Hulagu Khan

Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu (Mongolian:

Хүлэгү/ , romanized: Hu’legu’/Qülegü, lit. 'Surplus'; Chagatay:
Hulagu Khan
; Persian: ‫ﻫﻮﻻﮐﻮ ﺧﺎن‬, Hulâgu xân; Arabic: ‫ ﻫَ َﻼ ُون‬/‫;ﻫﻮﻻﻛﻮ ﺧﺎن‬
Chinese: 旭 烈 兀 ; pinyin: Xùlièwù [ɕû.ljê.û]; c. 1215 – 8 February
1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Western Asia.
Son of Tolui and the Keraite princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a
grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of Ariq Böke, Möngke Khan,
and Kublai Khan.

Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the

Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the
eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran. Under
Hulagu's leadership, the siege of Baghdad (1258) destroyed
Baghdad's standing in the Islamic Golden Age and weakened
Damascus, causing a shift of Islamic influence to the Mamluk
Sultanate in Cairo and ended the Abbasid Dynasty.

Contents
Painting of Hulagu Khan on Rashid-al-Din
Background Hamadani, early 14th century.

Military campaigns Ilkhan

Reign 1256 – 8 February
Siege of Baghdad
1265
Conquest of Syria (1260)
Successor Abaqa Khan
Battle of Ain Jalut
Civil War Born 1215/1216
Communications with Europe Mongolia

Family Died February 8, 1265

(aged 49)
Death
Zarrineh River
Legacy
Burial Shahi Island, Lake
Notes Urmia
Works cited
Consort Guyuk Khatun
External links
Doquz Khatun
Yesuncin Khatun
Background Qutui Khatun
Öljei Khatun
Hulagu was born to Tolui, one of Genghis Khan's sons, and
Sorghaghtani Beki, an influential Keraite princess and a niece of Issue See below
Toghrul in 1215.[3] Nothing much is known of Hulagu's childhood House Borjigin
except of an anectode given in Jami' al-Tawarikh and he once met Father Tolui
his grandfather Genghis Khan with Kublai in 1224.
Mother Sorghaghtani Beki
Military campaigns Religion Buddhism[1][2]
Tamgha
Hulagu's brother Möngke Khan had been installed as Great Khan in
1251. Möngke charged Hulagu with leading a massive Mongol army
to conquer or destroy the remaining Muslim states in southwestern
Asia. Hulagu's campaign sought the subjugation of the Lurs of
southern Iran,[3] the destruction of the Nizari Ismaili state (the
Assassins), the submission or destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate
in Baghdad, the submission or destruction of the Ayyubid states in
Syria based in Damascus, and finally, the submission or destruction
of the Bahri Mamluke Sultanate of Egypt.[4] Möngke ordered
Hulagu to treat kindly those who submitted and utterly destroy those
who did not. Hulagu vigorously carried out the latter part of these
instructions.

Hulagu marched out with perhaps the largest Mongol army ever
assembled – by order of Möngke, two-tenths of the empire's fighting
men were gathered for Hulagu's army[5] in 1253. He arrived at
The siege of Alamût in 1256
Transoxiana in 1255. He easily destroyed the Lurs, and the
Assassins surrendered their impregnable fortress of Alamut without
a fight, accepting a deal that spared the lives of their people in early
1256. He chose Azerbaijan as his power base, while ordering Baiju
to retreat to Anatolia.

Siege of Baghdad
Hulagu's Mongol army set out for Baghdad in November 1257.
Once near the city he divided his forces to threaten the city on both
the east and west banks of the Tigris. Hulagu demanded surrender,
but the caliph, Al-Musta'sim, refused. Due to the treason of Abu
Alquma, an advisor to Al-Muta'sim, an uprising in the Baghdad
army took place and Siege of Baghdad began. The attacking
Mongols broke dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph's
army, trapping them. Much of the army was slaughtered or drowned.

The Mongols under Chinese general Guo Kan laid siege to the city
on January 29, 1258,[6] constructing a palisade and a ditch and
wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The battle was short by
siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of
A Mughal painting of Hulagu's siege
the wall. The caliph tried to negotiate but was refused. On February of Alamut.
10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on
February 13 and began a week of destruction. The Grand Library of
Baghdad, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine
to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the
enormous quantity of books flung into the river. Citizens attempted to flee but were intercepted by Mongol
soldiers.

