation to a length l' with end coordinates x1′ and x2′ in the
frame S'.
• The same rod placed between points x3 and x4 in frame S is transformed to a length l' with its
end coordinates x3′ and x4′ .
• A linear transformation ensures that if x2 – x1 = x4 – x3 = l then x2′ – x1′ = x′4 – x3′ = l.
Whereas for nonlinear transformation this criterion is not satisfied i.e., if x2 – x1 = x4 – x3 = l
then x2′ – x1′ x′4 – x3′ .
• Thus the transformations must be linear and we can write them as
x' = a11x + a12t y' = y
z' = z t' = a21x + a22t

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