Death counts vary widely and cannot be easily substantiated: A low estimate is about 90,000 dead;[7] higher
estimates range from 200,000 to a million.[8] The Mongols looted and then destroyed. Mosques, palaces,
libraries, hospitals — grand buildings that had been the work of generations — were burned to the ground.
The caliph was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. Il
 Milione, a book on the travels of Venetian merchant Marco Polo,
states that Hulagu starved the caliph to death, but there is no
corroborating evidence for that. Most historians believe the Mongol
and Muslim accounts that the caliph was rolled up in a rug and the
Mongols rode their horses over him, as they believed that the earth
would be offended if touched by royal blood. All but one of his sons
were killed. Baghdad was a depopulated, ruined city for several
centuries. Smaller states in the region hastened to reassure Hulagu of
Hulagu (left) imprisons the Caliph
their loyalty, and the Mongols turned to Syria in 1259, conquering
among his treasures to starve him to
death. Medieval depiction from "Le
the Ayyubid dynasty and sending advance patrols as far ahead as
livre des merveilles", 15th century.
Gaza.

A thousand squads of northern Chinese sappers accompanied the

Mongol Khan Hulagu during his conquest of the Middle East.[9][10]

Conquest of Syria (1260)

In 1260 Mongol forces combined with those of their Christian
vassals in the region, including the army of the Armenian Kingdom
of Cilicia under Hethum I, King of Armenia and the Franks of
Bohemond VI of Antioch. This force conquered Muslim Syria, a
domain of the Ayyubid dynasty. They captured Aleppo by siege and,
under the Christian general Kitbuqa, seized Damascus on
March 1, 1260.[13][14][15] A Christian Mass was celebrated in the
Umayyad Mosque and numerous mosques were profaned. Many
historical accounts describe the three Christian rulers Hetum,
Bohemond, and Kitbuqa entering the city of Damascus together in
triumph,[15][16] though some modern historians such as David
Morgan have questioned this story as apocryphal.[17]

The invasion effectively destroyed the Ayyubids, which was until

then a powerful dynasty that had ruled large parts of the Levant, Hulagu and Queen Doquz Qatun
Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula. The last Ayyubid king, An-Nasir depicted as the new Constantine and
Yusuf, had been killed by Hulagu this same year.[18] With Baghdad Helen in a Syriac bible.[11][12]
ravaged and Damascus weakened, the center of Islamic power
shifted to the Mamluk sultan's capital of Cairo.

Hulagu intended to send forces southward through Palestine toward Cairo. So he had a threatening letter
delivered by an envoy to the Mamluk Sultan Qutuz in Cairo demanding that Qutuz open his city or it would
be destroyed like Baghdad. Then, because food and fodder in Syria had become insufficient to supply his
full force, and because it was a regular Mongol practice to move troops to the cooler highlands for the
summer,[19] Hulagu withdrew his main force to Iran near Azerbaijan, leaving behind two tumens (20,000
men) under Kitbuqa, which Hulagu considered sufficient. Hulagu then personally departed for Mongolia to
play his role in the imperial succession conflict occasioned by the death some eight months earlier of Great
Khan Möngke. But upon receiving news of how few Mongols now remained in the region, Qutuz quickly
assembled his well-trained and equipped 12,000-strong army at Cairo and invaded Palestine.[20] He then
allied himself with a fellow Mamluk leader, Baibars in Syria, who not only needed to protect his own future
from the Mongols but was eager to avenge for Islam the Mongol capture of Damascus, looting of Baghdad,
and conquest of Syria.
The Mongols, for their part, attempted to form a Frankish-Mongol alliance with (or at least, demand the
submission of) the remnant of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, now centered on Acre, but Pope
Alexander IV had forbidden such an alliance. Tensions between Franks and Mongols also increased when
Julian of Sidon caused an incident resulting in the death of one of Kitbuqa's grandsons. Angered, Kitbuqa
had sacked Sidon. The Barons of Acre, contacted by the Mongols, had also been approached by the
Mamluks, seeking military assistance against the Mongols. Although the Mamluks were traditional enemies
of the Franks, the Barons of Acre recognized the Mongols as the more immediate menace. Instead of taking
sides, the Crusaders opted for a position of cautious neutrality between the two forces. In an unusual move,
however, they allowed the Egyptian Mamluks to march northward without hindrance through Crusader
territory and even let them camp near Acre to resupply.

Battle of Ain Jalut

When news arrived that the Mongols had crossed the Jordan River in
1260, Sultan Qutuz and his forces, mainly Mamluks of Turkic
origin, proceeded southeast toward the 'Spring Of Goliath' (Known
in Arabic as 'Ain Jalut') in the Jezreel Valley. They met the Mongol
army of about 20,000 in the Battle of Ain Jalut and fought
relentlessly for many hours. The Mamluk leader Baibars mostly
implemented hit-and-run tactics in an attempt to lure the Mongol
forces into chasing him. Baibars and Qutuz had hidden the bulk of
their forces in the hills to wait in ambush for the Mongols to come
into range. The Mongol leader Kitbuqa, already provoked by the
Hulagu Khan leading his army.
constant fleeing of Baibars and his troops, decided to march
forwards with all his troops on the trail of the fleeing Egyptians.
When the Mongols reached the highlands, Egyptians appeared from
hiding, and the Mongols found themselves surrounded by enemy forces as the hidden troops hit them from
the sides and Qutuz attacked the Mongol rear. Estimates of the size of the Egyptian army range from 24,000
to 120,000. The Mongols broke free of the trap and even mounted a temporarily successful counterattack,
but their numbers had been depleted to the point that the outcome was inevitable. When the battle finally
ended, the Egyptian army had accomplished what had never been done before, defeating a Mongol army in
close combat. Almost the whole Mongol army that had remained in the region, including Kitbuqa, were
either killed or captured that day. The battle of Ain Jalut established a low-water mark for the Mongol
conquest. The Mongol invasion east and south came to a stop after Ain Jalut.

Civil War
After the succession was settled and his brother Kublai Khan was established as Great Khan, Hulagu
returned to his lands by 1262. When he massed his armies to attack the Mamluks and avenge the defeat at
Ayn Jalut, however, he was instead drawn into civil war with Batu Khan's brother Berke. Berke Khan, a
Muslim convert and the grandson of Genghis Khan, had promised retribution in his rage after Hulagu's sack
of Baghdad and allied himself with the Mamluks. He initiated a large series of raids on Hulagu's territories,
led by Nogai Khan. Hulagu suffered a severe defeat in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus in 1263.
This was the first open war between Mongols and signaled the end of the unified empire. In retaliation for
his failure, Hulagu killed Berke's ortogh, and Berke did the same in return.[21]

Even while Berke was Muslim, out of Mongol brotherhood he at first resisted the idea of fighting Hulagu.
He said, Mongols are killed by Mongol swords. If we were united, then we would have conquered all of the
world. But the economic situation of the Golden Horde due to the actions of the Ilkhanate led him to declare
jihad because the Ilkhanids were hogging the wealth of North Iran and because of the Ilkhanate's demands
for the Golden Horde not to sell slaves to the Mamluks.[22]
Communications with Europe
Hulagu's mother Sorghaghtani successfully navigated Mongol
politics, arranging for all of her sons to become Mongol leaders. She
was a Christian of the Church of the East (often referred to as
"Nestorianism") and Hulagu was friendly to Christianity. Hulagu's
favorite wife, Doquz Khatun, was also a Christian, as was his closest
friend and general, Kitbuqa. Hulagu sent multiple communications
to Europe in an attempt to establish a Franco-Mongol alliance
against the Muslims. In 1262, he sent his secretary Rychaldus and an
embassy to "all kings and princes overseas". The embassy was
apparently intercepted in Sicily by Manfred, King of Sicily, who was
allied with the Mamluk Sultanate and in conflict with Pope Urban Coin of Hulagu, with the symbol of a
IV, and Rychaldus was returned by ship.[23] hare.

On April 10, 1262, Hulagu sent a letter, through John the Hungarian,
to Louis IX of France, offering an alliance.[24] It is unclear whether the letter ever reached Louis IX in Paris
— the only manuscript known to have survived was in Vienna, Austria.[25] The letter stated Hulagu's
intention to capture Jerusalem for the benefit of the Pope and asked for Louis to send a fleet against Egypt:

From the head of the Mongol army, anxious to devastate the perfidious nation of the Saracens,
with the good-will support of the Christian faith (...) so that you, who are the rulers of the coasts
on the other side of the sea, endeavor to deny a refuge for the Infidels, your enemies and ours,
by having your subjects diligently patrol the seas.

— Letter from Hulagu to Saint Louis.[26]

Despite many attempts, neither Hulagu nor his successors were able to form an alliance with Europe,
although Mongol culture in the West was in vogue in the 13th century. Many new-born children in Italy
were named after Mongol rulers, including Hulagu: names such as Can Grande ("Great Khan"), Alaone
(Hulagu), Argone (Arghun), and Cassano (Ghazan) are recorded.[27]

Family
Hulagu had fourteen wives and concubines with at least 21 issues with them:

Principal wives:

Guyuk Khatun (died in Mongolia before reaching Iran) — daughter of Toralchi Güregen of the
Oirat tribe and Checheikhen Khatun
Jumghur (died en route to Iran in 1270s)
Bulughan agha — married Jorma Güregen, son of Jochi (from Tatar tribe, brother of
Nukdan khatun) and Chechagan Khatun, daughter of Temüge (Otchi Noyon)
Qutui Khatun — a lady from the Khongirad tribe
Takshin (d. 12 September 1270 of urinary incontinence)
Tekuder (1246-1284)
Yesunchin Khatun (d. January/February 1272) — a lady from the Suldus tribe
Abaqa (1234-1282)
 Dokuz Khatun, daughter of Uyku (son of Toghrul) and widow of Tolui
Öljei Khatun — half-sister of Guyuk, daughter of Toralchi Güregen of the Oirat tribe
Möngke Temür (b. 23 October 1256, d. 26 April 1282)
Jamai Khatun — married Jorma Güregen after her sister Bulughan's death
Manggugan Khatun — married firstly to her cousin Chakar Güregen (son of Buqa Timur
and niece of Öljei Khatun), married secondly to his brother Taraghai
Baba Khatun — married to Lagzi Güregen, son of Arghun Aqa

Concubines:

Nogachin Aghchi, a lady from Cathay; from camp of Qutui Khatun

Yoshmut — Viceroy of Arran and Shirvan
Tubshin — Viceroy of Khorasan during Abaqa's reign
Tuqtani (or Toqiyatai) Egechi (d. 20 February 1292) — sister of Irinjin, niece of Dokuz Khatun
Boraqchin Agachi, from camp of Qutui Khatun
Taraghai (died by lighting strike on his way to Iran in 1260s)
Baydu
Eshil — married to Tuq Temür and then his brother (son of Abdullah Aqa, a general of
Abaqa)
Arighan Agachi (d. 8 February 1265) — daughter of Tengiz Güregen; from camp of Qutui
Khatun
Ajai (d. February 1265) — Viceroy of Anatolia during reign of Abaqa and of Georgia during
reign of Arghun
Ildar (executed by Ghazan in 1296)[28]
Ajuja Agachi, a lady from China or Khitans, from camp of Dokuz Khatun
Qonqurtai (executed on 18 January 1284 by Tekuder)
Yeshichin Agachi, a lady from the Kür'lüüt tribe; from camp of Qutui Khatun
Yesüder — Viceroy of Khorasan during Abaqa's reign
A daughter (married to Esen Buqa Güregen, son of Noqai Yarghuchi)
Khabash — posthumous son
El Agachi — a lady from the Khongirad tribe; from camp of Dokuz Khatun

Hulachu (executed by Arghun in October 1289)[28]

Suleiman (executed with his father)
Kuchuk (died in infancy after a long illness)
Khoja (died in infancy)
Qutluq Buqa (died in infancy)
3 daughter
Shiba'uchi (d. Winter 1282)
Irqan Agachi (Tribe unknown)
Taraghai Khatun — married to Taghai Timur (renamed Musa) of Khongirad (son of Shigu
Güregen) and Temülun Khatun (daughter of Genghis Khan)
 Mangligach Agachi (Tribe unknown)
Qutluqqan Khatun — married firstly to Yesu Buqa Güregen, son of Urughtu Noyan of the
Dörben tribe, married secondly Tukel, son of Yesu Buqa
A concubine from Dokuz Khatun's camp:
Todogaj Khatun[29] — married to Tengiz Güregen, married secondly to Sulamish his son,
married thirdly to Chichak, son of Sulamish
A concubine from Qutui Khatun's camp:
Toqai Timur (d. 1289)[28]
Qurumushi
Hajji

Death
Hulagu Khan fell seriously ill in January 1265 and died the
following month on the banks of Zarrineh River (then called
Jaghatu) and was buried on Shahi Island in Lake Urmia. His
funeral was the only Ilkhanate funeral to feature human
sacrifice.[30] His tomb to this day was never found.[31]

Legacy
Hulagu Khan laid the foundations of the Ilkhanate and thus
paved the way for the later Safavid dynastic state, and
ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests
also opened Iran to both European influence from the west The funeral of Hulagu (Bibliothèque nationale
and Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with de France)
patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's
distinctive excellence in architecture. Under Hulagu's
dynasty, Iranian historians began writing in Persian rather than Arabic.[32] It is recorded however that he
converted to Buddhism as he neared death,[33] against the will of Doquz Khatun.[34] The erection of a
Buddhist temple at Ḵoy testifies his interest in that religion.[3] Recent translations of various Tibetan monks'
letters and epistles to Hulagu confirms that he was a lifelong Buddhist, following the Kagyu school.[35]

Hulagu also patronized Nasir al-Din Tusi and his researches in Maragheh observatory. Another of his
proteges were Juvayni brothers Ata Malik and Shams al-Din Juvayni.

Notes
1. Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia (https://archive.o
rg/details/empireofsteppes00grou). Rutgers University Press. p. 358 (https://archive.org/detail
s/empireofsteppes00grou/page/358). ISBN 9780813513041.
2. Vaziri, Mostafa (2012). "Buddhism during the Mongol Period in Iran". Buddhism in Iran: An
Anthropological Approach to Traces and Influences. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 111–131.
doi:10.1057/9781137022943_7 (https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137022943_7).
ISBN 9781137022943.
3. Hulāgu Khan (http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hulagu-khan) at Encyclopædia Iranica
4. Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War
 5. Saunders 1971
6. "Six Essays from the Book of Commentaries on Euclid" (http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7465).
World Digital Library. Retrieved 21 March 2013.
7. Sicker 2000, p. 111.
8. New Yorker, April 25, 2005, Ian Frazier, "Invaders - Destroying Baghdad" (http://www.newyorke
r.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4?currentPage=all)
9. Josef W. Meri (2005). Josef W. Meri (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC&pg=PA510). Psychology Press. p. 510.
ISBN 0-415-96690-6. Retrieved 2011-11-28. "This called for the employment of engineers to
engage in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use
incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle
East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of
engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."
10. Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach (2006). Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach (ed.). Medieval
Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index (https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&pg=PA51
0). Volume 2 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). Taylor &
Francis. p. 510. ISBN 0-415-96692-2. Retrieved 2011-11-28. "This called for the employment
of engineers to engage in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to
concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol
forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a
thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."
11. "In May 1260, a Syrian painter gave a new twist to the iconography of the Exaltation of the
Cross by showing Constantine and Helena with the features of Hulagu and his Christian wife
Doquz Khatun" in Cambridge History of Christianity Vol. 5 Michael Angold p.387 Cambridge
University Press ISBN 0-521-81113-9
12. Le Monde de la Bible N.184 July–August 2008, p.43
13. Saudi Aramco World "The Battle of Ain Jalut" (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/20070
4/history.s.hinge.ain.jalut.htm)
14. Grousset, p.361-362
15. "On 1 March Kitbuqa entered Damascus at the head of a Mongol army. With him were the
King of Armenia and the Prince of Antioch. The citizens of the ancient capital of the Caliphate
saw for the first time for six centuries three Christian potentates ride in triumph through their
streets", (Runciman 1987, p. 307)
16. Grousset, p.588
17. Jackson 2014.
18. Atlas des Croisades, p.108
19. Pow, Lindsey Stephen (2012). Deep Ditches and Well-Built Walls: a Reappraisal of the Mongol
Withdrawal from Europe in 1242 (Master's thesis). University of Calgary. p. 32.
OCLC 879481083 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/879481083).
20. Corbyn, James (2015). In What Sense Can Ayn Jalut be Viewed as a Decisive Engagement?
(Master's thesis). Royal Holloway University of London. pp. 7–9.
21. Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business
partnerships". Central Asian Survey. 38 (4): 531–547. doi:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1080%2F02634937.2019.1652799).
22. Johan Elverskog (6 June 2011). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA186&lpg=PA186#v=onepage&q&f=false). University of
Pennsylvania Press. pp. 186–. ISBN 978-0-8122-0531-2.
23. Jackson 2014, p. 173.
24. Jackson 2014, p. 178.
25. Jackson 2014, p. 166.
26. Letter from Hulagu to Saint Louis, quoted in Les Croisades, Thierry Delcourt, p.151
27. Jackson 2014, p. 315.
28. "Mediating Sacred Kingship: Conversion and Sovereignty in Mongol Iran" (https://deepblue.lib.
umich.edu/handle/2027.42/133445). deepblue.lib.umich.edu. Retrieved 2020-04-15.
29. Landa, Ishayahu (2018). "Oirats in the Ilkhanate and the Mamluk Sultanate in the Thirteenth to
the Early Fifteenth Centuries: Two Cases of Assimilation into the Muslim Environment (MSR
XIX, 2016)" (http://mamluk.uchicago.edu/MSR_XIX_2016_Landa.pdf) (PDF). Mamlūk Studies
Review. doi:10.6082/M1B27SG2 (https://doi.org/10.6082%2FM1B27SG2).
30. Morgan, p. 139
31. Henry Filmer (1937). The Pageant Of Persia (http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.77445).
p. 224.
32. Francis Robinson, The Mughal Emperors And The Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran and Central
Asia, pages 19 and 36
33. Hildinger 1997, p. 148.
34. Jackson 2014, p. 176.
35. Yerushalmi, Dan; Samten, Jampa. "Letters for the Khans: Six Tibetan Epistles for the Mongol
Rulers Hulegu and Khubilai, and the Tibetan Lama Pagpa. Co-authored with Jampa Samten"
(https://www.academia.edu/11020428/Letters_for_the_Khans_Six_Tibetan_Epistles_for_the_
Mongol_Rulers_Hulegu_and_Khubilai_and_the_Tibetan_Lama_Pagpa._Co-authored_with_Ja
mpa_Samten).

Works cited
Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts
on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.
Boyle, J.A., (Editor). The Cambridge History of Iran: Volume 5, The Saljuq and Mongol
Periods. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition (January 1, 1968). ISBN 0-521-06936-
X.
Hildinger, Erik (1997). Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to
1700 A.D. (https://books.google.com/books?id=JykFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA148) Da Capo Press.
ISBN 0-306-81065-4.
Morgan, David. The Mongols. Blackwell Publishers; Reprint edition, April 1990. ISBN 0-631-
17563-6. Best for an overview of the wider context of medieval Mongol history and culture.
Runciman, Steven (1987). A History of the Crusades (https://books.google.com/books?id=uDj9
sNezWzEC). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34770-9.
Jackson, Peter (2014). The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410 (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=kMCCBAAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-87898-8.
Robinson, Francis. The Mughal Emperors And the Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran and Central
Asia. Thames and Hudson Limited; 2007. ISBN 0-500-25134-7

External links
A long article (http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/04/25/invaders-3) about Hulagu's
conquest of Baghdad, written by Ian Frazier, appeared in the April 25, 2005 issue of The New
Yorker.
An Osama bin Laden tape (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2455845.stm) in which
Osama bin Laden compares Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of State Colin Powell
to Hulagu and his attack on Baghdad. Dated November 12, 2002.
Hulegu the Mongol (http://www.historytoday.com/nicolas-kinloch/hulegu-mongol?mc_cid=0b80
6de1ae&mc_eid=eef7aa47f0), by Nicolas Kinloch, published in History Today, Volume 67
 Issue 6 June 2017.

Regnal titles
Preceded by Ilkhan Succeeded by
none 1256–1265 Abaqa Khan

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This page was last edited on 21 June 2020, at 22:28 (UTC).

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